Extracellular Vesicles: Unique Intercellular Delivery Vehicles

Detection of micro-plasma-induced exosomes secretion in a fibroblast-melanoma co-culture model

BACKGROUND

Melanoma is a highly aggressive tumor and a significant cause of skin cancer-related death. Timely diagnosis and treatment require identification of specific biomarkers in exosomes secreted by melanoma cells. In this study, label-free surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) method with size-matched selectivity was used to detect membrane proteins in exosomes released from a stimulated environment of fibroblasts (L929) co-cultured with melanoma cells (B16-F10). To promote normal secretion of exosomes, micro-plasma treatment was used to gently induce the co-cultured cells and slightly increase the stress level around the cells for subsequent detection using the SERS method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Firstly, changes in reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) concentrations in the cellular microenvironment and the viability and proliferation of healthy cells are assessed. Results showed that micro-plasma treatment increased extracellular ROS/RNS levels while modestly reducing cell proliferation without significantly affecting cell survival. Secondly, the particle size of secreted exosomes isolated from the culture medium of L929, B16-F10, and co-cultured cells with different micro-plasma treatment time did not increase significantly under single-cell conditions at short treatment time but might be changed under co-culture condition or longer treatment time. Third, for SERS signals related to membrane protein biomarkers, exosome markers CD9, CD63, and CD81 can be assigned to significant Raman shifts in the range of 943-1030 and 1304-1561 cm-1, while the characteristics SERS peaks of L929 and B16-F10 cells are most likely located at 1394/1404, 1271 and 1592 cm-1 respectively.

SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY

Therefore, this micro-plasma-induced co-culture model provides a promising preclinical approach to understand the diagnostic potential of exosomes secreted by cutaneous melanoma/fibroblasts. Furthermore, the label-free SERS method with size-matched selectivity provides a novel approach to screen biomarkers in exosomes secreted by melanoma cells, aiming to reduce the use of labeling reagents and the processing time traditionally required.

Role of exosomes in metastasis and therapeutic resistance in esophageal cancer

Esophageal cancer (EC) has a high incidence and mortality rate and is emerging as one of the most common health problems globally. Owing to the lack of sensitive detection methods, uncontrollable rapid metastasis, and pervasive treatment resistance, EC is often diagnosed in advanced stages and is susceptible to local recurrence. Exosomes are important components of intercellular communication and the exosome-mediated crosstalk between the cancer and surrounding cells within the tumor microenvironment plays a crucial role in the metastasis, progression, and therapeutic resistance of EC. Considering the critical role of exosomes in tumor pathogenesis, this review focused on elucidating the impact of exosomes on EC metastasis and therapeutic resistance. Here, we summarized the relevant signaling pathways involved in these processes. In addition, we discussed the potential clinical applications of exosomes for the early diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of EC.

Emerging principles of primary cilia dynamics in controlling tissue organization and function

Primary cilia project from the surface of most vertebrate cells and are key in sensing extracellular signals and locally transducing this information into a cellular response. Recent findings show that primary cilia are not merely static organelles with a distinct lipid and protein composition. Instead, the function of primary cilia relies on the dynamic composition of molecules within the cilium, the context-dependent sensing and processing of extracellular stimuli, and cycles of assembly and disassembly in a cell- and tissue-specific manner. Thereby, primary cilia dynamically integrate different cellular inputs and control cell fate and function during tissue development. Here, we review the recently emerging concept of primary cilia dynamics in tissue development, organization, remodeling, and function.

Exercise, healthy ageing, and the potential role of small extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be released from most cells in the body and act as intercellular messengers transferring information in their cargo to affect cellular function. A growing body of evidence suggests that a subset of EVs, referred to here as 'small extracellular vesicles' (sEVs), can accelerate or slow the processes of ageing and age-related diseases dependent on their molecular cargo and cellular origin. Continued exploration of the vast complexity of the sEV cargo aims to further characterise these systemic vehicles that may be targeted to ameliorate age-related pathologies. Marked progress in the development of mass spectrometry-based technologies means that it is now possible to characterise a significant proportion of the proteome of sEVs (surface and cargo) via unbiased proteomics. This information is vital for identifying biomarkers and the development of sEV-based therapeutics in the context of ageing. Although exercise and physical activity are prominent features in maintaining health in advancing years, the mechanisms responsible are unclear. A potential mechanism by which plasma sEVs released during exercise could influence ageing and senescence is via the increased delivery of cargo proteins that function as antioxidant enzymes or inhibitors of senescence. These have been observed to increase in sEVs following acute and chronic exercise, as identified via independent interrogation of high coverage, publicly available proteomic datasets. Establishing tropism and exchange of functionally active proteins by these processes represents a promising line of enquiry in implicating sEVs as biologically relevant mediators of the ageing process.

Exosomal mRNAs for Angiogenic-Osteogenic Coupled Bone Repair

Regenerative medicine in tissue engineering often relies on stem cells and specific growth factors at a supraphysiological dose. These approaches are costly and may cause severe side effects. Herein, therapeutic small extracellular vesicles (t-sEVs) endogenously loaded with a cocktail of human vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) mRNAs within a customized injectable PEGylated poly (glycerol sebacate) acrylate (PEGS-A) hydrogel for bone regeneration in rats with challenging femur critical-size defects are introduced. Abundant t-sEVs are produced by a facile cellular nanoelectroporation system based on a commercially available track-etched membrane (TM-nanoEP) to deliver plasmid DNAs to human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hAdMSCs). Upregulated microRNAs associated with the therapeutic mRNAs are enriched in t-sEVs for enhanced angiogenic-osteogenic regeneration. Localized and controlled release of t-sEVs within the PEGS-A hydrogel leads to the retention of therapeutics in the defect site for highly efficient bone regeneration with minimal low accumulation in other organs.

Exosomal miR-222-3p contributes to castration-resistant prostate cancer by activating mTOR signaling

Despite the clinical benefits of androgen deprivation therapy, most patients with advanced androgen-dependent prostate cancer (ADPC) eventually relapse and progress to lethal androgen-independent prostate cancer (AIPC), also termed castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). MiRNAs can be packaged into exosomes (Exos) and shuttled between cells. However, the roles and mechanisms of exosomal miRNAs involved in CRPC progression have not yet been fully elucidated. Here, we find that miR-222-3p is elevated in AIPC cells, which results in remarkable enhancement of cell proliferation, migration, and invasion ability. Furthermore, Exos released by AIPC cells can be uptaken by ADPC cells, thus acclimating ADPC cells to progressing to more aggressive cell types in vitro and in vivo through exosomal transfer of miR-222-3p. Mechanistically, Exos-miR-222-3p promoted ADPC cells transformed to AIPC-like cells, at least in part, by activating mTOR signaling through targeting MIDN. Our results show that AIPC cells secrete Exos containing miRNA cargo. These cargos can be transferred to ADPC cells through paracrine mechanisms that have a strong impact on cellular functional remodeling. The current work underscores the great therapeutic potential of targeting Exo miRNAs, either as a single agent or combined with androgen receptor pathway inhibitors for CRPC treatment.

Engineered exosomes-based theranostic strategy for tumor metastasis and recurrence

Metastasis-associated processes are the predominant instigator of fatalities linked to cancer, wherein the pivotal role of circulating tumor cells lies in the resurgence of malignant growth. In recent epochs, exosomes, constituents of the extracellular vesicle cohort, have garnered attention within the field of tumor theranostics owing to their inherent attributes encompassing biocompatibility, modifiability, payload capacity, stability, and therapeutic suitability. Nonetheless, the rudimentary functionalities and limited efficacy of unmodified exosomes curtail their prospective utility. In an effort to surmount these shortcomings, intricate methodologies amalgamating nanotechnology with genetic manipulation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and optical intervention present themselves as enhanced avenues to surveil and intercede in tumor metastasis and relapse. This review delves into the manifold techniques currently employed to engineer exosomes, with a specific focus on elucidating the interplay between exosomes and the metastatic cascade, alongside the implementation of tailored exosomes in abating tumor metastasis and recurrence. This review not only advances comprehension of the evolving landscape within this domain but also steers the trajectory of forthcoming investigations.

Culture conditions greatly impact the levels of vesicular and extravesicular Ago2 and RNA in extracellular vesicle preparations

Extracellular vesicle (EV)-carried miRNAs can influence gene expression and functional phenotypes in recipient cells. Argonaute 2 (Ago2) is a key miRNA-binding protein that has been identified in EVs and could influence RNA silencing. However, Ago2 is in a non-vesicular form in serum and can be an EV contaminant. In addition, RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), including Ago2, and RNAs are often minor EV components whose sorting into EVs may be regulated by cell signaling state. To determine the conditions that influence detection of RBPs and RNAs in EVs, we evaluated the effect of growth factors, oncogene signaling, serum, and cell density on the vesicular and nonvesicular content of Ago2, other RBPs, and RNA in small EV (SEV) preparations. Media components affected both the intravesicular and extravesicular levels of RBPs and miRNAs in EVs, with serum contributing strongly to extravesicular miRNA contamination. Furthermore, isolation of EVs from hollow fiber bioreactors revealed complex preparations, with multiple EV-containing peaks and a large amount of extravesicular Ago2/RBPs. Finally, KRAS mutation impacts the detection of intra- and extra-vesicular Ago2. These data indicate that multiple cell culture conditions and cell states impact the presence of RBPs in EV preparations, some of which can be attributed to serum contamination.

Extracellular vesicle-based drug delivery in cancer immunotherapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a group of nanoscale membrane-bound organelles including exosomes, microvesicles (MVs), membrane particles, and apoptotic bodies, which are released from almost all eukaryotic cells. Owing to their ingredients, EVs can be employed as biomarkers for human diseases. Interestingly, EVs show favorable features as candidates for targeted drug delivery and thus, they are suggested as ideal drug carriers as well as good vaccines for various human diseases including cancer. Among various drugs loaded in EVs for targeted drug delivery, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), including antibodies against programmed cell death-1 (PD-1), programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), and cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4), have attracted an increasing attention for cancer researchers and clinicians. Animal and clinical studies have shown combination of EVs and immunotherapy antibodies to improve the efficacy and reduce possible side effects in systemic administration of ICIs. In this review, we discuss the EVs and their significance in drug delivery with a focus on cancer immunotherapy agents.

The Arising Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Cholangiocarcinoma: A Rundown of the Current Knowledge Regarding Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches

Cholangiocarcinomas (CCAs) constitute a heterogeneous group of highly malignant epithelial tumors arising from the biliary tree. This cluster of malignant tumors includes three distinct entities, the intrahepatic, perihilar, and distal CCAs, which are characterized by different epidemiological and molecular backgrounds, as well as prognosis and therapeutic approaches. The higher incidence of CCA over the last decades, the late diagnostic time that contributes to a high mortality and poor prognosis, as well as its chemoresistance, intensified the efforts of the scientific community for the development of novel diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) comprise highly heterogenic, multi-sized, membrane-enclosed nanostructures that are secreted by a large variety of cells via different routes of biogenesis. Their role in intercellular communication via their cargo that potentially contributes to disease development and progression, as well as their prospect as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic tools, has become the focus of interest of several current studies for several diseases, including CCA. The aim of this review is to give a rundown of the current knowledge regarding the emerging role of EVs in cholangiocarcinogenesis and their future perspectives as diagnostic and therapeutic tools.

Circulating tumor biomarkers in early-stage breast cancer: characteristics, detection, and clinical developments

Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in women, contributing to high rates of morbidity and mortality owing to the ability of these tumors to metastasize via the vascular system even in the early stages of progression. While ultrasonography and mammography have enabled the more reliable detection of early-stage breast cancer, these approaches entail high rates of false positive and false negative results Mammograms also expose patients to radiation, raising clinical concerns. As such, there is substantial interest in the development of more accurate and efficacious approaches to diagnosing breast cancer in its early stages when patients are more likely to benefit from curative treatment efforts. Blood-based biomarkers derived from the tumor microenvironment (TME) have frequently been studied as candidate targets that can enable tumor detection when used for patient screening. Through these efforts, many promising biomarkers including tumor antigens, circulating tumor cell clusters, microRNAs, extracellular vesicles, circulating tumor DNA, metabolites, and lipids have emerged as targets that may enable the detection of breast tumors at various stages of progression. This review provides a systematic overview of the TME characteristics of early breast cancer, together with details on current approaches to detecting blood-based biomarkers in affected patients. The limitations, challenges, and prospects associated with different experimental and clinical platforms employed in this context are also discussed at length.

The Nβ motif of NaTrxh directs secretion as an endoplasmic reticulum transit peptide and variations might result in different cellular targeting

Soluble secretory proteins with a signal peptide reach the extracellular space through the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi conventional pathway. During translation, the signal peptide is recognised by the signal recognition particle and results in a co-translational translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum to continue the secretory pathway. However, soluble secretory proteins lacking a signal peptide are also abundant, and several unconventional (endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi independent) pathways have been proposed and some demonstrated. This work describes new features of the secretion signal called Nβ, originally identified in NaTrxh, a plant extracellular thioredoxin, that does not possess an orthodox signal peptide. We provide evidence that other proteins, including thioredoxins type h, with similar sequences are also signal peptide-lacking secretory proteins. To be a secretion signal, positions 5, 8 and 9 must contain neutral residues in plant proteins-a negative residue in position 8 is suggested in animal proteins-to maintain the Nβ motif negatively charged and a hydrophilic profile. Moreover, our results suggest that the NaTrxh translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum occurs as a post-translational event. Finally, the Nβ motif sequence at the N- or C-terminus could be a feature that may help to predict protein localisation, mainly in plant and animal proteins.

Mare stromal endometrial cells differentially modulate inflammation depending on oestrus cycle status: an in vitro study

The modulation of inflammation is pivotal for uterine homeostasis. Here we evaluated the effect of the oestrus cycle on the expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory markers in a cellular model of induced fibrosis. Mare endometrial stromal cells isolated from follicular or mid-luteal phase were primed with 10 ng/mL of TGFβ alone or in combination with either IL1β, IL6, or TNFα (10 ng/mL each) or all together for 24 h. Control cells were not primed. Messenger and miRNA expression were analyzed using real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Cells in the follicular phase primed with pro-inflammatory cytokines showed higher expression of collagen-related genes (CTGF, COL1A1, COL3A1, and TIMP1) and mesenchymal marker (SLUG, VIM, CDH2, and CDH11) genes; p < 0.05. Cells primed during the mid-luteal overexpressed genes associated with extracellular matrix, processing, and prostaglandin E synthase (MMP2, MMP9, PGR, TIMP2, and PTGES; p < 0.05). There was a notable upregulation of pro-fibrotic miRNAs (miR17, miR21, and miR433) in the follicular phase when the cells were exposed to TGFβ + IL1β, TGFβ + IL6 or TGFβ + IL1β + IL6 + TNFα. Conversely, in cells from the mid-luteal phase, the treatments either did not or diminished the expression of the same miRNAs. On the contrary, the anti-fibrotic miRNAs (miR26a, miR29b, miR29c, miR145, miR378, and mir488) were not upregulated with treatments in the follicular phase. Rather, they were overexpressed in cells from the mid-luteal phase, with the highest regulation observed in TGFβ + IL1β + IL6 + TNFα treatment groups. These miRNAs were also analyzed in the extracellular vesicles secreted by the cells. A similar trend as seen with cellular miRNAs was noted, where anti-fibrotic miRNAs were downregulated in the follicular phase, while notably elevated pro-fibrotic miRNAs were observed in extracellular vesicles originating from the follicular phase. Pro-inflammatory cytokines may amplify the TGFβ signal in the follicular phase resulting in significant upregulation of extracellular matrix-related genes, an imbalance in the metalloproteinases, downregulation of estrogen receptors, and upregulation of pro-fibrotic factors. Conversely, in the luteal phase, there is a protective role mediated primarily through an increase in anti-fibrotic miRNAs, a decrease in SMAD2 phosphorylation, and reduced expression of fibrosis-related genes.

Immunomodulatory Potential of Fungal Extracellular Vesicles: Insights for Therapeutic Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous vesicular organelles that perform a variety of biological functions including cell communication across different biological kingdoms. EVs of mammals and, to a lesser extent, bacteria have been deeply studied over the years, whereas investigations of fungal EVs are still in their infancy. Fungi, encompassing both yeast and filamentous forms, are increasingly recognized for their production of extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing a wealth of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These EVs play pivotal roles in orchestrating fungal communities, bolstering pathogenicity, and mediating interactions with the environment. Fungal EVs have emerged as promising candidates for innovative applications, not only in the management of mycoses but also as carriers for therapeutic molecules. Yet, numerous questions persist regarding fungal EVs, including their mechanisms of generation, release, cargo regulation, and discharge. This comprehensive review delves into the present state of knowledge regarding fungal EVs and provides fresh insights into the most recent hypotheses on the mechanisms driving their immunomodulatory properties. Furthermore, we explore the considerable potential of fungal EVs in the realms of medicine and biotechnology. In the foreseeable future, engineered fungal cells may serve as vehicles for tailoring cargo- and antigen-specific EVs, positioning them as invaluable biotechnological tools for diverse medical applications, such as vaccines and drug delivery.

Mitochondrial transfer in hematological malignancies

Mitochondria are energy-generated organelles and take an important part in biological metabolism. Mitochondria could be transferred between cells, which serves as a new intercellular communication. Mitochondrial transfer improves mitochondrial defects, restores the biological functions of recipient cells, and maintains the high metabolic requirements of tumor cells as well as drug resistance. In recent years, it has been reported mitochondrial transfer between cells of bone marrow microenvironment and hematological malignant cells play a critical role in the disease progression and resistance during chemotherapy. In this review, we discuss the patterns and mechanisms on mitochondrial transfer and their engagement in different pathophysiological contexts and outline the latest knowledge on intercellular transport of mitochondria in hematological malignancies. Besides, we briefly outline the drug resistance mechanisms caused by mitochondrial transfer in cells during chemotherapy. Our review demonstrates a theoretical basis for mitochondrial transfer as a prospective therapeutic target to increase the treatment efficiency in hematological malignancies and improve the prognosis of patients.

Exosomes: Potential key players towards novel therapeutic options in diabetic wounds

Diabetic wounds are usually difficult to heal, and wounds in foot in particular are often aggravated by infection, trauma, diabetic neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease and other factors, resulting in serious foot ulcers. The pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of diabetic wounds are complicated, and there is still a lack of objective and in-depth laboratory diagnosis and classification standards. Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles containing DNA, mRNA, microRNA, cyclic RNA, metabolites, lipids, cytoplasm and cell surface proteins, etc., which are involved in intercellular communication and play a crucial role in vascular regeneration, tissue repair and inflammation regulation in the process of diabetic wound healing. Here, we discussed exosomes of different cellular origins, such as diabetic wound-related fibroblasts (DWAF), adipose stem cells (ASCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), immune cells, platelets, human amniotic epithelial cells (hAECs), epidermal stem cells (ESCs), and their various molecular components. They exhibit multiple therapeutic effects during diabetic wound healing, including promoting cell proliferation and migration associated with wound healing, regulating macrophage polarization to inhibit inflammatory responses, promoting nerve repair, and promoting vascular renewal and accelerating wound vascularization. In addition, exosomes can be designed to deliver different therapeutic loads and have the ability to deliver them to the desired target. Therefore, exosomes may become an innovative target for precision therapeutics in diabetic wounds. In this review, we summarize the latest research on the role of exosomes in the healing of diabetic wound by regulating the pathogenesis of diabetic wounds, and discuss their potential applications in the precision treatment of diabetic wounds.

Particle profiling of EV-lipoprotein mixtures by AFM nanomechanical imaging

The widely overlapping physicochemical properties of lipoproteins (LPs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) represents one of the main obstacles for the isolation and characterization of these pervasive biogenic lipid nanoparticles. We herein present the application of an atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based quantitative morphometry assay to the rapid nanomechanical screening of mixed LPs and EVs samples. The method can determine the diameter and the mechanical stiffness of hundreds of individual nanometric objects within few hours. The obtained diameters are in quantitative accord with those measured via cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM); the assignment of specific nanomechanical readout to each object enables the simultaneous discrimination of co-isolated EVs and LPs even if they have overlapping size distributions. EVs and all classes of LPs are shown to be characterised by specific combinations of diameter and stiffness, thus making it possible to estimate their relative abundance in EV/LP mixed samples in terms of stoichiometric ratio, surface area and volume. As a side finding, we show how the mechanical behaviour of specific LP classes is correlated to distinctive structural features revealed by cryo-EM. The described approach is label-free, single-step and relatively quick to perform. Importantly, it can be used to analyse samples which prove very challenging to assess with several established techniques due to ensemble-averaging, low sensibility to small particles, or both, thus providing a very useful tool for quickly assessing the purity of EV/LP isolates including plasma- and serum-derived preparations.

Role of Legionella pneumophila outer membrane vesicles in host-pathogen interaction

Legionella pneumophila is an opportunistic intracellular pathogen that inhabits artificial water systems and can be transmitted to human hosts by contaminated aerosols. Upon inhalation, it colonizes and grows inside the alveolar macrophages and causes Legionnaires' disease. To effectively control and manage Legionnaires' disease, a deep understanding of the host-pathogen interaction is crucial. Bacterial extracellular vesicles, particularly outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) have emerged as mediators of intercellular communication between bacteria and host cells. These OMVs carry a diverse cargo, including proteins, toxins, virulence factors, and nucleic acids. OMVs play a pivotal role in disease pathogenesis by helping bacteria in colonization, delivering virulence factors into host cells, and modulating host immune responses. This review highlights the role of OMVs in the context of host-pathogen interaction shedding light on the pathogenesis of L. pneumophila. Understanding the functions of OMVs and their cargo provides valuable insights into potential therapeutic targets and interventions for combating Legionnaires' disease.

B cell extracellular vesicles contain monomeric IgM that binds antigen and enters target cells

The production and release of small phospholipid membrane vesicles, or extracellular vesicles (EVs), is a trait of most prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. EVs display heterogeneity in content, size, biogenesis, activity, and function. B cells uniquely express immunoglobulin and produce EVs; however, the relationship between these entities has not been clarified. Here, we used several methodologies to isolate large (11,000 × g) and small (110,000 × g) EVs and evaluate their IgM content, characteristics and activity. We found that B cells from multiple cell lines and primary B cells produce EVs that display monomeric IgM on the surface and contain encapsulated monomeric IgM, which is independent of secreted pentameric IgM. Our data indicate EV IgM can bind antigen specifically, and EV IgM can be incorporated intracellularly into secondary cells. These results suggest immunological activities different from secreted pentameric IgM that may constitute a separate and distinct antibody distribution system.

Extracellular Vesicles and Their Impact on the Biology of Protozoan Parasites

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-membrane-bound structures produced naturally by all cells and have a variety of functions. EVs act as vehicles for transporting important molecular signals from one cell to another. Several parasites have been shown to secrete EVs, and their biological functions have been extensively studied. EVs have been shown to facilitate communication with the host cells (such as modulation of the host's immune system or promoting attachment and invasion into the host cells) or for communication between parasitic cells (e.g., transferring drug-resistance genes or factors modulating stage conversion). It is clear that EVs play an important role in host-parasite interactions. In this review, we summarized the latest research on the EVs secreted by protozoan parasites and their role in host-parasite and parasite-parasite communications.

Host-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Blood and Tissue Human Protozoan Infections

Blood and tissue protozoan infections are responsible for an enormous burden in tropical and subtropical regions, even though they can also affect people living in high-income countries, mainly as a consequence of migration and travel. These pathologies are responsible for heavy socio-economic issues in endemic countries, where the lack of proper therapeutic interventions and effective vaccine strategies is still hampering their control. Moreover, the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with the establishment, progression and outcome of these infectious diseases are yet to be fully described. Among all the players, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have raised significant interest during the last decades due to their capacity to modulate inter-parasite and host-parasite interactions. In the present manuscript, we will review the state of the art of circulating host-derived EVs in clinical samples or in experimental models of human blood and tissue protozoan diseases (i.e., malaria, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, human African trypanosomiasis and toxoplasmosis) to gain novel insights into the mechanisms of pathology underlying these conditions and to identify novel potential diagnostic markers.

Research progress on the role of extracellular vesicles in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease, affect millions of people worldwide. Tremendous efforts have been put into disease-related research, but few breakthroughs have been made in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous cell-derived membrane structures that arise from the endosomal system or are directly separated from the plasma membrane. EVs contain many biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, which can be transferred between different cells, tissues, or organs, thereby regulating cross-organ communication between cells during normal and pathological processes. Recently, EVs have been shown to participate in various aspects of neurodegenerative diseases. Abnormal secretion and levels of EVs are closely related to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and contribute to disease progression. Numerous studies have proposed EVs as therapeutic targets or biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarize and discuss the advanced research progress on EVs in the pathological processes of several neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, we outline the latest research on the roles of EVs in neurodegenerative diseases and their therapeutic potential for the diseases.

Lipidome of extracellular vesicles from Giardia lamblia

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) (exossomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies) have been well acknowledged as mediators of intercellular communications in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Lipids are essential molecular components of EVs but at the moment the knowledge about the lipid composition and the function of lipids in EVs is limited and as for now none lipidomic studies in Giardia EVs was described. Therefore, the focus of the current study was to conduct, for the first time, the characterization of the polar lipidome, namely phospholipid and sphingolipid profiles of G. lamblia trophozoites, microvesicles (MVs) and exosomes, using C18-Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (C18-LC-MS) and Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS). A total of 162 lipid species were identified and semi-quantified, in the trophozoites, or in the MVs and exosomes belonging to 8 lipid classes, including the phospholipid classes phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phosphatidylinositol (PI), cardiolipins (CL), the sphingolipid classes sphingomyelin (SM) and ceramides (Cer), and cholesterol (ST), and 3 lipid subclasses that include lyso PC (LPC), lyso PE (LPE) and lyso PG (LPG), but showing different abundances. This work also identified, for the first time, in G. lamblia trophozoites, the lipid classes CL, Cer and ST and subclasses of LPC, LPE and LPG. Univariate and multivariate analysis showed clear discrimination of lipid profiles between trophozoite, exosomes and MVs. The principal component analysis (PCA) plot of the lipidomics dataset showed clear discrimination between the three groups. Future studies focused on the composition and functional properties of Giardia EVs may prove crucial to understand the role of lipids in host-parasite communication, and to identify new targets that could be exploited to develop novel classes of drugs to treat giardiasis.

MiR-3529-3p from PDGF-BB-induced cancer-associated fibroblast-derived exosomes promotes the malignancy of oral squamous cell carcinoma

AIMS

This study aims to explore the role of exosomes from cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) induced by PDGF-BB in promoting the malignancy of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and provide new insight into the mechanism of OSCC progression and its treatment.

MAIN METHODS

Exosomes were extracted from human oral mucosa fibroblasts (hOMFs) and CAFs. Differentially expressed miRNAs of exosomes between hOMFs and CAFs were analysed using high-throughput sequencing and self-programmed R software. Cal-27, a human tongue squamous carcinoma cell line, was treated with exosomes. Differentially expressed miRNAs between clinical cancer tissues and adjacent tissues and between hOMF and CAF exosomes were verified by qRT‒PCR. The effect of miR-3529-3p on Cal-27 cells was clarified by overexpressing or knocking down miR-3529-3p in Cal-27 cells. Sample expression and differentially expressed miRNA expression were compared between cancer and paracarcinoma tissues.

KEY FINDINGS

We found that exosomes from CAFs (CAF-Exos) were internalized by tongue squamous carcinoma cells and promoted their proliferation, migration, invasion, and antiapoptotic effects. MiR-3529-3p was a significant differentially expressed miRNA between CAF-Exos and exosomes from hOMFs (hOMF-Exos). The overexpression of miR-3529-3p promoted proliferation, migration, and invasion and inhibited apoptosis of Cal-27 cells.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study explores the role of PDGF-BB-induced CAFs in promoting malignancy in OSCC. This study will provide new insight into the mechanism of OSCC progression and its treatment.

Role of extracellular vesicles in pathogenesis and therapy of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (RIRI) is a complex disorder characterized by both intrinsic damage to renal tubular epithelial cells and extrinsic inflammation mediated by cytokines and immune cells. Unfortunately, there is no cure for this devastating condition. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized membrane-bound vesicles secreted by various cell types that can transfer bioactive molecules to target cells and modulate their function. EVs have emerged as promising candidates for cell-free therapy of RIRI, owing to their ability to cross biological barriers and deliver protective signals to injured renal cells. In this review, we provide an overview of EVs, focusing on their functional role in RIRI and the signaling messengers responsible for EV-mediated crosstalk between various cell types in renal tissue. We also discuss the renoprotective role of EVs and their use as therapeutic agents for RIRI, highlighting the advantages and challenges encountered in the therapeutic application of EVs in renal disease.

Dynamics of nucleic acid mobility

Advances in sequencing technologies and bioinformatic analyses are accelerating the quantity and quality of data from all domains of life. This rich resource has the potential to reveal a number of important incidences with respect to possible exchange of nucleic acids. Ancient events have impacted species evolution and adaptation to new ecological niches. However, we still lack a full picture of processes ongoing within and between somatic cells, gametes, and different organisms. We propose that events linked to acceptance of alien nucleic acids grossly could be divided into 2 main routes in plants: one, when plants are exposed to extreme challenges and, the second level, a more everyday or season-related stress incited by biotic or abiotic factors. Here, many events seem to comprise somatic cells. Are the transport and acceptance processes of alien sequences random or are there specific regulatory systems not yet fully understood? Following entrance into a new cell, a number of intracellular processes leading to chromosomal integration and function are required. Modification of nucleic acids and possibly exchange of sequences within a cell may also occur. Such fine-tune events are most likely very common. There are multiple questions that we will discuss concerning different types of vesicles and their roles in nucleic acid transport and possible intracellular sequence exchange between species.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid membrane bound-cell-derived structures that are a key player in intercellular communication and facilitate numerous cellular functions such as tumor growth, metastasis, immunosuppression, and angiogenesis. They can be used as a drug delivery platform because they can protect drugs from degradation and target specific cells or tissues. With the advancement in the technologies and methods in EV research, EV-therapeutics are one of the fast-growing domains in the human health sector. Therapeutic translation of EVs in clinics requires assessing the quality, safety, and efficacy of the EVs, in which pharmacokinetics is very crucial. We report here the application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling as a principal tool for the prediction of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of EVs. To create a PBPK model of EVs, researchers would need to gather data on the size, shape, and composition of the EVs, as well as the physiological processes that affect their behavior in the body. The PBPK model would then be used to predict the pharmacokinetics of drugs delivered via EVs, such as the rate at which the drug is absorbed and distributed throughout the body, the rate at which it is metabolized and eliminated, and the maximum concentration of the drug in the body. This information can be used to optimize the design of EV-based drug delivery systems, including the size and composition of the EVs, the route of administration, and the dose of the drug. There has not been any dedicated review article that describes the PBPK modeling of EV. This review provides an overview of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) phenomena of EVs. In addition, we will briefly describe the different computer-based modeling approaches that may help in the future of EV-based therapeutic research.

Relevance of multilamellar and multicompartmental vesicles in biological fluids: understanding the significance of proportional variations and disease correlation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered significant interest in the field of biomedical science due to their potential applications in therapy and diagnosis. These vesicles participate in cell-to-cell communication and carry a diverse range of bioactive cargo molecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. These cargoes play essential roles in various signaling pathways, including paracrine and endocrine signaling. However, our understanding of the morphological and structural features of EVs is still limited. EVs could be unilamellar or multilamellar or even multicompartmental structures. The relative proportions of these EV subtypes in biological fluids have been associated with various human diseases; however, the mechanism remains unclear. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) holds great promise in the field of EV characterization due to high resolution properties. Cryo-EM circumvents artifacts caused by fixation or dehydration, allows for the preservation of native conformation, and eliminates the necessity for staining procedures. In this review, we summarize the role of EVs biogenesis and pathways that might have role on their structure, and the role of cryo-EM in characterization of EVs morphology in different biological samples and integrate new knowledge of the alterations of membranous structures of EVs which could be used as biomarkers to human diseases.

Association between the Respiratory Microbiome and Plasma Microbial Extracellular Vesicles in Intubated Patients

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) regulate various cellular and immunological functions in human diseases. There is growing interest in the clinical role of microbial EVs in pneumonia. However, there is a lack of research on the correlation between lung microbiome with microbial EVs and the microbiome of other body sites in pneumonia. We investigated the co-occurrence of lung microbiome and plasma microbe-derived EVs (mEVs) in 111 samples obtained from 60 mechanically ventilated patients (41 pneumonia and 19 non-pneumonia cases). The microbial correlation between the two samples was compared between the pneumonia and non-pneumonia cases. Bacterial composition of the plasma mEVs was distinct from that of the lung microbiome. There was a significantly higher correlation between lung microbiome and plasma mEVs in non-pneumonia individuals compared to pneumonia patients. In particular, Acinetobacter and Lactobacillus genera had high correlation coefficients in non-pneumonia patients. This indicates a beneficial effect of mEVs in modulating host lung immune response through EV component transfer.

Extracellular Vesicles-mediated recombinant IL-10 protects against ascending infection-associated preterm birth by reducing fetal inflammatory response

Background

Fetal inflammatory response mediated by the influx of immune cells and activation of pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB in feto-maternal uterine tissues is the major determinant of infection-associated preterm birth (PTB, live births < 37 weeks of gestation).

Objective

To reduce the incidence of PTB by minimizing inflammation, extracellular vesicles (EVs) were electroporetically engineered to contain anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 (eIL-10), and their efficacy was tested in an ascending model of infection (vaginal administration of E. coli) induced PTB in mouse models.

Study design

EVs (size: 30-170 nm) derived from HEK293T cells were electroporated with recombinant IL-10 at 500 volts and 125 Ω, and 6 pulses to generate eIL-10. eIL-10 structural characters (electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, ExoView [size and cargo content] and functional properties (co-treatment of macrophage cells with LPS and eIL-10) were assessed. To test efficacy, CD1 mice were vaginally inoculated with E. coli (1010CFU) and subsequently treated with either PBS, eIL-10 (500ng) or Gentamicin (10mg/kg) or a combination of eIL-10+gentamicin. Fetal inflammatory response in maternal and fetal tissues after the infection or treatment were conducted by suspension Cytometer Time of Flight (CyTOF) using a transgenic mouse model that express red fluorescent TdTomato (mT+) in fetal cells.

Results

Engineered EVs were structurally and functionally stable and showed reduced proinflammatory cytokine production from LPS challenged macrophage cells in vitro. Maternal administration of eIL-10 (10 µg/kg body weight) crossed feto-maternal barriers to delay E. coli-induced PTB to deliver live pups at term. Delay in PTB was associated with reduced feto-maternal uterine inflammation (immune cell infiltration and histologic chorioamnionitis, NF-κB activation, and proinflammatory cytokine production).

Conclusions

eIL-10 administration was safe, stable, specific, delayed PTB by over 72 hrs and delivered live pups. The delivery of drugs using EVs overcomes the limitations of in-utero fetal interventions. Protecting IL-10 in EVs eliminates the need for the amniotic administration of recombinant IL-10 for its efficacy.

Nanoscale Phytosomes as an Emerging Modality for Cancer Therapy

Extracellular vesicle (EV) research has expanded substantially over the years. EVs have been identified in all living organisms and are produced and released as a means of intercellular communication or as a defense mechanism. Recently, nano-scaled vesicles were successfully isolated from edible plant sources. Plant-derived EVs, referred to here as phytosomes, are of a size reported to range between 30 nm and 120 nm in diameter, similar to small mammalian extracellular vesicles, and carry various bioactive molecules such as mRNA, proteins, miRNA and lipids. Due to the availability of many plants, phytosomes can be easily isolated on a large scale. The methods developed for EV isolation from mammalian cells have been successfully applied for isolation and purification of phytosomes. The therapeutic effects of phytosomes on different disease models, such as inflammation and autoimmune disease, have been reported, and a handful of studies have suggested their therapeutic effects on cancer diseases. Overall, the research on phytosomes is still in its infancy and requires more exploration. This review will narrate the anti-cancer activity and characteristics of phytosomes derived from edible plants as well as describe studies which have utilized phytosomes as drug delivery vehicles for cancer with the ultimate objective of significantly reducing the adverse effects associated with conventional therapeutic approaches.

Engineered Extracellular Vesicle-Based Therapies for Valvular Heart Disease

Introduction

Valvular heart disease represents a significant burden to the healthcare system, with approximately 5 million cases diagnosed annually in the US. Among these cases, calcific aortic stenosis (CAS) stands out as the most prevalent form of valvular heart disease in the aging population.  CAS is characterized by the progressive calcification of the aortic valve leaflets, leading to valve stiffening. While aortic valve replacement is the standard of care for CAS patients, the long-term durability of prosthetic devices is poor, calling for innovative strategies to halt  or reverse disease progression. Here, we explor the potential use of novel extracellular vesicle (EV)-based nanocarriers for delivering molecular payloads to the affected valve tissue. This approach aims to reduce inflammation and potentially promote resorption of the calcified tissue.

Methods

Engineered EVs loaded with the reprogramming myeloid transcription factors, CEBPA and Spi1, known to mediate the transdifferentiation of committed endothelial cells into macrophages. We evaluated the ability of these engineered EVs to deliver DNA and transcripts encoding CEBPA and Spil into calcified aortic valve tissue obtained from patients undergoing valve replacement due to aortic stenosis. We also investigated whether these EVs could induce the transdifferentiation of endothelial cells into macrophage-like cells.

Results

Engineered EVs loaded with CEBPA + Spi1 were successfully derived from human dermal fibroblasts. Peak EV loading was found to be at 4 h after nanotransfection of donor cells.  These CEBPA + Spi1 loaded EVs effectively transfected aortic valve cells, resulting in the successful induction of transdifferentiation, both in vitro with  endothelial cells and ex vivo with valvular endothelial cells, leading to the development of anti-inflammatory macrophage-like cells.

Conclusions

Our findings highlight the potential of engineered EVs as a next generation nanocarrier to target aberrant calcifications on diseased heart valves. This development holds promise as a novel therapy for high-risk patients who may not be suitable candidates for valve replacement surgery.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12195-023-00783-x.

Small Extracellular Vesicles Secreted by Peri-urethral Tissues Regulate Fibroblast Function and Contribute to the Pathogenesis of Female Stress Urinary Incontinence

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the existence of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) in peri-urethral tissues and the role of abnormal expression of sEVs in the pathogenesis of female stress urinary incontinence (SUI).

METHODS

sEVs were extracted from peri-urethral vaginal wall tissues using differential centrifugation and were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The number of sEVs and their protein contents were compared between SUI and control groups using nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and bicinchoninic acid (BCA) protein assay. Fibroblasts were cultured separately with SUI (SsEVs group) and normal tissue sEVs (NsEVs group). Proliferation and migration of fibroblasts were compared between groups using CCK-8 and wound healing assays, respectively. Expression levels of collagen I and III were compared among blank control (BC), NsEVs, and SsEVs groups using real-time PCR. Protein mass spectrometry was used to test the differentially expressed proteins contained in sEVs between groups.

RESULTS

sEVs were extracted and found under the electron microscope. There were significantly more sEVs extracted from the SUI group compared to the normal group. Fibroblasts showed increased proliferative and decreased migratory abilities, and expressed more collagen in the SsEVs group compared to the NsEVs and BC groups. Protein spectrum analysis demonstrated several differentially expressed targets, including components of microfibrils, elastin polymer, and anti-inflammatory factors.

CONCLUSION

sEVs were detected in the peri-urethral tissues. SUI tissues expressed more sEVs than control. The abnormal expression of sEVs and their protein contents may contribute to the pathogenesis and progression of SUI.

Exosome from IFN-γ-Primed Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improved Skin Inflammation and Barrier Function

The pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial, including immune dysregulation and epidermal barrier defects, and a novel therapeutic modality that can simultaneously target multiple pathways is needed. We investigated the therapeutic effects of exosomes (IFN-γ-iExo) secreted from IFN-γ-primed induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells (iMSC) in mice with Aspergillus fumigatus-induced AD. IFN-γ-iExo was epicutaneously administered to mice with AD-like skin lesions. The effects of IFN-γ-iExo treatment were investigated through clinical scores, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) measurements, and histopathology. To elucidate the therapeutic mechanism, we used an in vitro model of human keratinocyte HaCaT cells stimulated with IL-4 and IL-13 and performed extensive bioinformatics analysis of skin mRNA from mice. The expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase was higher in IFN-γ primed iMSCs than in iMSCs. In human keratinocyte HaCaT cells, treatment with IFN-γ-iExo led to decreases in the mRNA expression of thymic stromal lymphopoietin, IL-25, and IL-33 and increases in keratin 1, keratin 10, desmoglein 1, and ceramide synthase 3. IFN-γ-iExo treatment significantly improved clinical and histological outcomes in AD mice, including clinical scores, TEWL, inflammatory cell infiltration, and epidermal thickness. Bioinformatics analysis of skin mRNA from AD mice showed that IFN-γ-iExo treatment is predominantly involved in skin barrier function and T cell immune response. Treatment with IFN-γ-iExo improved the clinical and histological outcomes of AD mice, which were likely mediated by restoring proper skin barrier function and suppressing T cell-mediated immune response.

Ascites-derived CDCP1+ extracellular vesicles subcluster as a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for ovarian cancer

Introduction

Ovarian cancer (OVCA) is one of the most prevalent malignant tumors of the female reproductive system, and its diagnosis is typically accompanied by the production of ascites. Although liquid biopsy has been widely implemented recently, the diagnosis or prognosis of OVCA based on liquid biopsy remains the primary emphasis.

Methods

In this study, using proximity barcoding assay, a technique for analyzing the surface proteins on single extracellular vesicles (EVs). For validation, serum and ascites samples from patients with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) were collected, and their levels of CDCP1 was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Tissue chips were prepared to analyze the relationship between different expression levels of CDCP1 and the prognosis of ovarian cancer patients.

Results

We discovered that the CUB domain-containing protein 1+ (CDCP1+) EVs subcluster was higher in the ascites of OVCA patients compared to benign ascites. At the same time, the level of CDCP1 was considerably elevated in the ascites of OVCA patients. The overall survival and disease-free survival of the group with high CDCP1 expression in EOC were significantly lower than those of the group with low expression. In addition, the receiver operating characteristic curve demonstrates that EVs-derived CDCP1 was a biomarker of early response in OVCA ascites.

Discussion

Our findings identified a CDCP1+ EVs subcluster in the ascites of OVCA patients as a possible biomarker for EOC prevention.

Control of the post-infarct immune microenvironment through biotherapeutic and biomaterial-based approaches

Ischemic heart failure (IHF) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, for which heart transplantation remains the only definitive treatment. IHF manifests from myocardial infarction (MI) that initiates tissue remodeling processes, mediated by mechanical changes in the tissue (loss of contractility, softening of the myocardium) that are interdependent with cellular mechanisms (cardiomyocyte death, inflammatory response). The early remodeling phase is characterized by robust inflammation that is necessary for tissue debridement and the initiation of repair processes. While later transition toward an immunoregenerative function is desirable, functional reorientation from an inflammatory to reparatory environment is often lacking, trapping the heart in a chronically inflamed state that perpetuates cardiomyocyte death, ventricular dilatation, excess fibrosis, and progressive IHF. Therapies can redirect the immune microenvironment, including biotherapeutic and biomaterial-based approaches. In this review, we outline these existing approaches, with a particular focus on the immunomodulatory effects of therapeutics (small molecule drugs, biomolecules, and cell or cell-derived products). Cardioprotective strategies, often focusing on immunosuppression, have shown promise in pre-clinical and clinical trials. However, immunoregenerative therapies are emerging that often benefit from exacerbating early inflammation. Biomaterials can be used to enhance these therapies as a result of their intrinsic immunomodulatory properties, parallel mechanisms of action (e.g., mechanical restraint), or by enabling cell or tissue-targeted delivery. We further discuss translatability and the continued progress of technologies and procedures that contribute to the bench-to-bedside development of these critically needed treatments.

Context-specific regulation of extracellular vesicle biogenesis and cargo selection

To coordinate, adapt and respond to biological signals, cells convey specific messages to other cells. An important aspect of cell-cell communication involves secretion of molecules into the extracellular space. How these molecules are selected for secretion has been a fundamental question in the membrane trafficking field for decades. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as key players in intercellular communication, carrying not only membrane proteins and lipids but also RNAs, cytosolic proteins and other signalling molecules to recipient cells. To communicate the right message, it is essential to sort cargoes into EVs in a regulated and context-specific manner. In recent years, a wealth of lipidomic, proteomic and RNA sequencing studies have revealed that EV cargo composition differs depending upon the donor cell type, metabolic cues and disease states. Analyses of distinct cargo 'fingerprints' have uncovered mechanistic linkages between the activation of specific molecular pathways and cargo sorting. In addition, cell biology studies are beginning to reveal novel biogenesis mechanisms regulated by cellular context. Here, we review context-specific mechanisms of EV biogenesis and cargo sorting, focusing on how cell signalling and cell state influence which cellular components are ultimately targeted to EVs.

Analysis of mRNA-miRNA interaction network reveals the role of CAFs-derived exosomes in the immune regulation of oral squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have significant tumor regulatory functions, and CAFs-derived exosomes (CAFs-Exo) released from CAFs play an important role in the progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). However, a lack of comprehensive molecular biological analysis leaves the regulatory mechanisms of CAFs-Exo in OSCC unclear.

METHODS

We used platelet derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) to induce the transformation of human oral mucosa fibroblast (hOMF) into CAFs, and extracted exosomes from the supernatant of CAFs and hOMF. We validated the effect of CAFs-Exo on tumor progression by exosomes co-culture with Cal-27 and tumor-forming in nude mice. The cellular and exosomal transcriptomes were sequenced, and immune regulatory genes were screened and validated using mRNA-miRNA interaction network analysis in combination with publicly available databases.

RESULTS

The results showed that CAFs-Exo had a stronger ability to promote OSCC proliferation and was associated with immunosuppression. We discovered that the presence of immune-related genes in CAFs-Exo may regulate the expression of PIGR, CD81, UACA, and PTTG1IP in Cal-27 by analyzing CAFs-Exo sequencing data and publicly available TCGA data. This may account for the ability of CAFs-Exo to exert immunomodulation and promote OSCC proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

CAFs-Exo was found to be involved in tumor immune regulation through hsa-miR-139-5p, ACTR2 and EIF6, while PIGR, CD81, UACA and PTTG1IP may be potentially effective targets for the treatment of OSCC in the future.

Role of Gasdermin E in the Biogenesis of Apoptotic Cell-Derived Exosomes

The gasdermins are a family of pore-forming proteins that has recently been suggested to play a central role in pyroptosis. In this study, we describe the novel roles of gasdermins in the biogenesis of apoptotic cell-derived exosomes. In apoptotic human HeLa and HEK293 cells, GSDMA, GSDMC, GSDMD, and GSDME increased the release of apoptotic exosomes. GSDMB and DFNB59, in contrast, negatively affected the release of apoptotic exosomes. GSDME at its full-length and cleaved forms was localized in the exosomes and exosomal membrane. Full-length and cleaved forms of GSDME are suggested to increase Ca2+ influx to the cytosol through endosomal pores and thus increase the biogenesis of apoptotic exosomes. In addition, the GSDME-mediated biogenesis of apoptotic exosomes depended on the ESCRT-III complex and endosomal recruitment of Ca2+-dependent proteins, that is, annexins A2 and A7, the PEF domain family proteins sorcin and grancalcin, and the Bro1 domain protein HD-PTP. Therefore, we propose that the biogenesis of apoptotic exosomes begins when gasdermin-mediated endosomal pores increase cytosolic Ca2+, continues through the recruitment of annexin-sorcin/grancalcin-HD-PTP, and is completed when the ESCRT-III complex synthesizes intraluminal vesicles in the multivesicular bodies of dying cells. Finally, we found that GSDME-bearing tumors released apoptotic exosomes to induce inflammatory responses in the in vivo mouse 4T1 orthotropic model of BALB/c breast cancer. The data indicate that the switch from apoptosis to pyroptosis could drive the transfer of mass signals to nearby or distant living cells and tissues by way of extracellular vesicles, and that gasdermins play critical roles in that process.

Tumor-associated macrophages-derived exo-let-7a promotes osteosarcoma metastasis via targeting C15orf41 in osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) immune environment is complexed and the immune factors-related to OS progression need to be explored. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are regarded as immune suppressive and tumor-promoting cells. However, the underlying mechanisms through which TAMs function are still fragmentary. Here, we aim to explore the underlying mechanisms by which TAMs regulate OS progression.

METHODS

TAMs from OS tissues were isolated by flow cytometry. Exosomes derived from TAMs were separated using ultracentrifugation and western blotting. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and flow cytometry were constructed to characterize TAMs-derived exosomes. Additionally, the differential MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and genes were detected through RNA sequencing, and further validated using real-time PCR (RT-PCR). OS cell metastasis ability was assessed using transwell invasion and scratch wound healing assays. MiRNAs mimic and lentiviral vectors were utilized to explore the effects on OS progression.

RESULTS

Exosome secreted by TAMs accelerated the OS metastasis. Let-7a level was upregulated in TAMs derived exosomes, which downregulated C15orf41 by targeting 3'-untranslated region (UTR). Furthermore, overexpressing let-7a enhanced invasion and migration by blocking the transcription of C15orf41. In consistent, up-regulating let-7a promoted OS progression and made the prognosis to be worse, which can be reversed by C15orf41 overexpression.

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted the critical role of TAMs-derived exosomes in OS progression and explored the potential value of the let-7a/C15orf41 axis as an indicator or target for OS.

Sleep Deprivation Promotes Endothelial Inflammation and Atherogenesis by Reducing Exosomal miR-182-5p

BACKGROUND

Insufficient or disrupted sleep increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis. However, we know little about the molecular mechanisms by which sleep modulates atherogenesis. This study aimed to explore the potential role of circulating exosomes in endothelial inflammation and atherogenesis under sleep deprivation status and the molecular mechanisms involved.

METHODS

Circulating exosomes were isolated from the plasma of volunteers with or without sleep deprivation and mice subjected to 12-week sleep deprivation or control littermates. miRNA array was performed to determine changes in miRNA expression in circulating exosomes.

RESULTS

Although the total circulating exosome levels did not change significantly, the isolated plasma exosomes from sleep-deprived mice or human were a potent inducer of endothelial inflammation and atherogenesis. Through profiling and functional analysis of the global microRNA in the exosomes, we found miR-182-5p is a key exosomal cargo that mediates the proinflammatory effects of exosomes by upregulation of MYD88 (myeloid differentiation factor 88) and activation of NF-ĸB (nuclear factor kappa-B)/NLRP3 pathway in endothelial cells. Moreover, sleep deprivation or the reduction of melatonin directly decreased the synthesis of miR-182-5p and led to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in small intestinal epithelium.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings illustrate an important role for circulating exosomes in distant communications, suggesting a new mechanism underlying the link between sleep disorder and cardiovascular disease.

Ligand-displaying-exosomes using RNA nanotechnology for targeted delivery of multi-specific drugs for liver cancer regression

Liver cancer such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poorly responds to chemotherapeutics as there are no effective means to deliver the drugs to liver cancer. Here we report GalNAc decorated exosomes as cargo for targeted delivery of Paclitaxel (PTX) and miR122 to liver tumors as an effective means to inhibit the HCC. Exosomes (Exos) are nanosized extracellular vesicles that deliver a payload to cancer cells effectively. GalNAc provides Exos targeting ability by binding to the asialoglycoprotein-receptor (ASGP-R) overexpressed on the liver cancer cell surface. A 4-way junction (4WJ) RNA nanoparticle was constructed to harbor 24 copies of hydrophobic PTX and 1 copy of miR122. The 4WJ RNA-PTX complex was loaded into the Exos, and its surface was decorated with GalNAc using RNA nanotechnology to obtain specific targeting. The multi-specific Exos selectively bind and efficiently delivered the payload into the liver cancer cells and exhibited the highest cancer cell inhibition due to the multi-specific effect of miR122, PTX, GalNAc, and Exos. The same was reflected in mice xenograft studies, the liver cancer was efficiently inhibited after systemic injection of the multi-specific Exos. The required effective dose of chemical drugs carried by Exos was significantly reduced, indicating high efficiency and low toxicity. The multi-specific strategy demonstrates that Exos can serve as a natural cargo vehicle for the targeted delivery of anticancer therapeutics to treat difficult-to-treat cancers.

Chaperonin CCT controls extracellular vesicle production and cell metabolism through kinesin dynamics

Cell proteostasis includes gene transcription, protein translation, folding of de novo proteins, post-translational modifications, secretion, degradation and recycling. By profiling the proteome of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from T cells, we have found the chaperonin complex CCT, involved in the correct folding of particular proteins. By limiting CCT cell-content by siRNA, cells undergo altered lipid composition and metabolic rewiring towards a lipid-dependent metabolism, with increased activity of peroxisomes and mitochondria. This is due to dysregulation of the dynamics of interorganelle contacts between lipid droplets, mitochondria, peroxisomes and the endolysosomal system. This process accelerates the biogenesis of multivesicular bodies leading to higher EV production through the dynamic regulation of microtubule-based kinesin motors. These findings connect proteostasis with lipid metabolism through an unexpected role of CCT.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated intercellular and interorgan crosstalk of pancreatic islet in health and diabetes

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a systemic metabolic disease with high mortality and morbidity. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a novel class of signaling molecules, biomarkers and therapeutic agents. EVs-mediated intercellular and interorgan crosstalk of pancreatic islets plays a crucial role in the regulation of insulin secretion of β-cells and insulin action in peripheral insulin target tissues, maintaining glucose homeostasis under physiological conditions, and it's also involved in pathological changes including autoimmune response, insulin resistance and β-cell failure associated with DM. In addition, EVs may serve as biomarkers and therapeutic agents that respectively reflect the status and improve function and viability of pancreatic islets. In this review, we provide an overview of EVs, discuss EVs-mediated intercellular and interorgan crosstalk of pancreatic islet under physiological and diabetic conditions, and summarize the emerging applications of EVs in the diagnosis and treatment of DM. A better understanding of EVs-mediated intercellular and interorgan communication of pancreatic islets will broaden and enrich our knowledge of physiological homeostasis maintenance as well as the development, diagnosis and treatment of DM.

Role of cancer stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in cancer progression and metastasis

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Numerous strategies have been developed for cancer treatment. Metastasis, heterogeneity, chemotherapy resistance, recurrence, and evasion of immune surveillance are the primary reasons for the failure of cancer treatment. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) can give rise to tumors via self-renewal and differentiation into various cell types. They show resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy and have a strong capability of invasion and metastasis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are bilayered vesicles that carry biological molecules and are released under both healthy and unhealthy conditions. It has been shown that one of the leading causes of cancer treatment failure is cancer stem cell-derived EVs (CSC-EVs). CSC-EVs have essential roles in tumor progression, metastasis, tumor angiogenesis, chemoresistance, and immunosuppressants. In the future, controlling EV production in CSCs may be one of the most promising strategies to stop cancer treatment failures.

NGS Data Repurposing Allows Detection of tRNA Fragments as Gastric Cancer Biomarkers in Patient-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) have gene silencing effects similarly to miRNAs, can be sorted into extracellular vesicles (EVs) and are emerging as potential circulating biomarkers for cancer diagnoses. We aimed at analyzing the expression of tRFs in gastric cancer (GC) and understanding their potential as biomarkers. We explored miRNA datasets from gastric tumors and normal adjacent tissues (NATs) from TCGA repository, as well as proprietary 3D-cultured GC cell lines and corresponding EVs, in order to identify differentially represented tRFs using MINTmap and R/Bioconductor packages. Selected tRFs were validated in patient-derived EVs. We found 613 Differentially Expressed (DE)-tRFs in the TCGA dataset, of which 19 were concomitantly upregulated in TCGA gastric tumors and present in 3D cells and EVs, but barely expressed in NATs. Moreover, 20 tRFs were expressed in 3D cells and EVs and downregulated in TCGA gastric tumors. Of these 39 DE-tRFs, 9 tRFs were also detected in patient-derived EVs. Interestingly, the targets of these 9 tRFs affect neutrophil activation and degranulation, cadherin binding, focal adhesion and the cell-substrate junction, highlighting these pathways as major targets of EV-mediated crosstalk with the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, as they are present in four distinct GC datasets and can be detected even in low quality patient-derived EV samples, they hold promise as GC biomarkers. By repurposing already available NGS data, we could identify and cross-validate a set of tRFs holding potential as GC diagnosis biomarkers.

Isolation and characterization of extracellular vesicles from Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, a banana wilt pathogen

Fusarium wilt of banana is a destructive widespread disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) that ravaged banana plantations globally, incurring huge economic losses. Current knowledge demonstrates the involvement of several transcription factors, effector proteins, and small RNAs in the Foc-banana interaction. However, the precise mode of communication at the interface remains elusive. Cutting-edge research has emphasized the significance of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in trafficking the virulent factors modulating the host physiology and defence system. EVs are ubiquitous inter- and intra-cellular communicators across kingdoms. This study focuses on the isolation and characterization of Foc EVs from methods that make use of sodium acetate, polyethylene glycol, ethyl acetate, and high-speed centrifugation. Isolated EVs were microscopically visualized using Nile red staining. Further, the EVs were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, which revealed the presence of spherical, double-membrane, vesicular structures ranging in size from 50 to 200 nm (diameter). The size was also determined using the principle based on Dynamic Light Scattering. The Foc EVs contained proteins that were separated using SDS-PAGE and ranged between 10 and 315 kDa. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of EV-specific marker proteins, toxic peptides, and effectors. The Foc EVs were found to be cytotoxic, whose toxicity increased with EVs isolated from the co-culture preparation. Taken together, a better understanding of Foc EVs and their cargo will aid in deciphering the molecular crosstalk between banana and Foc.

Bacterial extracellular vesicles repress the vascular protective factor RNase1 in human lung endothelial cells

BACKGROUND

Sepsis is one of the leading causes of death worldwide and characterized by blood stream infections associated with a dysregulated host response and endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction. Ribonuclease 1 (RNase1) acts as a protective factor of vascular homeostasis and is known to be repressed by massive and persistent inflammation, associated to the development of vascular pathologies. Bacterial extracellular vesicles (bEVs) are released upon infection and may interact with ECs to mediate EC barrier dysfunction. Here, we investigated the impact of bEVs of sepsis-related pathogens on human EC RNase1 regulation.

METHODS

bEVs from sepsis-associated bacteria were isolated via ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography and used for stimulation of human lung microvascular ECs combined with and without signaling pathway inhibitor treatments.

RESULTS

bEVs from Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium significantly reduced RNase1 mRNA and protein expression and activated ECs, while TLR2-inducing bEVs from Streptococcus pneumoniae did not. These effects were mediated via LPS-dependent TLR4 signaling cascades as they could be blocked by Polymyxin B. Additionally, LPS-free ClearColi™ had no impact on RNase1. Further characterization of TLR4 downstream pathways involving NF-кB and p38, as well as JAK1/STAT1 signaling, revealed that RNase1 mRNA regulation is mediated via a p38-dependent mechanism.

CONCLUSION

Blood stream bEVs from gram-negative, sepsis-associated bacteria reduce the vascular protective factor RNase1, opening new avenues for therapeutical intervention of EC dysfunction via promotion of RNase1 integrity. Video Abstract.