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Abstract
Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) was the first human malignancy where a consistent chromosomal abnormality, the BCR-ABL translocation, was identified as the causative genetic aberration. There is a mounting body of evidence suggesting that CML cells are particularly good targets for immunological surveillance mechanisms, the most intriguing being the curative effect of allogeneic donor lymphocyte infusion given in relapsed disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Likewise, interferon alpha (IFN alpha), which has long been considered as the standard conservative therapy in CML, may exert its life-prolonging effect by activating immunological effector functions. This review will focus on the recent advances in the understanding of the contribution of IFN alpha in eliciting T-cell responses against self-antigens in CML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Burchert
- Klinikum der Philipps Universität Marburg, Klinik für Hämatologie, Onkologie und Immunologie, Marburg, Germany
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102
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Abstract
The relationship between hepatitis C virus (HCV), steatosis, and insulin resistance is genotype specific, and steatosis and insulin resistance are closely linked to the progression of liver disease in HCV infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zekry
- Division of Gastroenterology and Duke Clinical Research Institute, Duke University Medical Centre, Snyderman Building, GSRB-1, Suite 1073, Box 3256, 595 LaSalle St, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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103
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Marshall A, Rushbrook S, Davies SE, Morris LS, Scott IS, Vowler SL, Coleman N, Alexander G. Relation between hepatocyte G1 arrest, impaired hepatic regeneration, and fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Gastroenterology 2005; 128:33-42. [PMID: 15633121 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2004.09.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS & AIMS An increased risk of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related cirrhosis is associated with hepatic steatosis, older age, and high alcohol consumption, which could be explained by synergistic effects on cell proliferation. We aimed to investigate hepatocyte cell cycle state and phase distribution in chronic HCV infection. METHODS Liver biopsy specimens diagnostic for chronic HCV (70), liver regeneration following transplant-related ischemic-reperfusion injury (15), and "normal" liver adjacent to colorectal cancer metastasis (10) were studied. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect cell cycle phase markers cyclin D1 (maximal in G 1 ), cyclin A (S), cyclin B1 (cytoplasmic during G 2 ) and phosphorylated histone 3 protein (mitosis), mini-chromosome maintenance protein 2 (Mcm-2; present throughout the cell cycle), and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, which inhibits G 1 /S progression. RESULTS Hepatocyte Mcm-2 expression was elevated in chronic HCV and liver regeneration (13% vs 26.4%) but negligible in "normal" liver. In proportion to Mcm-2, there was no difference in cyclin D1 between chronic HCV infection and liver regeneration (51.6% of Mcm-2-positive hepatocytes vs 52.6%). In contrast, there was a striking reduction in cyclin A (3% vs 16.3%), cyclin B1 (.4% vs 2.3%), and phosphorylated histone 3 protein (0% vs 3.8%) in chronic HCV infection compared with liver regeneration. In chronic HCV infection, Mcm-2 and p21 expression were associated with fibrosis stage and positive serum HCV RNA. CONCLUSIONS The data are consistent with hepatocyte G 1 arrest in chronic HCV infection. This could impair hepatocellular function and limit hepatic regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen Marshall
- Department of Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, England, UK
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104
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Sunman JA, Hawke RL, LeCluyse EL, Kashuba ADM. Kupffer cell-mediated IL-2 suppression of CYP3A activity in human hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2004; 32:359-63. [PMID: 14977871 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.32.3.359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-2 administration has been shown to decrease CYP3A enzyme activity in vivo. To determine whether IL-2 suppression of human hepatocyte CYP3A activity is direct or whether it is facilitated by the presence of Kupffer cells, primary human hepatocytes were cultured alone or cocultured with primary human Kupffer cells at physiologic hepatocyte/Kupffer cell ratios of 10:1 or 10:4. Using proinflammatory cytokines as positive controls, IL-1 (0.2-20 ng/ml) and IL-6 (2-200 ng/ml) exposure resulted in a 70 to 90% decrease in CYP3A activity after 72 h in hepatocyte cultures. In the hepatocyte/Kupffer cell cocultures, an 80% decrease in CYP3A activity was observed with IL-1 (2 ng/ml) or IL-6 (20 ng/ml), suggesting that direct suppressive effects of proinflammatory cytokines on hepatocyte CYP3A activity are not substantially altered by Kupffer cells. In contrast to the effects of these proinflammatory cytokines, no sustained suppression of CYP3A activity was observed with IL-2 (2-200 ng/ml) in hepatocyte cultures. However, in hepatocyte/Kupffer cell cocultures, a concentration-dependent 50 to 70% suppression of CYP3A activity was observed with IL-2 at 72 h. In summary, these data suggest that Kupffer cells are required to reconstitute the suppressive effects of IL-2 on CYP3A activity that are observed in vivo and that hepatocyte/Kupffer cell cocultures may provide a useful model for investigating mechanisms of CYP3A4 regulation by cytokines. Of particular relevance to certain hepatic diseases, these findings suggest potential mechanisms whereby cytokines released from infiltrating blood mononuclear cells might modulate intercellular signaling and controls on hepatocyte function by various cell types that reside in liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Sunman
- School of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmacotherapy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7360, USA
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105
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Ye H, Chen ZN, Mi L, Shang P, Qian AR, Jiang JL, Wang L, Xie L, Zhang M. Preparation and functional characterization of the monoclonal antibody HAb18Gedomab1. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2004; 12:2061-2065. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v12.i9.2061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To obtain mouse anti-human monoclonal antibodies against recombinant extracellular domain of HAb18G (HAb18Ged), and to analyze and identify its character and biological function.
METHODS: Balb/c mice were immunized with HAb18Ged. Hybridoma cell was screened by cell fusion and subcloning approach. The monoclonal antibody in the ascites was purified by ion exchange chromatography and was identified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis (FACs) and immunohistochemistry. Gelatin zymography and collagenase type I zymography were used to analyze the effects of HAb18Gedomab1 on activation and production of matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs); Matrigel-boyden degradation chamber method was used to evaluate the infiltrative cells ratio.
RESULTS: A hybridoma cell HAb18Gedomab1 stably secreting anti-HAb18Ged monoclonal antibody was obtained. The titer of this McAb in ascites was 1:106. The purity of the McAb was higher than 90%. The McAb belonged to IgG1 subclass. HAb18Gedomab1 showed high specificity and affinity to the antigen of FHCC-98 cell membrane and the tissue of hepatocellular carcinoma. The McAb induced production and activation of MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-1 and MMP-8 in mouse fibroblast cells (3T3), and also promoted the degradation of reconstituted basement membrane.
CONCLUSION: HAb18Gedomab1 can bind specifically to HAb18Ged protein. The McAb can also induce production and activation of MMPs and promote the degradation of reconstituted basement membrane.
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106
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Mihm S, Frese M, Meier V, Wietzke-Braun P, Scharf JG, Bartenschlager R, Ramadori G. Interferon type I gene expression in chronic hepatitis C. J Transl Med 2004; 84:1148-59. [PMID: 15208644 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3700135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) frequently causes chronic liver disease. The cause of viral persistence might be an inappropriate type I interferon (IFN) induction. To analyze the host's IFN response in chronic hepatitis C, we measured the transcription level of type I IFN genes as well as type I IFN-regulated genes in liver tissue and corresponding blood samples from patients with chronic hepatitis C, nonviral liver diseases, and a suspected but later excluded liver disease. Competitive and real-time RT-PCR assays were used to quantify the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of all known IFN-alpha, IFN-beta, and IFN-lambda genes and those of some IFN-regulated genes. We failed to detect any hepatic type I IFN mRNA induction, although liver tissue of chronic hepatitis C patients contained high numbers of some type I IFN-inducible effector mRNA molecules. Analysis of peripheral blood samples, however, showed a clear type I IFN induction. Parallel experiments employing HCV replicon cell lines revealed that replication of HCV RNA is not sufficient to induce any type I IFN nor to induce directly type I IFN-regulated genes such as MxA. In conclusion, our data provide evidence for the absence of an induction of type I IFN genes by HCV in the human liver and argue for a further development of type I IFN-based therapies.
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Aged
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/genetics
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/virology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral
- Hepacivirus/genetics
- Hepacivirus/growth & development
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/genetics
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/metabolism
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/pathology
- Hepatocytes/virology
- Humans
- Interferon Type I/genetics
- Interferon Type I/metabolism
- Liver/metabolism
- Liver/pathology
- Male
- Middle Aged
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Viral/analysis
- Replicon/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Transcription, Genetic
- Virus Replication/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Mihm
- Division of Gastroenterology and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, Germany.
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107
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Girard S, Vossman E, Misek DE, Podevin P, Hanash S, Bréchot C, Beretta L. Hepatitis C virus NS5A-regulated gene expression and signaling revealed via microarray and comparative promoter analyses. Hepatology 2004; 40:708-18. [PMID: 15349911 DOI: 10.1002/hep.20371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Most individuals exposed to hepatitis C virus (HCV) become chronically infected and are predisposed to liver disease. The mechanisms underlying viral persistence and disease progression are unknown. A role for the HCV NS5A protein in viral replication and interferon resistance has been demonstrated. To identify mechanisms affected by NS5A, we analyzed the gene expression of Huh7 cells expressing NS5A and control cells using oligonucleotide microarrays. A set of 103 genes (43 up-regulated, 60 down-regulated) whose expression was modified by at least twofold was selected. These included genes involved in cell adhesion and motility, calcium homeostasis, lipid transport and metabolism, and genes regulating immune responses. The finding of modulated expression of genes related to the TGF-beta superfamily and liver fibrosis was observed. Interestingly, both the tumor necrosis factor and lymphotoxin beta receptors were down-regulated by NS5A. Similar data were obtained following expression of four NS5A mutants obtained from patients who were not responsive or were sensitive to interferon therapy. Through computational analysis, we determined that 39 of the 43 genes up-regulated by NS5A contained one or more nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) binding sites within their promoter region. Using the Gibbs sampling method, we also detected enrichment of NF-kappaB consensus binding sites in the upstream regions of the 43 coexpressed genes. Activation of NF-kappaB by NS5A was subsequently demonstrated in luciferase reporter assays. Adenovirus-mediated expression of IkappaBalpha reverted NS5A mediated up-regulation of gene expression. In conclusion, this study suggests a role of NS5A and NF-kappaB in HCV pathogenesis and related liver disease. Supplementary material for this article can be found on the HEPATOLOGY website (http://interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0270-9139/suppmat/index.html).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Girard
- Department of Microbiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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108
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Utsunomiya T, Okamoto M, Hashimoto M, Yoshinaga K, Shiraishi T, Tanaka F, Mimori K, Inoue H, Watanabe G, Barnard GF, Mori M. A gene-expression signature can quantify the degree of hepatic fibrosis in the rat. J Hepatol 2004; 41:399-406. [PMID: 15336442 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2004.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2004] [Revised: 03/05/2004] [Accepted: 05/05/2004] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS/AIMS A more accurate and objective quantification of hepatic fibrosis would provide clinically useful information for the monitoring of chronic liver disease progression and therapy recommendation. METHODS Using a cDNA microarray of 14,814 clones, we analyzed the gene-expression profiles of fibrotic livers in a rat model. RESULTS We identified 750 up- and 345 down-regulated genes by combining a signal-to-noise score and a random permutation test (P<0.01). The functions of these genes provided insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms of both structural remodeling and functional deficits in cirrhosis. To quantify the extent of liver fibrosis, we have generated for the first time a 'genetic fibrosis index' based on gene-expression profiling of 95 genes by combining a Pearson correlation coefficient and a 'leave-one-out' cross-validation procedure. This technique based on a supervised learning analysis correctly quantified the various degrees of fibrosis in both 20 training samples (R(2)=0.829, P<0.001) and 6 test samples (R(2)=0.822, P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Our method will assist researchers in identifying rational targets for intervention and might help clinicians to objectively monitor the severity of liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohru Utsunomiya
- Department of Surgery, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Tsurumihara 4546, Beppu 874-0838, Japan
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109
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Chen Ban K, Singh H, Krishnan R, Fong Seow H. Comparison of the expression of beta-catenin in hepatocellular carcinoma in areas with high and low levels of exposure to aflatoxin B1. J Surg Oncol 2004; 86:157-63. [PMID: 15170655 DOI: 10.1002/jso.20051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Previous studies showed that the frequency of beta-catenin mutation was different in mice when induced by different chemicals. The aim of this study is to compare the expression of beta-catenin and p53 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) from areas with exposure to high and low levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). METHODS Thirty-five and twenty HCC samples from Guangxi and Malaysia, respectively, were studied. The expression of beta-catenin and p53 was determined by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS The overexpression of beta-catenin was detected in 65.7% of HCC tissues and 37.1% in adjacent liver tissues samples from Guangxi, China. Similarly, overexpression of beta-catenin was also detected in 60.0% of HCC tissues and in 35.0% of adjacent liver tissues samples from Malaysia. The overexpression of p53 was detected in 42.9% of HCC specimens from Guangxi and in 25.0% of HCC specimens from Malaysia. There was a relationship between the expression of beta-catenin and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in the adjacent liver tissues in Guangxi, and between the expression of beta-catenin and p53 in HCC tissues in Malaysia. CONCLUSIONS The differences in the exposure to AFB1 did not affect the overexpression of beta-catenin in the development of HBV-associated HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Chen Ban
- Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
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110
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Vozenin-Brotons MC, Milliat F, Linard C, Strup C, François A, Sabourin JC, Lasser P, Lusinchi A, Deutsch E, Girinsky T, Aigueperse J, Bourhis J, Mathé D. Gene expression profile in human late radiation enteritis obtained by high-density cDNA array hybridization. Radiat Res 2004; 161:299-311. [PMID: 14982484 DOI: 10.1667/rr3128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Late radiation enteritis is a sequela of radiation therapy to the abdomen. The pathogenic process is poorly understood at the molecular level. cDNA array analysis was used to provide new insights into the pathogenesis of this disorder. Gene profiles of six samples of fibrotic bowel tissue from patients with radiation enteritis and six healthy bowel tissue samples from patients without radiation enteritis were compared using membrane-based arrays containing 1314 cDNAs. Results were confirmed with real-time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. Array analysis identified many differentially expressed genes involved in fibrosis, stress response, inflammation, cell adhesion, intracellular and nuclear signaling, and metabolic pathways. Increased expression of genes coding for proteins involved in the composition and remodeling of the extracellular matrix, along with altered expression of genes involved in cell- to-cell and cell-to-matrix interactions, were observed mainly in radiation enteritis samples. Stress, inflammatory responses, and antioxidant metabolism were altered in radiation enteritis as were genes coding for recruitment of lymphocytes and macrophages. The Rho/HSP27 (HSPB1)/zyxin pathway, involved in tissue contraction and myofibroblast transdifferentiation, was also altered in radiation enteritis, suggesting that this pathway could be related to the fibrogenic process. Our results provide a global and integrated view of the alteration of gene expression associated with radiation enteritis. They suggest that radiation enteritis is a dynamic process involving constant remodeling of each structural component of the intestinal tissue, i.e. the mucosa, the mesenchyme, and blood vessels. Functional studies will be necessary to validate the present results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Catherine Vozenin-Brotons
- Laboratoire UPRES EA 27-10 Radiosensibilité des tumeurs et tissus sains, Institut Gustave Roussy/Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, Villejuif, France.
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111
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Iftikhar R, Kladney RD, Havlioglu N, Schmitt-Gräff A, Gusmirovic I, Solomon H, Luxon BA, Bacon BR, Fimmel CJ. Disease- and cell-specific expression of GP73 in human liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2004; 99:1087-95. [PMID: 15180730 DOI: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2004.30572.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES GP73, a Golgi membrane protein, is expressed at high levels in hepatocytes of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Its expression in other forms of liver disease has not been investigated. Therefore, we studied GP73 expression in patients with noncirrhotic liver disease. METHODS GP73 expression was detected immunohistochemically and by immunofluorescence microscopy in patients with acute hepatitis of various etiologies, autoimmune hepatitis, chronic HCV infection, and alcoholic liver disease. In order to quantitate hepatocyte GP73 expression, an immunohistochemical scoring system was developed, and validated by a direct comparison with GP73 protein levels as determined by Western blotting. RESULTS GP73 immunostaining and Western blotting data were highly correlated, demonstrating the suitability of the immunohistochemical scoring system to quantitate hepatocyte GP73 expression. Hepatocyte GP73 expression was increased in patients with acute and autoimmune hepatitis. Treatment of autoimmune hepatitis was associated with a normalization of GP73 expression, indicating that the initial upregulation was reversible. Increased levels of GP73 expression were also noted in chronic HCV infection and alcoholic liver disease. Under these conditions, GP73 levels were correlated with disease stage but not grade. GP73 immunoreactivity was occasionally detected in alpha-SMA-positive, sinusoidal lining cells, suggesting activated stellate cells as a potential source of GP73. CONCLUSIONS Hepatocyte GP73 levels are upregulated in acute hepatitis and during the progression of liver disease to cirrhosis. This expression pattern suggests the presence of two regulatory mechanisms, the first triggered during acute hepatocellular injury, the second during the progression of chronic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rehan Iftikhar
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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112
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Liu XJ, Yang L, Luo FM, Wu HB, Qiang Q. Association of differentially expressed genes with activation of mouse hepatic stellate cells by high-density cDNA mircoarray. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10:1600-7. [PMID: 15162533 PMCID: PMC4572762 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v10.i11.1600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM: To characterize the gene expression profiles associated with activation of mouse hepatic stellate cell (HSC) and provide novel insights into the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis.
METHODS: Mice HSCs were isolated from BALB/c mice by in situ perfusion of collagenase and pronase and single-step density Nycodenz gradient. Total RNA and mRNA of quiescent HSC and culture-activated HSC were extracted, quantified and reversely transcripted into cDNA. cDNAs from activated HSC were labeled with Cy5 and cDNAs from the quiescent HSC were labeled with Cy3, which were mixed with equal quantity, then hybridized with cDNA chips containing 4000 genes. Chips were washed, scanned and analyzed. Increased expression of 4 genes and decreased expression of one gene in activated HSC were confirmed by reverse transcription- polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).
RESULTS: A total of 835 differentially expressed genes were identified by cDNA chip between activated and quiescent HSC, and 465 genes were highly expressed in activated HSC. The differentially expressed genes included those involved in protein synthesis, cell-cycle regulation, apoptosis, and DNA damage response.
CONCLUSION: Many genes implicated in intrahepatic inflammation, fibrosis and proliferation were up-regulated in activated HSC. cDNA microarray is an effective technique in screening for differentially expressed genes between two different situations of the HSC. Further analysis of the obtained genes will help understand the molecular mechanism of activation of HSC and hepatic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jing Liu
- Laboratory of Department of Internal Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China.
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113
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Abstract
Intrahepatic hypoxia may occur during the inflammatory and fibrotic processes that characterize several chronic liver diseases of viral and autoimmune origin. As a consequence, new vascular structures are formed to provide oxygen and nutrients. Angiogenesis involves a tightly regulated network of cellular and molecular mechanisms that result in the formation of functional vessels. Of particular importance are growth factors, molecules involved in matrix remodeling and cell migration, and vessel maturation-related factors. In recent years, a number of studies have examined the expression and function of many pro- and antiangiogenic molecules in the setting of nontumoral chronic liver diseases and liver regeneration. This review examines the potential pathogenetic role of angiogenesis in the context of viral hepatitis, cirrhosis, autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, and alcoholic liver disease. The future perspectives for research in this field are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Medina
- Liver Unit, Hospital de la Princesa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
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114
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey W McCaughan
- Liver Immunobiology Laboratory, The AW Morrow Gastroenterology and Liver Centre, Centenary Research Institute, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, University of Sydney, Missenden Road, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia.
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115
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Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C virus infection is typically characterised by slowly progressive hepatic fibrosis. However, it is recognised that some patients do not progress while others rapidly develop significant fibrosis. Here, we review studies that have assessed factors that could influence this rate of fibrotic progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- G W McCaughan
- NHMRC Clinical Centre of Research Excellence in Outcomes for Chronic Liver Disease, Centenary Research Institute, University of Sydney, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Australia.
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116
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Seth D, Leo MA, McGuinness PH, Lieber CS, Brennan Y, Williams R, Wang XM, McCaughan GW, Gorrell MD, Haber PS. Gene expression profiling of alcoholic liver disease in the baboon (Papio hamadryas) and human liver. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2003; 163:2303-17. [PMID: 14633604 PMCID: PMC1892389 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63587-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/18/2003] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The molecular pathogenesis of alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is not well understood. Gene expression profiling has the potential to identify new pathways and altered molecules in ALD. Gene expression profiles of ALD in a baboon model and humans were compared using DNA arrays. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry were used for downstream analysis of array results. cDNA array analysis revealed differential expression of several novel genes and pathways in addition to genes known to be involved in ALD pathogenesis. Overall gene expression profiles were similar in both species, with a majority of genes involved with fibrogenesis and xenobiotic metabolism, as well as inflammation, oxidant stress, and cell signaling. Genes associated with stellate cell activation (collagens, matrix metalloproteinases, tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase) were up-regulated in humans. Decreased expression of several metallothioneins was unexpected. Fourteen molecules related to the annexin family were up-regulated, including annexin A1 and A2. Immunofluorescence revealed a marked overexpression of annexin A2 in proliferating bile duct cells, hepatocyte cell surface, and selective co-localization with CD14-positive cells in human ALD. The gene expression profile of ALD is dominated by alcohol metabolism and inflammation and differs from other liver diseases. Annexins may play a role in the progression of fibrosis in ALD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devanshi Seth
- Drug Health Services, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia.
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117
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Smith MW, Yue ZN, Korth MJ, Do HA, Boix L, Fausto N, Bruix J, Carithers RL, Katze MG. Hepatitis C virus and liver disease: global transcriptional profiling and identification of potential markers. Hepatology 2003; 38:1458-67. [PMID: 14647057 DOI: 10.1016/j.hep.2003.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Microarray analysis of RNA from hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected cirrhotic livers was performed to identify a gene expression signature of liver disease. The expression levels of approximately 13600 genes were analyzed using surgical material and core biopsy specimens from HCV-infected cirrhotic liver explants in comparison with reference samples of normal nondiseased liver. In addition, normal liver samples were compared with each other to determine normal physiologic variation in gene expression. A set of genes, including some associated with stress, acute-phase immune response, and hepatic stellate cell activation, had variable expression levels in normal livers. These genes were subtracted from the sets of genes differentially expressed in cirrhotic livers. To exclude cancer-related genes from our marker sets, we subtracted genes that also were expressed differentially in hepatocellular carcinomas. The resultant HCV- and liver disease-associated gene set provided a molecular portrait of several processes occurring in the HCV-infected liver. It included (1). genes expressed in activated lymphocytes infiltrating the cirrhotic liver, and activated liver macrophages; (2). genes involved in remodeling of extracellular matrix-cell and cell-cell interactions associated with cytoskeleton rearrangements; (3). genes related to the anti-apoptotic pathway of Bcl-2 signaling; and (4). genes involved with the interferon response and virus-host interactions. In conclusion, our microarray analysis identified several potential gene markers of HCV-associated liver disease and contributed to our rapidly expanding database of experiments describing HCV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria W Smith
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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118
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Shackel NA, McGuinness PH, Abbott CA, Gorrell MD, McCaughan GW. Novel differential gene expression in human cirrhosis detected by suppression subtractive hybridization. Hepatology 2003; 38:577-88. [PMID: 12939584 DOI: 10.1053/jhep.2003.50376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic molecular pathways in cirrhotic liver diseases such as hepatitis C virus (HCV), autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) are poorly characterized. Differentially expressed genes are often important in disease pathogenesis. Suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) is a genome-wide approach that enriches for differentially expressed mRNA transcripts. We aimed to make novel observations of differential gene expression in cirrhosis using SSH combined with quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Liver transcriptomes in HCV cirrhosis, AIH cirrhosis, PBC, and nondiseased liver tissue were examined by SSH. Resulting complementary DNA (cDNA) clones were rescreened for differential expression by dot-blot hybridization and then sequenced. Selected gene expression was quantified by real-time RT-PCR. Following SSH, 694 clones were rescreened for differential gene expression, of which 145 were sequenced and found to derive from 89 different genes. Seven clones were homologous only with expressed sequence tag (EST) sequences encoding genes having no known function. Up-regulated expression of four genes was confirmed by real-time RT-PCR: transmembrane 4 superfamily member 3 (tetraspanin CO-029) in all forms of cirrhosis, hedgehog interacting protein (HIP) in AIH cirrhosis and chitinase 3-like-1 (HC gp-39 or ykl-40) and arginine-glutamic acid repeat (RERE) in HCV cirrhosis. RERE gene polymorphisms and splice variants were observed in all tissues examined. Tetraspanin CO-029 up-regulation was primarily localized to bile ductular cells. In conclusion, novel observations of differential gene expression in human cirrhosis were made using SSH as the primary discovery tool. In particular, further studies of the RERE gene and its products in HCV associated liver disease are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Shackel
- A.W. Morrow Gastroenterology and Liver Centre, Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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119
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Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common cancer, but the third leading cause of cancer death, in the world, with more than 500,000 fatalities annually. The major etiology of HCC/liver cancer in people is hepatitis B virus (HBV), followed by hepatitis C virus infection (HCV), although nonviral causes also play a role in a minority of cases. Recent molecular studies confirm what was suspected: that HCC tissue from different individuals have many phenotypic differences. However, there are clearly features that unify HCC occurring in a background of viral hepatitis B and C. HCC due to HBV and HCV may be an indirect result of enhanced hepatocyte turnover that occurs in an effort to replace infected cells that have been immunologically attacked. Viral functions may also play a more direct role in mediating oncogenesis. This review considers the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in primary hepatocellular carcinoma, using a viral perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Block
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Jefferson Center for Biomedical Research of Thomas Jefferson University, 700 East Butler Ave., Doylestown, PA 18901, USA.
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120
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Betsuyaku T, Tanino M, Nagai K, Nasuhara Y, Nishimura M, Senior RM. Extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer is increased in smokers' bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168:222-7. [PMID: 12714350 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200301-103oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN), also called basigin, is present in the lung during development, but its expression in normal adult lung is minimal. Increases of EMMPRIN have been found in various forms of experimental lung injury. To determine whether EMMPRIN might be involved in alveolar injury/repair associated with smoking, we developed an ELISA for EMMPRIN and applied it to bronchoalveolar lavage fluids from never-smokers (n = 7), former smokers (n = 16), and current smokers (n = 58). The smoker groups included subjects with emphysema, as determined by high-resolution chest computed tomography. EMMPRIN levels were significantly elevated in current and former smokers (315 +/- 20 and 175 +/- 15 pg/ml SEM, respectively, compared with 31 +/- 7 pg/ml in never-smokers), but the EMMPRIN levels of smokers with emphysema were not different from smokers without emphysema. Immunohistochemistry of smokers' lung tissue showed EMMPRIN in bronchiolar epithelium and alveolar macrophages, but EMMPRIN mRNA in alveolar macrophages was not different between current and never-smokers. Matrix metalloproteinase-1 was also detectable in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from some smokers but not in never-smokers. These findings indicate that smoking is associated with increased intrapulmonary EMMPRIN. Whether EMMPRIN is involved in smoking-induced lung pathology remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Betsuyaku
- First Department of Medicine, Hokkaido University School of Medicine, N-15, W-7, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan.
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121
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Abstract
Insights provided by molecular biology, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy have increased our understanding of the pathogenesis and histopathology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and bile ductular proliferative reactions in a number of liver diseases. Human and chimpanzee liver infected with HCV showed viral-like particles (50 to 60 nm in diameter) as well as aggregates of short tubules that represent viral envelope material. Interactions of HCV core protein with apolipoproteins have a role in the pathogenesis of HCV-related steatosis. Pathologists should be aware of the spectrum of liver pathology described with the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) agents for the human immunodeficiency virus infection, which includes microvesicular steatosis and more severe hepatic injury with confluent necrosis. Proliferation of bile ductular structures is influenced by specific molecules and proteins (eg, the mucin-associated trefoil proteins and estrogens). The interplay between Notch receptors and Jagged 1 protein, as expressed by many cells of the liver (including bile duct epithelium) varies in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC). Cholangiocarcinoma does not appear to be a long-term complication of small duct PSC. The fatty liver diseases, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic, are characterized by production of reactive oxygen species that have detrimental effects such as opening mitochondrial permeability transition pores with resultant release of cytochrome c into the cytosol. Hepatocellular carcinoma is now a recognized late complication of NASH. The derivation of hepatic stem cells, the roles of HFE protein and other hepatic and intestinal transport proteins in hemochromatosis, and the histopathologic interpretive challenge of centrilobular lesions in posttransplant liver biopsies are among other recent studies considered in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay H Lefkowitch
- College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA.
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122
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Betsuyaku T, Kadomatsu K, Griffin GL, Muramatsu T, Senior RM. Increased basigin in bleomycin-induced lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2003; 28:600-6. [PMID: 12707016 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2002-0059oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Basigin is expressed in many tissues during development, including lung. It is also found on tumor cells and in wounds where it is thought to stimulate adjacent fibroblasts to produce matrix metalloproteinases. To investigate whether basigin might be expressed in fibro-inflammatory lung processes, we generated bleomycin-induced lung injury in mice. At 14 d after intratracheal bleomycin, we found basigin prominently in areas of fibrosis, alveolar macrophages, and bronchiolar epithelium, whereas it was only weakly present in bronchiolar epithelium in untreated mice. Western blots of radioimmunoprecipitation assay RIPA-insoluble fractions of bleomycin-treated lungs showed increased basigin compared with RIPA-insoluble fractions of lung from untreated mice. By quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, lung basigin mRNA was significantly increased 14 d after bleomycin, and by in situ hybridization, basigin mRNA was prominent in bronchiolar epithelium. Western blots of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) showed various forms of basigin after bleomycin that were not present in BALF from untreated lung. These results demonstrate that bleomycin-induced lung injury is associated with increased basigin expression in bronchiolar epithelium, deposition of basigin in fibrotic sites, and increased basigin in BALF. Accordingly, basigin may play a role in diffuse alveolar injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Betsuyaku
- Department of Medicine and Cell Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
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123
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Chilosi M, Poletti V, Zamò A, Lestani M, Montagna L, Piccoli P, Pedron S, Bertaso M, Scarpa A, Murer B, Cancellieri A, Maestro R, Semenzato G, Doglioni C. Aberrant Wnt/beta-catenin pathway activation in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2003; 162:1495-502. [PMID: 12707032 PMCID: PMC1851206 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64282-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 539] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the molecular events that may underpin dysfunctional repair processes that characterize idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis/usual interstitial pneumonia (IPF/UIP), we analyzed the expression patterns of beta-catenin on 20 IPF/UIP lung samples, together with two downstream target genes of Wnt signaling, cyclin-D1, and matrilysin. In 18 of 20 cases of IPF/UIP investigated on serial sections, nuclear beta-catenin immunoreactivity and abnormal levels of cyclin-D1 and matrilysin were demonstrated in proliferative bronchiolar lesions (basal-cell hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia, bronchiolization, honeycombing). The nature of these lesions was precisely defined using specific markers (DeltaN-p63, surfactant-protein-A, cytokeratin-5). Interestingly, nuclear beta-catenin accumulation was also demonstrated in fibroblast foci in most (16 of 20) IPF/UIP samples, often associated with bronchiolar lesions. Similar features were not observed in normal lung and other fibrosing pulmonary diseases (diffuse alveolar damage, organizing pneumonia, nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, desquamative interstitial pneumonia). Sequence analysis performed on DNA extracted from three samples of IPF/UIP did not reveal abnormalities affecting the beta-catenin gene. On the basis of these findings new models for IPF/UIP pathogenesis can be hypothesized, centered on the aberrant activation of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, with eventual triggering of divergent epithelial regeneration at bronchiolo-alveolar junctions and epithelial-mesenchymal-transitions, leading to severe and irreversible remodeling of the pulmonary tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Chilosi
- Department of Pathology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
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124
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Abstract
Primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies and has the fourth highest mortality rate worldwide. The major risk factors, including chronic infections with the hepatitis B or C virus, are exposure to dietary aflatoxin B1(AFB1), vinyl chloride, or alcohol consumption. Southern China and sub-Saharan Africa have the highest dietary AFB1 exposure, making it and hepatitis B virus (HBV) the major causes of cancer mortality in these geographic areas. Recent studies have discovered genetic and epigenetic changes involved in the molecular pathogenesis of HCC, including somatic mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene (TP53). AFB1 induces typical G:C to T:A transversions at the third base in codon 249 of p53. Chronic active hepatitis B and C (HCV) infection, and further inflammatory and oxyradical disorders including Wilson disease (WD) or hemochromatosis, generate reactive oxygen/nitrogen species that can damage DNA and mutate the p53 gene. The X gene of HBV (HBx) is the most common open reading frame integrated into the host genome in HCC. The integrated HBx is frequently mutated and has a diminished ability to function as a transcriptional cotransactivator and to activate the NF-kappa B pathway. However, the mutant HBx proteins still retain their ability to bind to and abrogate p53-mediated apoptosis. In summary, both viruses and chemicals are implicated in the etiology and molecular pathogenesis of HCC. The resultant molecular changes in the ras and Wnt signal-transduction pathways, and the p53 and Rb tumor suppressor pathways significantly contribute to liver carcinogenesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Staib
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4255, USA
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125
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Ansell SM, Ackerman MJ, Black JL, Roberts LR, Tefferi A. Primer on medical genomics. Part VI: Genomics and molecular genetics in clinical practice. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78:307-17. [PMID: 12630584 DOI: 10.4065/78.3.307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
An important milestone in medical science is the recent completion of a "working draft" of the human genome sequence. The identification of all human genes and their regulatory regions provides the framework to expedite our understanding of the molecular basis of disease. This advance has also formed the foundation for a broad range of genomic tools that can be applied to medical science. These developments in global gene and gene product analysis as well as targeted molecular genetic testing are destined to change the practice of modern medicine. Despite these exciting advances, many practicing clinicians perceive that the role of molecular genetics, especially that of genomics, is confined primarily to the research arena with little current clinical applicability. The aim of this article is to highlight advances in DNA/RNA-based methods of susceptibility screening, disease diagnosis and prognostication, and prediction of treatment outcome in regard to both drug toxicity and response as they apply to various areas of clinical medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Ansell
- Division of Hematology and Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn 55905, USA
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126
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Abstract
Alcohol is the most commonly abused substance in the United States, and alcohol abuse leads to alcoholic liver disease, a long recognized major public health concern. The high prevalence of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, along with the clinical observation that HCV infection is common in alcoholic patients presenting with liver disease, has directed attention to the interaction between alcohol and HCV infection. Clinical studies have identified alcohol use as an independent risk factor for progression of fibrosis in chronic HCV infection. Experimental evidence suggests additive inhibitory effects between HCV and alcohol on antiviral immune responses. In addition, specific pathways have been identified by which HCV core protein and alcohol interact to activate hepatocytes. Nonspecific inflammatory cell recruitment and proinflammatory cytokine activation have also been implicated in both alcohol- and HCV-induced liver diseases. Further investigation of these and other pathways by which alcohol and HCV interact should unravel the mechanisms that accelerate the progression of liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyongyi Szabo
- Hepatology and Liver Center, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 365 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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127
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Seth D, Gorrell MD, McGuinness PH, Leo MA, Lieber CS, McCaughan GW, Haber PS. SMART amplification maintains representation of relative gene expression: quantitative validation by real time PCR and application to studies of alcoholic liver disease in primates. JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL METHODS 2003; 55:53-66. [PMID: 12559588 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-022x(02)00177-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The small quantities of tissue available for most studies of human disease are a significant limitation for meaningful gene expression profiling. The Atlas Switch Mechanism At the 5' end of Reverse Transcript (SMART) probe amplification kit uses as little as 50 ng of total RNA to generate complex cDNA probes for DNA array and other analyses. However, the extent to which this attractive methodology maintains representation of relative gene expression has not been quantified. In this study, we demonstrate using real-time quantitative PCR analysis that the relative expression levels of a range of low- to high-abundance mRNAs are retained after SMART amplification independent of transcript abundance and full-length transcript, coding region and PCR product size. Using this technology, a mean amplification of 3800-fold was achieved in human liver samples, greatly enhancing the ability to perform replicate DNA array experiments. Probes generated with the SMART amplification method were used to detect increased expression of genes involved with inflammation, fibrosis, xenobiotic metabolism, immune function, oxidant stress and endothelium in liver from the baboon model of alcoholic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devanshi Seth
- Drug Health Services and A.W. Morrow Gastroenterology and Liver Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital and Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
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128
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Abstract
1. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in the allograft occurs in the setting of greater viral burden than in nontransplantation patients. 2. Infection of the allograft occurs early (within days and possibly during the intraoperative reperfusion phase). 3. Viral burden plateaus at 1 month posttransplantation and (in the absence of cholestatic HCV) peaks at the time of acute hepatitis (1 to 4 months). 4. Acute hepatitis is associated with immune cell infiltration and hepatocyte apoptosis. 5. Cholestatic HCV seems to be a disease of direct HCV cytopathic injury in the setting of extreme virus levels, an intrahepatic T helper subtype 2 cell (T(H)2)-like response, and lack of a specific HCV-directed response. 6. Chronic hepatitic HCV seems to behave at the molecular and/or cellular level in a similar fashion to the nontransplantation setting, with activation of T(H)1 inflammatory, profibrotic, and proapoptotic pathways. This process operates at a greater viral burden than pretransplantation and leads to more progressive disease. 7. More studies are required to examine and distinguish allograft rejection in the setting of HCV infection from HCV infection alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey W McCaughan
- AW Morrow Gastroenterology and Liver Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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129
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Laurence J. Potential roles for chemokine receptor CCR5 in the pathobiology of hepatitis C infection. Gastroenterology 2002; 122:2069-72. [PMID: 12055611 DOI: 10.1053/gast.2002.34101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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