101
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Barroso-Arévalo S, Fernández-Carrión E, Goyache J, Molero F, Puerta F, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM. High Load of Deformed Wing Virus and Varroa destructor Infestation Are Related to Weakness of Honey Bee Colonies in Southern Spain. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1331. [PMID: 31258521 PMCID: PMC6587608 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Many factors, including pathogens, contribute to the continuing losses of colonies of the honey bee Apis mellifera, which has led to steady population decline. In particular, colony losses have been linked to deformed wing virus (DWV) and the Varroa destructor mite. To clarify the potential role of these two pathogens in honey bee colony weakening and loss, we sampled colonies in southern Spain during a 21-month period and analyzed the samples for loads of four viruses and varroa. Loads of DWV and black queen cell virus as well as varroa infestation negatively correlated with colony vigor as measured using the subjective colony strength method. Logistic regression identified varroa and DWV as the main factors involved in colony weakening. Our results confirm that varroa and DWV play a key role in triggering colony weakening in southern Spain and provide evidence that experienced beekeepers’ and technicians’ assessments of colony vigor can accurately estimate colony strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Barroso-Arévalo
- Animal Health Department, VISAVET Centre, Veterinary School, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eduardo Fernández-Carrión
- Animal Health Department, VISAVET Centre, Veterinary School, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Joaquín Goyache
- Animal Health Department, VISAVET Centre, Veterinary School, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Molero
- Apicultural Reference Center in Andalusia (CERA), Andalusia, Spain
| | - Francisco Puerta
- Apicultural Reference Center in Andalusia (CERA), Andalusia, Spain
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102
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Giuffre C, Lubkin SR, Tarpy DR. Does viral load alter behavior of the bee parasite Varroa destructor? PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217975. [PMID: 31194803 PMCID: PMC6563969 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasive mite Varroa destructor has negatively impacted global apiculture, by being a vector for many viruses of the honey bee (Apis mellifera). Until now, most studies have been limited to varroa-honey bee or virus-honey bee interactions. The aim of this study is to bridge the important research gap of varroa-virus interactions by correlating varroa behavior with viral load. Ten-minute video recordings of 200 varroa mites were analyzed, and average speeds of the mites were compared to individual qPCR viral loads for deformed wing virus (DWV) and sacbrood virus (SBV). Statistically significant models reveal that colony, DWV, and SBV all might play a role in mite behavior, suggesting that the varroa-virus interaction needs to be an integral part of future studies on honey bee pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Giuffre
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, St. Mary’s College of Southern Maryland, St. Mary’s City, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sharon R. Lubkin
- Department of Mathematics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - David R. Tarpy
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
- W.M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
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103
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Abstract
Deformed wing virus (DWV) has become the most well-known, widespread, and intensively studied insect pathogen in the world. Although DWV was previously present in honeybee populations, the arrival and global spread of a new vector, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, has dramatically altered DWV epidemiology. DWV is now the most prevalent virus in honeybees, with a minimum average of 55% of colonies/apiaries infected across 32 countries. Additionally, DWV has been detected in 65 arthropod species spanning eight insect orders and three orders of Arachnida. Here, we describe the significant progress that has been made in elucidating the capsid structure of the virus, understanding its ever-expanding host range, and tracking the constantly evolving DWV genome and formation of recombinants. The construction of molecular clones, working with DWV in cell lines, and the development of immunohistochemistry methods will all help the community to move forward. Identifying the tissues in which DWV variants are replicating and understanding the impact of DWV in non-honeybee hosts are major new goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Martin
- School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Manchester M5 4WT, United Kingdom;
| | - Laura E Brettell
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Richmond, New South Wales 2751, Australia;
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104
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Rutter L, Carrillo-Tripp J, Bonning BC, Cook D, Toth AL, Dolezal AG. Transcriptomic responses to diet quality and viral infection in Apis mellifera. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:412. [PMID: 31117959 PMCID: PMC6532243 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5767-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parts of Europe and the United States have witnessed dramatic losses in commercially managed honey bees over the past decade to what is considered an unsustainable extent. The large-scale loss of bees has considerable implications for the agricultural economy because bees are one of the leading pollinators of numerous crops. Bee declines have been associated with several interactive factors. Recent studies suggest nutritional and pathogen stress can interactively contribute to bee physiological declines, but the molecular mechanisms underlying interactive effects remain unknown. In this study, we provide insight into this question by using RNA-sequencing to examine how monofloral diets and Israeli acute paralysis virus inoculation influence gene expression patterns in bees. RESULTS We found a considerable nutritional response, with almost 2000 transcripts changing with diet quality. The majority of these genes were over-represented for nutrient signaling (insulin resistance) and immune response (Notch signaling and JaK-STAT pathways). In our experimental conditions, the transcriptomic response to viral infection was fairly limited. We only found 43 transcripts to be differentially expressed, some with known immune functions (argonaute-2), transcriptional regulation, and muscle contraction. We created contrasts to explore whether protective mechanisms of good diet were due to direct effects on immune function (resistance) or indirect effects on energy availability (tolerance). A similar number of resistance and tolerance candidate differentially expressed genes were found, suggesting both processes may play significant roles in dietary buffering from pathogen infection. CONCLUSIONS Through transcriptional contrasts and functional enrichment analysis, we contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying feedbacks between nutrition and disease in bees. We also show that comparing results derived from combined analyses across multiple RNA-seq studies may allow researchers to identify transcriptomic patterns in bees that are concurrently less artificial and less noisy. This work underlines the merits of using data visualization techniques and multiple datasets to interpret RNA-sequencing studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Rutter
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, Iowa State University, Ames, 50011, IA, USA
| | - Jimena Carrillo-Tripp
- Department of Microbiology, Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, Ensenada, 22860, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Bryony C Bonning
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611, FL, USA
| | - Dianne Cook
- Econometrics and Business Statistics, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
| | - Amy L Toth
- Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, 50011, IA, USA.,Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, 50011, IA, USA
| | - Adam G Dolezal
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, 61801, IL, USA.
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105
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Maori E, Garbian Y, Kunik V, Mozes-Koch R, Malka O, Kalev H, Sabath N, Sela I, Shafir S. A Transmissible RNA Pathway in Honey Bees. Cell Rep 2019; 27:1949-1959.e6. [PMID: 31056439 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.04.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic RNAi, initiated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) ingestion, has been reported in diverse invertebrates, including honey bees, demonstrating environmental RNA uptake that undermines homologous gene expression. However, the question why any organism would take up RNA from the environment has remained largely unanswered. Here, we report on horizontal RNA flow among honey bees mediated by secretion and ingestion of worker and royal jelly diets. We demonstrate that transmission of jelly-secreted dsRNA to larvae is biologically active and triggers gene knockdown that lasts into adulthood. Worker and royal jellies harbor differential naturally occurring RNA populations. Jelly RNAs corresponded to honey bee protein-coding genes, transposable elements, and non-coding RNA, as well as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These results reveal an inherent property of honey bees to share RNA among individuals and generations. Our findings suggest a transmissible RNA pathway, playing a role in social immunity and signaling between members of the hive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Maori
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK.
| | - Yael Garbian
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Vered Kunik
- Bioinformatics Consulting, 12 Hailanot Street, Gat-Rimon 4992000, Israel
| | - Rita Mozes-Koch
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Osnat Malka
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Haim Kalev
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Niv Sabath
- Department of Biochemistry, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Ilan Sela
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Sharoni Shafir
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
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106
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Hsu HW, Chiu MC, Shih CJ, Matsuura K, Yang CCS. Apoptosis as a primary defense mechanism in response to viral infection in invasive fire ant Solenopsis invicta. Virology 2019; 531:255-259. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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107
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Dhaygude K, Johansson H, Kulmuni J, Sundström L. Genome organization and molecular characterization of the three Formica exsecta viruses-FeV1, FeV2 and FeV4. PeerJ 2019; 6:e6216. [PMID: 30809424 PMCID: PMC6387575 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the genome organization and molecular characterization of the three Formica exsecta viruses, along with ORF predictions, and functional annotation of genes. The Formica exsecta virus-4 (FeV4; GenBank ID: MF287670) is a newly discovered negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus representing the first identified member of order Mononegavirales in ants, whereas the Formica exsecta virus-1 (FeV1; GenBank ID: KF500001), and the Formica exsecta virus-2 (FeV2; GenBank ID: KF500002) are positive single-stranded RNA viruses initially identified (but not characterized) in our earlier study. The new virus FeV4 was found by re-analyzing data from a study published earlier. The Formica exsecta virus-4 genome is 9,866 bp in size, with an overall G + C content of 44.92%, and containing five predicted open reading frames (ORFs). Our bioinformatics analysis indicates that gaps are absent and the ORFs are complete, which based on our comparative genomics analysis suggests that the genomes are complete. Following the characterization, we validate virus infection for FeV1, FeV2 and FeV4 for the first time in field-collected worker ants. Some colonies were infected by multiple viruses, and the viruses were observed to infect all castes, and multiple life stages of workers and queens. Finally, highly similar viruses were expressed in adult workers and queens of six other Formica species: F. fusca, F. pressilabris, F. pratensis, F. aquilonia, F. truncorum and F. cinerea. This research indicates that viruses can be shared between ant species, but further studies on viral transmission are needed to understand viral infection pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kishor Dhaygude
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Helena Johansson
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jonna Kulmuni
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Liselotte Sundström
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Tvärminne Zoological Station, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Hanko, Finland
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108
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Kim JS, Wang AR, Kim MJ, Lee KH, Kim I. Single-nucleotide polymorphism markers in mitochondrial genomes for identifying Varroa destructor-resistant and -susceptible strains of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Mitochondrial DNA A DNA Mapp Seq Anal 2019; 30:477-489. [PMID: 30691316 DOI: 10.1080/24701394.2018.1551385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Mitogenome sequences have a high potential for possessing single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that can be used to identify different strains of an organism bred based on maternal lines. The European honey bee, Apis mellifera ligustica (Hymenoptera: Apidae), with a high-hygienic behaviour (HHB) against the external parasitic mite Varroa destructor has been bred for several years in Korea. To distinguish this strain from low-hygienic behaviour (LHB) strains, the complete mitogenome of the two strains were sequenced using next-generation sequencing techniques to detect SNPs. The two mitogenomes with lengths of 16,449 and 16,426 base pairs (bp) in the HHB and LHB strains, respectively, contained a typical set of genes (13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes, plus one non-coding region), exhibited similar-nucleotide compositions, and had an identical gene arrangement compared to other available A. mellifera mitogenomes. The major differences between the HHB and LHB strains included the length of the intergenic spacer sequences located at the COIII and trnG junction (88 vs. 70 bp) and ND4 and ND4L junction (45 vs. 33 bp) and the presence or absence of a duplicated sequence block (CTTTTTTAAAAAAATAAAAA) in the A + T-rich region. Comparison of the mitogenome sequences from the two strains of A. m. ligustica revealed 23 SNPs in 11 protein-coding genes which were confirmed by sequencing of 10 randomly selected individuals from each strain, indicating the usefulness of these SNP markers for identifying the HHB strain of A. m. ligustica. Therefore, mitogenome sequences are a promising genome source for detecting SNP markers, particularly those in inbred female lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Seok Kim
- a Department of Applied Biology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences , Chonnam National University , Gwangju , Republic of Korea
| | - Ah Rha Wang
- a Department of Applied Biology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences , Chonnam National University , Gwangju , Republic of Korea
| | - Min Jee Kim
- a Department of Applied Biology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences , Chonnam National University , Gwangju , Republic of Korea
| | - Keon Hee Lee
- a Department of Applied Biology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences , Chonnam National University , Gwangju , Republic of Korea
| | - Iksoo Kim
- a Department of Applied Biology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences , Chonnam National University , Gwangju , Republic of Korea
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109
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New Viruses from the Ectoparasite Mite Varroa destructor Infesting Apis mellifera and Apis cerana. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020094. [PMID: 30678330 PMCID: PMC6409542 DOI: 10.3390/v11020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Varroa destructor is an ectoparasitic mite of Asian or Eastern honeybees Apis cerana(A. cerana) which has become a serious threat to European subspecies of Western honeybees Apis mellifera (A. mellifera) within the last century. V.destructor and its vectored honeybee viruses became serious threats for colony survival. This is a short period for pathogen- and host-populations to adapt. To look for possible variation in the composition of viral populations we performed RNA metagenomic analysis of the Western honeybee subspecies A. m. ligustica, A. m.syriaca, A. m. intermissa, and A. cerana and their respective V. destructor mites. The analysis revealed two novel viruses: Varroa orthomyxovirus-1 (VOV-1) in A. mellifera and V. destructor and a Hubei like-virga virus-14 homolog in V. destructor. VOV-1 was more prevalent in V. destructor than in A. mellifera and we found evidence for viral replication in both hosts. Interestingly, we found differences in viral loads of A. cerana and their V. destructor, A. m. intermissa, and its V. destructor showed partial similarity, while A. m.ligustica and A. m.syriaca and their varroa where very similar. Deformed wing virus exhibited 82.20%, 99.20%, 97.90%, and 0.76% of total viral reads in A. m. ligustica, A. m. syriaca, A. m. intermissa, and A. cerana, respectively. This is the first report of a complete segmented-single-stranded negative-sense RNA virus genome in honeybees and V. destructor mites.
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110
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Murray EA, Burand J, Trikoz N, Schnabel J, Grab H, Danforth BN. Viral transmission in honey bees and native bees, supported by a global black queen cell virus phylogeny. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:972-983. [PMID: 30537211 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades, we have realized that honey bee viruses are not, in fact, exclusive to honey bees. The potential impact of Apis-affiliated viruses on native pollinators is prompting concern. Our research addresses the issue of virus crossover between honey bees and native bees foraging in the same localities. We measured the presence of black queen cell virus (BQCV), deformed wing virus (DWV) and sacbrood virus (SBV) in managed Apis mellifera (honey bees) and native Andrena spp. (subgenus Melandrena) bee populations in five commercial orchards. We identified viral presence across sites and bees and related these data to measures of bee community diversity. All viruses were found in both managed and native bees, and BQCV was the most common virus in each. To establish evidence for viral crossover between taxa, we undertook an additional examination of BQCV where 74 samples were sequenced and placed in a global phylogenic framework of hundreds of BQCV strains. We demonstrate pathogen sharing across managed honey bees and distantly related wild bees. This phylogenetic analysis contributes to growing evidence for host switching and places local incidence patterns in a worldwide context, revealing multispecies viral transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Burand
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Natalia Trikoz
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Julia Schnabel
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Heather Grab
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Bryan N Danforth
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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111
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Li J, Wang T, Evans JD, Rose R, Zhao Y, Li Z, Li J, Huang S, Heerman M, Rodríguez-García C, Banmekea O, Brister JR, Hatcher EL, Cao L, Hamilton M, Chen Y. The Phylogeny and Pathogenesis of Sacbrood Virus (SBV) Infection in European Honey Bees, Apis mellifera. Viruses 2019; 11:v11010061. [PMID: 30646581 PMCID: PMC6357158 DOI: 10.3390/v11010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA viruses that contain single-stranded RNA genomes of positive sense make up the largest group of pathogens infecting honey bees. Sacbrood virus (SBV) is one of the most widely distributed honey bee viruses and infects the larvae of honey bees, resulting in failure to pupate and death. Among all of the viruses infecting honey bees, SBV has the greatest number of complete genomes isolated from both European honey bees Apis mellifera and Asian honey bees A. cerana worldwide. To enhance our understanding of the evolution and pathogenicity of SBV, in this study, we present the first report of whole genome sequences of two U.S. strains of SBV. The complete genome sequences of the two U.S. SBV strains were deposited in GenBank under accession numbers: MG545286.1 and MG545287.1. Both SBV strains show the typical genomic features of the Iflaviridae family. The phylogenetic analysis of the single polyprotein coding region of the U.S. strains, and other GenBank SBV submissions revealed that SBV strains split into two distinct lineages, possibly reflecting host affiliation. The phylogenetic analysis based on the 5′UTR revealed a monophyletic clade with the deep parts of the tree occupied by SBV strains from both A. cerane and A. mellifera, and the tips of branches of the tree occupied by SBV strains from A. mellifera. The study of the cold stress on the pathogenesis of the SBV infection showed that cold stress could have profound effects on sacbrood disease severity manifested by increased mortality of infected larvae. This result suggests that the high prevalence of sacbrood disease in early spring may be due to the fluctuating temperatures during the season. This study will contribute to a better understanding of the evolution and pathogenesis of SBV infection in honey bees, and have important epidemiological relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghong Li
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Tingyun Wang
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
| | - Robyn Rose
- USDA APHIS, National Program Manager for Honey Bee Health, Riverdale, MD 20737, USA.
| | - Yazhou Zhao
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Zhiguo Li
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Jilian Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Shaokang Huang
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Matthew Heerman
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
| | - Cristina Rodríguez-García
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental, IRIAF, Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain.
| | - Olubukola Banmekea
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
| | - J Rodney Brister
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA.
| | - Eneida L Hatcher
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA.
| | - Lianfei Cao
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
- Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China.
| | - Michele Hamilton
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
| | - Yanping Chen
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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112
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Abstract
Bees-including solitary, social, wild, and managed species-are key pollinators of flowering plant species, including nearly three-quarters of global food crops. Their ecological importance, coupled with increased annual losses of managed honey bees and declines in populations of key wild species, has focused attention on the factors that adversely affect bee health, including viral pathogens. Genomic approaches have dramatically expanded understanding of the diversity of viruses that infect bees, the complexity of their transmission routes-including intergenus transmission-and the diversity of strategies bees have evolved to combat virus infections, with RNA-mediated responses playing a prominent role. Moreover, the impacts of viruses on their hosts are exacerbated by the other major stressors bee populations face, including parasites, poor nutrition, and exposure to chemicals. Unraveling the complex relationships between viruses and their bee hosts will lead to improved understanding of viral ecology and management strategies that support better bee health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Grozinger
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA;
| | - Michelle L Flenniken
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology and Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA;
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113
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Li J, Heerman MC, Evans JD, Rose R, Li W, Rodríguez-García C, DeGrandi-Hoffman G, Zhao Y, Huang S, Li Z, Hamilton M, Chen Y. Pollen reverses decreased lifespan, altered nutritional metabolism, and suppressed immunity in honey bees (Apis mellifera) treated with antibiotics. J Exp Biol 2019; 222:jeb.202077. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.202077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Nutrition is involved in regulating multiple aspects of honeybee biology such as caste, immunity, lifespan, growth and behavioral development. Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a major pathogenic factor which threatens honeybee populations, and its replication is regulated by nutrition status and immune responses of honeybees. The alimentary canal of the honeybee is home to a diverse microbial community that provides essential nutrients and serves to bolster immune responses. However, to what extent gut bacteria affect honeybee nutrition metabolism and immunity with respect to DWV has not been investigated fully. In this study, newly emerged worker bees were subjected to four diets that contained 1) pollen, 2) pollen and antibiotics, 3) neither pollen nor antibiotics, 4) antibiotics alone. The expression level of two nutrition genes target of rapamycin (tor) and insulin like peptide (ilp1), one nutritional marker gene vitellogenin (vg), five major royal jelly proteins genes (mrjp1-5), one antimicrobial peptide regulating gene relish (rel), and DWV virus titer and its replication intermediate, negative RNA strand, were determined by qRT-PCR from the honeybees after 7 days post antibiotic treatment. Additionally, honeybee head weight and survival rate were measured. We observed that antibiotics decreased the expression of tor and rel, increased DWV titer and its replication activity. Expression of ilp1, five mrjps, vg, and honeybee head weight were also reduced compared to bees on a pollen diet. Antibiotics also caused a significant drop in survivorship, which could be rescued by addition of pollen to diets. Of importance, pollen could partially rescue the loss of vg and mrjp2 while also increasing head weight of antibiotic-treated bees. Our results illuminate the roles of bacteria in honeybee nutrition, metabolism, and immunity; which confer the capability of inhibiting virus replication, extending honeybee lifespan, and improving overall health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghong Li
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Matthew C. Heerman
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Jay D. Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Robyn Rose
- USDA APHIS, Plant Protection and Quarantine, 4700 River Rd, Riverdale, MD 20737, USA
| | - Wenfeng Li
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | | | | | - Yazhou Zhao
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Shaokang Huang
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Zhiguo Li
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Michele Hamilton
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Yanping Chen
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Bldg. 306, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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114
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Wintermantel D, Locke B, Andersson GKS, Semberg E, Forsgren E, Osterman J, Rahbek Pedersen T, Bommarco R, Smith HG, Rundlöf M, de Miranda JR. Field-level clothianidin exposure affects bumblebees but generally not their pathogens. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5446. [PMID: 30575755 PMCID: PMC6303475 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07914-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonicotinoids are implicated in bee declines and laboratory studies imply that they impair the bee immune system, thereby precipitating a rise in pathogen levels. To establish whether such synergisms reduce bee performance in real-world agricultural landscapes, we analysed the microbial composition of the bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) samples from our recent landscape study on the impacts of field-level clothianidin exposure. We related clothianidin exposure and microbial composition to both individual- and colony-level performance parameters, to better understand the direct and indirect mechanistic effects of neonicotinoid exposure on bumblebees. We show that exposure to clothianidin from seed-coated oilseed rape reduces bumblebee size and numbers, particularly of reproductives. However, exposure does not affect the levels of non-pathogenic bacteria or viruses, nor induce rises in the levels or virulence of intracellular parasites. We conclude that field exposure to the neonicotinoid clothianidin affects bumblebee performance but generally not their pathogenic or beneficial microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitry Wintermantel
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden.
- INRA, UE 1255 APIS, Le Magneraud, 17700, Surgères, France.
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, UMR 7372, CNRS & Université de La Rochelle, 79360, Villiers-en-Bois, France.
| | - Barbara Locke
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Georg K S Andersson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
| | - Emilia Semberg
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Eva Forsgren
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Julia Osterman
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
- Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Biology, 06120, Halle, Germany
- Department of Computational Landscape Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ Leipzig, ESCALATE, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Riccardo Bommarco
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Henrik G Smith
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
| | - Maj Rundlöf
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Joachim R de Miranda
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
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115
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Cholleti H, Berg M, Hayer J, Blomström AL. Vector-borne viruses and their detection by viral metagenomics. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2018.1553465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Harindranath Cholleti
- Section of Virology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikael Berg
- Section of Virology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Juliette Hayer
- SLU Global Bioinformatics Centre, Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anne-Lie Blomström
- Section of Virology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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116
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Cirkovic D, Stevanovic J, Glavinic U, Aleksic N, Djuric S, Aleksic J, Stanimirovic Z. Honey bee viruses in Serbian colonies of different strength. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5887. [PMID: 30479890 PMCID: PMC6240340 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Protection of honey bees is of great economic importance because of their role in pollination. Crucial steps towards this goal are epidemiological surveys of pathogens connected with honey bee losses. In this study deformed wing virus (DWV), chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) and sacbrood virus (SBV) were investigated in colonies of different strength located in five regions of Serbia. The relationship between colony strength and virus occurrence/infection intensity were assessed as well as the genetic relationship between virus sequences from Serbia and worldwide. Real-time RT-PCR analyses detected at least one virus in 87.33% of colonies. Single infection was found in 28.67% colonies (21.33%, 4.00%, 2.67% and 0.67% in cases of DWV, ABPV, SBV and CBPV, respectively). In the majority of colonies (58.66%) more than one virus was found. The most prevalent was DWV (74%), followed by ABPV, SBV and CBPV (49.30%, 24.00% and 6.70%, respectively). Except for DWV, the prevalence of the remaining three viruses significantly varied between the regions. No significant differences were found between colony strength and either (i) the prevalence of DWV, ABPV, SBV, CBPV and their combinations, or (ii) DWV infection levels. The sequences of honey bee viruses obtained from bees in Serbia were 93-99% identical with those deposited in GenBank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragan Cirkovic
- Department of Chemical and Technological Sciences, State University of Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia
| | - Jevrosima Stevanovic
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Uros Glavinic
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nevenka Aleksic
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Spomenka Djuric
- Department of Economics and Statistics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Aleksic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Beograd, Serbia
| | - Zoran Stanimirovic
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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117
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Alger SA, Burnham PA, Lamas ZS, Brody AK, Richardson LL. Home sick: impacts of migratory beekeeping on honey bee ( Apis mellifera) pests, pathogens, and colony size. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5812. [PMID: 30405967 PMCID: PMC6216951 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey bees are important pollinators of agricultural crops and the dramatic losses of honey bee colonies have risen to a level of international concern. Potential contributors to such losses include pesticide exposure, lack of floral resources and parasites and pathogens. The damaging effects of all of these may be exacerbated by apicultural practices. To meet the pollination demand of US crops, bees are transported to areas of high pollination demand throughout the year. Compared to stationary colonies, risk of parasitism and infectious disease may be greater for migratory bees than those that remain in a single location, although this has not been experimentally established. Here, we conducted a manipulative experiment to test whether viral pathogen and parasite loads increase as a result of colonies being transported for pollination of a major US crop, California almonds. We also tested if they subsequently transmit those diseases to stationary colonies upon return to their home apiaries. Colonies started with equivalent numbers of bees, however migratory colonies returned with fewer bees compared to stationary colonies and this difference remained one month later. Migratory colonies returned with higher black queen cell virus loads than stationary colonies, but loads were similar between groups one month later. Colonies exposed to migratory bees experienced a greater increase of deformed wing virus prevalence and load compared to the isolated group. The three groups had similar infestations of Varroa mites upon return of the migratory colonies. However, one month later, mite loads in migratory colonies were significantly lower compared to the other groups, possibly because of lower number of host bees. Our study demonstrates that migratory pollination practices has varying health effects for honey bee colonies. Further research is necessary to clarify how migratory pollination practices influence the disease dynamics of honey bee diseases we describe here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha A Alger
- Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - P Alexander Burnham
- Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - Zachary S Lamas
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Alison K Brody
- Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - Leif L Richardson
- Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America.,Gund Institute for Environment, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
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118
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Next-generation sequence data demonstrate several pathogenic bee viruses in Middle East and African honey bee subspecies (Apis mellifera syriaca, Apis mellifera intermissa) as well as their cohabiting pathogenic mites (Varroa destructor). Virus Genes 2018; 54:694-705. [PMID: 30116966 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-018-1593-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
RNA viruses are associated with honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony losses in many parts of the world. Their consequences may be exacerbated when the ectoparasite mite Varroa destructor is present in hives. While evidence of pathogenic, viral-induced disease is abundant in western honey bees (Apis mellifera mellifera) from many parts of the world, less information exists regarding the pathogen load of Apis mellifera syriaca and Apis mellifera intermissa, honey bees from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that play substantial roles in regional beekeeping. Here, we used next-generation sequencing to evaluate the viral populations of these subspecies and their associated mites. We found that both A. m. syriaca and A. m. intermissa, as well as the Varroa mites infecting their colonies, bear a suite of RNA viruses including major pathogenic viruses like Deformed wing virus, Acute bee paralysis virus, Black queen cell virus and Sacbrood virus, and less common viruses (e.g., bee Macula-like virus and Apis mellifera filamentous virus). The two native honey bee MENA subspecies have acquired different but overlapping suites of pathogens, which also differ, but overlap, with the suites detected in the mites. The presence of plant viruses suggests that they were acquired from foraging for pollen and nectar. Phylogenetic analysis of the above common pathogenic RNA viruses showed unexpected genetic relationships with other known strains, indicative of import to MENA from outside of the region. Our findings indicate that it is important to carefully consider the impact of the movement of queens and mobile colonies, and the effects such movement have, on the transmission of disease.
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119
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McMenamin AJ, Daughenbaugh KF, Parekh F, Pizzorno MC, Flenniken ML. Honey Bee and Bumble Bee Antiviral Defense. Viruses 2018; 10:E395. [PMID: 30060518 PMCID: PMC6115922 DOI: 10.3390/v10080395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bees are important plant pollinators in both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Managed and wild bees have experienced high average annual colony losses, population declines, and local extinctions in many geographic regions. Multiple factors, including virus infections, impact bee health and longevity. The majority of bee-infecting viruses are positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses. Bee-infecting viruses often cause asymptomatic infections but may also cause paralysis, deformity or death. The severity of infection is governed by bee host immune responses and influenced by additional biotic and abiotic factors. Herein, we highlight studies that have contributed to the current understanding of antiviral defense in bees, including the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera), the Eastern honey bee (Apis cerana) and bumble bee species (Bombus spp.). Bee antiviral defense mechanisms include RNA interference (RNAi), endocytosis, melanization, encapsulation, autophagy and conserved immune pathways including Jak/STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription), JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase), MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinases) and the NF-κB mediated Toll and Imd (immune deficiency) pathways. Studies in Dipteran insects, including the model organism Drosophila melanogaster and pathogen-transmitting mosquitos, provide the framework for understanding bee antiviral defense. However, there are notable differences such as the more prominent role of a non-sequence specific, dsRNA-triggered, virus limiting response in honey bees and bumble bees. This virus-limiting response in bees is akin to pathways in a range of organisms including other invertebrates (i.e., oysters, shrimp and sand flies), as well as the mammalian interferon response. Current and future research aimed at elucidating bee antiviral defense mechanisms may lead to development of strategies that mitigate bee losses, while expanding our understanding of insect antiviral defense and the potential evolutionary relationship between sociality and immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J McMenamin
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Center for Pollinator Health, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
| | - Katie F Daughenbaugh
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Center for Pollinator Health, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
| | - Fenali Parekh
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Center for Pollinator Health, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
| | - Marie C Pizzorno
- Biology Department, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837, USA.
| | - Michelle L Flenniken
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
- Center for Pollinator Health, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
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120
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Diao Q, Li B, Zhao H, Wu Y, Guo R, Dai P, Chen D, Wang Q, Hou C. Enhancement of chronic bee paralysis virus levels in honeybees acute exposed to imidacloprid: A Chinese case study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 630:487-494. [PMID: 29499530 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Though honeybee populations have not yet been reported to be largely lost in China, many stressors that affect the health of honeybees have been confirmed. Honeybees inevitably come into contact with environmental stressors that are not intended to target honeybees, such as pesticides. Although large-scale losses of honeybee colonies are thought to be associated with viruses, these viruses usually lead to covert infections and to not cause acute damage if the bees do not encounter outside stressors. To reveal the potential relationship between acute pesticides and viruses, we applied different doses of imidacloprid to adult bees that were primarily infected with low levels (4.3×105 genome copies) of chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) to observe whether the acute oral toxicity of imidacloprid was able to elevate the level of CBPV. Here, we found that the titer of CBPV was significantly elevated in adult bees after 96h of acute treatment with imidacloprid at the highest dose 66.9ng/bee compared with other treatments and controls. Our study provides clear evidence that exposure to acute high doses of imidacloprid in honeybees persistently infected by CBPV can exert a remarkably negative effect on honeybee survival. These results imply that acute environmental stressors might be one of the major accelerators causing rapid viral replication, which may progress to cause mass proliferation and dissemination and lead to colony decline. The present study will be useful for better understanding the harm caused by this pesticide, especially regarding how honeybee tolerance to the viral infection might be altered by acute pesticide exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyun Diao
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Beibei Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Hongxia Zhao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangzhou 510260, PR China
| | - Yanyan Wu
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Rui Guo
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, PR China
| | - Pingli Dai
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Dafu Chen
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, PR China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Chunsheng Hou
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, PR China.
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121
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Galbraith DA, Fuller ZL, Ray AM, Brockmann A, Frazier M, Gikungu MW, Martinez JFI, Kapheim KM, Kerby JT, Kocher SD, Losyev O, Muli E, Patch HM, Rosa C, Sakamoto JM, Stanley S, Vaudo AD, Grozinger CM. Investigating the viral ecology of global bee communities with high-throughput metagenomics. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8879. [PMID: 29891995 PMCID: PMC5995813 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27164-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Bee viral ecology is a fascinating emerging area of research: viruses exert a range of effects on their hosts, exacerbate impacts of other environmental stressors, and, importantly, are readily shared across multiple bee species in a community. However, our understanding of bee viral communities is limited, as it is primarily derived from studies of North American and European Apis mellifera populations. Here, we examined viruses in populations of A. mellifera and 11 other bee species from 9 countries, across 4 continents and Oceania. We developed a novel pipeline to rapidly and inexpensively screen for bee viruses. This pipeline includes purification of encapsulated RNA/DNA viruses, sequence-independent amplification, high throughput sequencing, integrated assembly of contigs, and filtering to identify contigs specifically corresponding to viral sequences. We identified sequences for (+)ssRNA, (−)ssRNA, dsRNA, and ssDNA viruses. Overall, we found 127 contigs corresponding to novel viruses (i.e. previously not observed in bees), with 27 represented by >0.1% of the reads in a given sample, and 7 contained an RdRp or replicase sequence which could be used for robust phylogenetic analysis. This study provides a sequence-independent pipeline for viral metagenomics analysis, and greatly expands our understanding of the diversity of viruses found in bee communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Galbraith
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
| | - Zachary L Fuller
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Allyson M Ray
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Axel Brockmann
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India
| | - Maryann Frazier
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Mary W Gikungu
- Department of Zoology, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Karen M Kapheim
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Jeffrey T Kerby
- Neukom Institute for Computational Science, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Sarah D Kocher
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Oleksiy Losyev
- Department of Beekeeping, The National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Elliud Muli
- The International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Harland M Patch
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Cristina Rosa
- Department of Plant Pathology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Joyce M Sakamoto
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Scott Stanley
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Pennsylvania State University Children's Hospital, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Anthony D Vaudo
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Christina M Grozinger
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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122
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McMahon DP, Wilfert L, Paxton RJ, Brown MJF. Emerging Viruses in Bees: From Molecules to Ecology. Adv Virus Res 2018; 101:251-291. [PMID: 29908591 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases arise as a result of novel interactions between populations of hosts and pathogens, and can threaten the health and wellbeing of the entire spectrum of biodiversity. Bees and their viruses are a case in point. However, detailed knowledge of the ecological factors and evolutionary forces that drive disease emergence in bees and other host-pathogen communities is surprisingly lacking. In this review, we build on the fundamental insight that viruses evolve and adapt over timescales that overlap with host ecology. At the same time, we integrate the role of host community ecology, including community structure and composition, biodiversity loss, and human-driven disturbance, all of which represent significant factors in bee virus ecology. Both of these evolutionary and ecological perspectives represent major advances but, in most cases, it remains unclear how evolutionary forces actually operate across different biological scales (e.g., from cell to ecosystem). We present a molecule-to-ecology framework to help address these issues, emphasizing the role of molecular mechanisms as key bottom-up drivers of change at higher ecological scales. We consider the bee-virus system to be an ideal one in which to apply this framework. Unlike many other animal models, bees constitute a well characterized and accessible multispecies assemblage, whose populations and interspecific interactions can be experimentally manipulated and monitored in high resolution across space and time to provide robust tests of prevailing theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino P McMahon
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Department for Materials and Environment, BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Lena Wilfert
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Robert J Paxton
- Institute for Biology, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany; German Centre for integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mark J F Brown
- School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, United Kingdom
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Mondet F, Rau A, Klopp C, Rohmer M, Severac D, Le Conte Y, Alaux C. Transcriptome profiling of the honeybee parasite Varroa destructor provides new biological insights into the mite adult life cycle. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:328. [PMID: 29728057 PMCID: PMC5936029 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-4668-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The parasite Varroa destructor represents a significant threat to honeybee colonies. Indeed, development of Varroa infestation within colonies, if left untreated, often leads to the death of the colony. Although its impact on bees has been extensively studied, less is known about its biology and the functional processes governing its adult life cycle and adaptation to its host. We therefore developed a full life cycle transcriptomic catalogue in adult Varroa females and included pairwise comparisons with males, artificially-reared and non-reproducing females (10 life cycle stages and conditions in total). Results Extensive remodeling of the Varroa transcriptome was observed, with an upregulation of energetic and chitin metabolic processes during the initial and final phases of the life cycle (e.g. phoretic and post-oviposition stages), whereas during reproductive stages in brood cells genes showing functions related to transcriptional regulation were overexpressed. Several neurotransmitter and neuropeptide receptors involved in behavioural regulation, as well as active compounds of salivary glands, were also expressed at a higher level outside the reproductive stages. No difference was detected between artificially-reared phoretic females and their counterparts in colonies, or between females who failed to reproduce and females who successfully reproduced, indicating that phoretic individuals can be reared outside host colonies without impacting their physiology and that mechanisms underlying reproductive failure occur before oogenesis. Conclusions We discuss how these new findings reveal the remarkable adaptation of Varroa to its host biology and notably to the switch from living on adults to reproducing in sealed brood cells. By spanning the entire adult life cycle, our work captures the dynamic changes in the parasite gene expression and serves as a unique resource for deciphering Varroa biology and identifying new targets for mite control. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4668-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Mondet
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, 84914, Avignon, France.
| | - Andrea Rau
- INRA, UMR 1313 GABI Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Christophe Klopp
- INRA, Genotoul Bioinfo, UR 875 MIAT Mathématiques et Informatique Appliquées de Toulouse, 31326, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Marine Rohmer
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, UMR 5203 CNRS, U661 INSERM, Universités Montpellier 1 & 2, 34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Dany Severac
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, UMR 5203 CNRS, U661 INSERM, Universités Montpellier 1 & 2, 34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Yves Le Conte
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, 84914, Avignon, France
| | - Cedric Alaux
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, 84914, Avignon, France.
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124
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Jones RAC. Plant and Insect Viruses in Managed and Natural Environments: Novel and Neglected Transmission Pathways. Adv Virus Res 2018; 101:149-187. [PMID: 29908589 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The capacity to spread by diverse transmission pathways enhances a virus' ability to spread effectively and survive when circumstances change. This review aims to improve understanding of how plant and insect viruses spread through natural and managed environments by drawing attention to 12 novel or neglected virus transmission pathways whose contribution is underestimated. For plant viruses, the pathways reviewed are vertical and horizontal transmission via pollen, and horizontal transmission by parasitic plants, natural root grafts, wind-mediated contact, chewing insects, and contaminated water or soil. For insect viruses, they are transmission by plants serving as passive "vectors," arthropod vectors, and contamination of pollen and nectar. Based on current understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics of virus spread, the likely roles of each pathway in creating new primary infection foci, enlarging previously existing infection foci, and promoting generalized virus spread are estimated. All pathways except transmission via parasitic plants, root grafts, and wind-mediated contact transmission are likely to produce new primary infection foci. All 12 pathways have the capability to enlarge existing infection foci, but only to a limited extent when spread occurs via virus-contaminated soil or vertical pollen transmission. All pathways except those via parasitic plant, root graft, contaminated soil, and vertical pollen transmission likely contribute to generalized virus spread, but to different extents. For worst-case scenarios, where mixed populations of host species occur under optimal virus spread conditions, the risk that host species jumps or virus emergence events will arise is estimated to be "high" for all four insect virus pathways considered, and, "very high" or "moderate" for plant viruses transmitted by parasitic plant and root graft pathways, respectively. To establish full understanding of virus spread and thereby optimize effective virus disease management, it is important to examine all transmission pathways potentially involved, regardless of whether the virus' ecology is already presumed to be well understood or otherwise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger A C Jones
- Institute of Agriculture, Faculty of Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia; Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, South Perth, WA, Australia.
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125
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O'Neal ST, Anderson TD, Wu-Smart JY. Interactions between pesticides and pathogen susceptibility in honey bees. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2018; 26:57-62. [PMID: 29764661 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
There exist a variety of factors that negatively impact the health and survival of managed honey bee colonies, including the spread of parasites and pathogens, loss of habitat, reduced availability or quality of food resources, climate change, poor queen quality, changing cultural and commercial beekeeping practices, as well as exposure to agricultural and apicultural pesticides both in the field and in the hive. These factors are often closely intertwined, and it is unlikely that a single stressor is driving colony losses. There is a growing consensus, however, that increasing prevalence of parasites and pathogens are among the most significant threats to managed bee colonies. Unfortunately, improper management of hives by beekeepers may exacerbate parasite populations and disease transmission. Furthermore, research continues to accumulate that describes the complex and largely harmful interactions that exist between pesticide exposure and bee immunity. This brief review summarizes our progress in understanding the impact of pesticide exposure on bees at the individual, colony, and community level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott T O'Neal
- Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Troy D Anderson
- Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Judy Y Wu-Smart
- Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA.
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126
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Dolezal AG, Toth AL. Feedbacks between nutrition and disease in honey bee health. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2018; 26:114-119. [PMID: 29764650 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Declines in honey bee health have been attributed to multiple interacting environmental stressors; among the most important are forage/nutrition deficits and parasites and pathogens. Recent studies suggest poor honey bee nutrition can exacerbate the negative impacts of infectious viral and fungal diseases, and conversely, that common honey bee parasites and pathogens can adversely affect bee nutritional physiology. This sets up the potential for harmful feedbacks between poor nutrition and infectious disease that may contribute to spiraling declines in bee health. We suggest that improving bees' nutritional resilience should be a major goal in combating challenges to bee health; this approach can buffer bees from other environmental stressors such as pathogen infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam G Dolezal
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, United States.
| | - Amy L Toth
- Departments of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology and Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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127
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McMenamin AJ, Flenniken ML. Recently identified bee viruses and their impact on bee pollinators. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2018; 26:120-129. [PMID: 29764651 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Bees are agriculturally and ecologically important plant pollinators. Recent high annual losses of honey bee colonies, and reduced populations of native and wild bees in some geographic locations, may impact the availability of affordable food crops and the diversity and abundance of native and wild plant species. Multiple factors including viral infections affect pollinator health. The majority of well-characterized bee viruses are picorna-like RNA viruses, which may be maintained as covert infections or cause symptomatic infections or death. Next generation sequencing technologies have been utilized to identify additional bee-infecting viruses including the Lake Sinai viruses and Rhabdoviruses. In addition, sequence data is instrumental for defining specific viral strains and characterizing associated pathogenicity, such as the recent characterization of Deformed wing virus master variants (DWV-A, DWV-B, and DWV-C) and their impact on bee health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J McMenamin
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA; Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Michelle L Flenniken
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA; Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA.
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128
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Abstract
Terminal differentiation of an organ is the last step in development that enables the organism to survive in the outside world after birth. Terminal differentiation of the insect tracheae that ends with filling the tubular network with gas is not fully understood at the tissue level. Here, we demonstrate that yet unidentified valves at the end of the tracheal system of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster embryo are important elements allowing terminal differentiation of this organ. Formation of these valves depends on the function of the zona pellucida protein Trynity (Tyn). The tracheae of tyn mutant embryos that lack these structures do not fill with gas. Additionally, external material penetrates into the tracheal tubes indicating that the tyn spiracles are permanently open. We conclude that the tracheal endings have to be closed to ensure gas-filling. We speculate that according to physical models closing of the tubular tracheal network provokes initial increase of the internal hydrostatic pressure necessary for gas generation through cavitation when the pressure is subsequently decreased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwen Wang
- Animal Genetics, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; Faculty of Biology, Applied Zoology TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01217 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jürgen Berger
- Max-Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Microscopy Unit, Spemannstr. 35, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; Faculty of Biology, Applied Zoology TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01217 Dresden, Germany
| | - Bernard Moussian
- iBV, Université Nice Sophia-Antipolis, 06000 Nice, France; Faculty of Biology, Applied Zoology TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01217 Dresden, Germany
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129
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Gamma irradiation inactivates honey bee fungal, microsporidian, and viral pathogens and parasites. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 153:57-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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130
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Pratheepa M, Venkatesan T, Gracy G, Jalali SK, Rangheswaran R, Antony JC, Rai A. An Integrated Molecular Database on Indian Insects. Bioinformation 2018; 14:42-47. [PMID: 29618898 PMCID: PMC5879950 DOI: 10.6026/97320630014042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
MOlecular Database on Indian Insects (MODII) is an online database linking several databases like Insect Pest Info, Insect Barcode Information System (IBIn), Insect Whole Genome sequence, Other Genomic Resources of National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Whole Genome sequencing of Honey bee viruses, Insecticide resistance gene database and Genomic tools. This database was developed with a holistic approach for collecting information about phenomic and genomic information of agriculturally important insects. This insect resource database is available online for free at http://cib.res.in. AVAILABILITY http://cib.res.in/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pratheepa
- ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post, P.Bag No: 2491, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru - 560 024. India
| | - Thiruvengadam Venkatesan
- ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post, P.Bag No: 2491, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru - 560 024. India
| | - Gandhi Gracy
- ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post, P.Bag No: 2491, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru - 560 024. India
| | - Sushil Kumar Jalali
- ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post, P.Bag No: 2491, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru - 560 024. India
| | - Rajagopal Rangheswaran
- ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H.A. Farm Post, P.Bag No: 2491, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru - 560 024. India
| | - Jomin Cruz Antony
- Department of Computer Science, Jain University, Bengaluru - 560 027, India
| | - Anil Rai
- ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistical, Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 012, India
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131
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Fung E, Hill K, Hogendoorn K, Glatz RV, Napier KR, Bellgard MI, Barrero RA. De novo assembly of honey bee RNA viral genomes by tapping into the innate insect antiviral response pathway. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 152:38-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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132
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Piou V, Tabart J, Hemptinne JL, Vétillard A. Effect of pollen extract supplementation on the varroatosis tolerance of honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae reared in vitro. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2018; 74:25-41. [PMID: 29230627 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-017-0198-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
As the main source of lipids and proteins in honey bees, pollen is a major nutrient provider involved in development and health and has been studied for tolerance stimulation against pathogens and parasites. In the case of Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman (Acari, Mesostigmata: Varroidae) parasitization, the lack of a complete laboratory system to rear both the bee larva and the acarian parasite limited the studies concerning larval nutrition effects on the bee tolerance and resistance against varroatosis. Due to the development of this complete rearing protocol, we managed to feed young honey bee larvae with pollen supplemented solutions and to study the effect on their later development under parasitism conditions. In our experimental conditions, pollen influences neither the deformity rate, nor the survival of bees both parasitized and unparasitized. However, pollen extract supplementation seems to significantly impact the weight of the spinning bee larvae without having an effect on the physiological weight loss during pupation, so the differences found at the larval stage remain the same as at emergence. Varroa has a deleterious effect on bee pupae and led to a steady increase of the physiological weight loss experienced during metamorphosis. Interestingly, this ponderal loss associated with Varroa parasitization seems to be reduced in the polyfloral pollen supplementation condition. Altogether, this work is to our knowledge the first to study in laboratory conditions the impact of larval nutrition on the tolerance to parasitism. A diverse pollen diet may be beneficial to the bees' tolerance against V. destructor parasitism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Piou
- Laboratoire Venins et Activités Biologiques, EA 4357, PRES-Université de Toulouse, Institut National Universitaire Jean-Francois Champollion, Albi, France.
| | - Jérémy Tabart
- Laboratoire Venins et Activités Biologiques, EA 4357, PRES-Université de Toulouse, Institut National Universitaire Jean-Francois Champollion, Albi, France
| | - Jean-Louis Hemptinne
- Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique, UMR5174, CNRS-Université Toulouse III-ENFA, Université Paul Sabatier, 31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Angélique Vétillard
- Laboratoire Venins et Activités Biologiques, EA 4357, PRES-Université de Toulouse, Institut National Universitaire Jean-Francois Champollion, Albi, France
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133
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Zaobidna EA, Żółtowska K, Łopieńska-Biernat E. Varroa destructor induces changes in the expression of immunity-related genes during the development of Apis mellifera worker and drone broods. Acta Parasitol 2017; 62:779-789. [PMID: 29035869 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2017-0094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor has emerged as the major pest of honeybees. Despite extensive research efforts, the pathogenesis of varroosis has not been fully explained. Earlier studies suggested that V. destructor infestation leads to the suppression of the host's immune system. The aim of this study was to analyze the immune responses of 14 genes in the Toll signal transduction pathways, including effector genes of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), in developing Apis mellifera workers and drones infested with V. destructor. Four developmental stages (L5 larvae, prepupae, and 2 pupal stages) and newly emerged imagines were analyzed. In workers, the most significant changes were observed in L5 larvae in the initial stages of infestation. A significant increase in the relative expression of 10 of the 14 analyzed genes, including defensin-1 and defensin-2, was observed in infested bees relative to non-infested individuals. The immune response in drones developed at a slower rate. The expression of genes regulating cytoplasmic signal transduction increased in prepupae, whereas the expression of defensin-1 and defensin-2 effector genes increased in P3 pupae with red eyes. The expression of many immunity-related genes was silenced in successive life stages and in imagines, and it was more profound in workers than in drones. The results indicate that V. destructor significantly influences immune responses regulated by the Toll signal transduction pathway in bees. In infested bees, the observed changes in Toll pathway genes varied between life stages and the sexes.
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134
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Levin S, Galbraith D, Sela N, Erez T, Grozinger CM, Chejanovsky N. Presence of Apis Rhabdovirus-1 in Populations of Pollinators and Their Parasites from Two Continents. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:2482. [PMID: 29312191 PMCID: PMC5732965 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The viral ecology of bee communities is complex, where viruses are readily shared among co-foraging bee species. Additionally, in honey bees (Apis mellifera), many viruses are transmitted - and their impacts exacerbated - by the parasitic Varroa destructor mite. Thus far, the viruses found to be shared across bee species and transmitted by V. destructor mites are positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses. Recently, a negative-sense RNA enveloped virus, Apis rhabdovirus-1 (ARV-1), was found in A. mellifera honey bees in Africa, Europe, and islands in the Pacific. Here, we describe the identification - using a metagenomics approach - of ARV-1 in two bee species (A. mellifera and Bombus impatiens) and in V. destructor mites from populations collected in the United States and Israel. We confirmed the presence of ARV-1 in pools of A. mellifera, B. impatiens, and V. destructor from Israeli and U.S. populations by RT-PCR and found that it can reach high titers in individual honey bees and mites (107-108 viral genomic copies per individual). To estimate the prevalence of ARV-1 in honey bee populations, we screened 104 honey bee colonies across Israel, with 21 testing ARV-1-positive. Tagged-primer-mediated RT-PCR analysis detected the presence of the positive-sense ARV-1 RNA in A. mellifera and V. destructor, indicating that ARV-1 replicates in both hosts. This is the first report of the presence of ARV-1 in B. impatiens and of the replication of a rhabdovirus in A. mellifera and V. destructor. Our data suggest that Varroa mites could act as an ARV-1 vector; however, the presence of ARV-1 in B. impatiens (which are not parasitized by Varroa) suggests that it may not require the mite for transmission and ARV-1 may be shared among co-foraging bee species. Given that ARV-1 is found in non-Apis bee species, and because "ARV" is used for the Adelaide River virus, we propose that this virus should be called bee rhabdovirus 1 and abbreviated BRV-1. These results greatly expand our understanding of the diversity of viruses that can infect bee communities, though further analysis is required to determine how infection with this virus impacts these different hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Levin
- Department of Entomology, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- Faculty of Agricultural, Food and the Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - David Galbraith
- Department of Entomology – Center for Pollinator Research – Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Noa Sela
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Tal Erez
- Department of Entomology, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Christina M. Grozinger
- Department of Entomology – Center for Pollinator Research – Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Nor Chejanovsky
- Department of Entomology, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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135
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Wang H, Meeus I, Piot N, Smagghe G. Systemic Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) infection in bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) through feeding and injection. J Invertebr Pathol 2017; 151:158-164. [PMID: 29203138 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2017.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) can cause a systemic infection, resulting in mortality in both Apis and Bombus spp. bees. However, little is known about the virus infection dynamics within bee tissues. Here, we established systemic IAPV infections in reared bumblebee Bombus terrestris workers through feeding and injection and investigated the mortality, tissue tropism and viral localization. Injection of approximately 500 IAPV (IAPVinj stock) particles resulted in acute infection, viral loads within tissues that were relatively stable from bee to bee, and a distinctive tissue tropism, making this method suitable for studying systemic IAPV infection in bumblebees. Feeding with approximately 1 × 106 particles of the same virus stock did not result in systemic infection. A high-concentration stock of IAPV (IAPVfed stock) allowed us to feed bumblebees with approximately 1 × 109 viral particles, which induced both chronic and acute infection. We also observed a higher variability in viral titers within tissues and less clear tissue tropism during systemic infection, making feeding with IAPVfed stock less optimal for studying IAPV systemic infection. Strikingly, both infection methods and stocks with different viral loads gave a similar viral localization pattern in the brain and midgut of bumblebees with an acute infection. The implications of these findings in the study of the local immunity in bees and barriers to oral transmission are discussed. Our data provide useful information on the establishment of a systemic viral infection in bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haidong Wang
- Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ivan Meeus
- Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Niels Piot
- Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Guy Smagghe
- Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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136
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Tesovnik T, Cizelj I, Zorc M, Čitar M, Božič J, Glavan G, Narat M. Immune related gene expression in worker honey bee (Apis mellifera carnica) pupae exposed to neonicotinoid thiamethoxam and Varroa mites (Varroa destructor). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0187079. [PMID: 29088251 PMCID: PMC5663428 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Varroa destructor is one of the most common parasites of honey bee colonies and is considered as a possible co-factor for honey bee decline. At the same time, the use of pesticides in intensive agriculture is still the most effective method of pest control. There is limited information about the effects of pesticide exposure on parasitized honey bees. Larval ingestion of certain pesticides could have effects on honey bee immune defense mechanisms, development and metabolic pathways. Europe and America face the disturbing phenomenon of the disappearance of honey bee colonies, termed Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). One reason discussed is the possible suppression of honey bee immune system as a consequence of prolonged exposure to chemicals. In this study, the effects of the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam on honey bee, Apis mellifera carnica, pupae infested with Varroa destructor mites were analyzed at the molecular level. Varroa-infested and non-infested honey bee colonies received protein cakes with or without thiamethoxam. Nurse bees used these cakes as a feed for developing larvae. Samples of white-eyed and brown-eyed pupae were collected. Expression of 17 immune-related genes was analyzed by real-time PCR. Relative gene expression in samples exposed only to Varroa or to thiamethoxam or simultaneously to both Varroa and thiamethoxam was compared. The impact from the consumption of thiamethoxam during the larval stage on honey bee immune related gene expression in Varroa-infested white-eyed pupae was reflected as down-regulation of spaetzle, AMPs abaecin and defensin-1 and up-regulation of lysozyme-2. In brown-eyed pupae up-regulation of PPOact, spaetzle, hopscotch and basket genes was detected. Moreover, we observed a major difference in immune response to Varroa infestation between white-eyed pupae and brown-eyed pupae. The majority of tested immune-related genes were upregulated only in brown-eyed pupae, while in white-eyed pupae they were downregulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Tesovnik
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Domžale, Slovenia
| | - Ivanka Cizelj
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Domžale, Slovenia
| | - Minja Zorc
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Domžale, Slovenia
| | - Manuela Čitar
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Domžale, Slovenia
| | - Janko Božič
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gordana Glavan
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mojca Narat
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Domžale, Slovenia
- * E-mail:
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137
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Chinese Sacbrood virus infection in Asian honey bees (Apis cerana cerana) and host immune responses to the virus infection. J Invertebr Pathol 2017; 150:63-69. [PMID: 28916146 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chinese Sacbrood virus (CSBV) is a positive-stranded RNAvirus that infects both the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and the Asian honey bee (A. cerana). However, CSBV has much more devastating effects on Asian honey bees than on European honey bees, posing a serious threat to the agricultural and natural ecosystems that rely on A. cerana for pollination service. Using quantitative RT-PCR method, we conducted studies to examine the CSBV infection in Asian honey bee colonies and immune responses of individual bees in response to CSBV infection. Our study showed that CSBV could cause infection in different developmental stages of workers including eggs, larvae, pupae, newly emerged workers, and foraging workers. In addition, evaluating the tissue tropism and transmission of CSBV in infected bees showed that CSBV was detected in the ovaries, spermatheca, and feces of queens as well as semen of drones of the same colonies, suggesting an existence of vertical transmission of CSBV in Asian honey bees. Further, the detection of CSBV in colony food suggests that healthy bees could pick the infection by the virus-contaminated food, and therefore, a possible existence of a food-borne transmission pathway of CSBV in Asian bee colonies. The expression analysis of transcripts (defensin, abaecin, apidaecin, and hymenoptaecin) involving innate antiviral immune pathways showed that CSBV infection could induce significant immune responses in infected bees. However, the immune responses to CSBV infection varied among different development stages with eggs exhibiting the lowest level of immune expression and forager workers exhibiting the highest level of immune gene expression. The results obtained in the study yield important insights into the mechanisms underlying disease pathogenesis of CSBV infections in Asian honey bees and provide valuable information for a rational design of disease control measures.
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138
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Reddy KE, Thu HT, Yoo MS, Ramya M, Reddy BA, Lien NTK, Trang NTP, Duong BTT, Lee HJ, Kang SW, Quyen DV. Comparative Genomic Analysis for Genetic Variation in Sacbrood Virus of Apis cerana and Apis mellifera Honeybees From Different Regions of Vietnam. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2017; 17:4411347. [PMID: 29117376 PMCID: PMC5634237 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iex077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Sacbrood virus (SBV) is one of the most common viral infections of honeybees. The entire genome sequence for nine SBV infecting honeybees, Apis cerana and Apis mellifera, in Vietnam, namely AcSBV-Viet1, AcSBV-Viet2, AcSBV-Viet3, AmSBV-Viet4, AcSBV-Viet5, AmSBV-Viet6, AcSBV-Viet7, AcSBV-Viet8, and AcSBV-Viet9, was determined. These sequences were aligned with seven previously reported complete genome sequences of SBV from other countries, and various genomic regions were compared. The Vietnamese SBVs (VN-SBVs) shared 91-99% identity with each other, and shared 89-94% identity with strains from other countries. The open reading frames (ORFs) of the VN-SBV genomes differed greatly from those of SBVs from other countries, especially in their VP1 sequences. The AmSBV-Viet6 and AcSBV-Viet9 genome encodes 17 more amino acids within this region than the other VN-SBVs. In a phylogenetic analysis, the strains AmSBV-Viet4, AcSBV-Viet2, and AcSBV-Viet3 were clustered in group with AmSBV-UK, AmSBV-Kor21, and AmSBV-Kor19 strains. Whereas, the strains AmSBV-Viet6 and AcSBV-Viet7 clustered separately with the AcSBV strains from Korea and AcSBV-VietSBM2. And the strains AcSBV-Viet8, AcSBV-Viet1, AcSBV-Viet5, and AcSBV-Viet9 clustered with the AcSBV-India, AcSBV-Kor and AcSBV-VietSBM2. In a Simplot graph, the VN-SBVs diverged stronger in their ORF regions than in their 5' or 3' untranslated regions. The VN-SBVs possess genetic characteristics which are more similar to the Asian AcSBV strains than to AmSBV-UK strain. Taken together, our data indicate that host specificity, geographic distance, and viral cross-infections between different bee species may explain the genetic diversity among the VN-SBVs in A. cerana and A. mellifera and other SBV strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kondreddy Eswar Reddy
- Center for Honeybee Disease Control, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang 6 dong, Anyang 420–480, South Korea
- Plant Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Botany, S. K. University, Anantapur, Andhrapradesh, India
- Animal and Nutrition Physiology Team, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, #1500 Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, South Korea
| | - Ha Thi Thu
- Molecular Microbiology Lab, Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Mi Sun Yoo
- Center for Honeybee Disease Control, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang 6 dong, Anyang 420–480, South Korea
| | - Mummadireddy Ramya
- Plant Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Botany, S. K. University, Anantapur, Andhrapradesh, India
| | | | - Nguyen Thi Kim Lien
- Functional Genomics Lab, Institute of Genome Research, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Thi Phuong Trang
- Department of Molecular Systematics and Conservation Genetics, Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Bui Thi Thuy Duong
- Molecular Microbiology Lab, Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Hyun-Jeong Lee
- Animal and Nutrition Physiology Team, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, #1500 Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun, South Korea
| | - Seung-Won Kang
- Center for Honeybee Disease Control, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang 6 dong, Anyang 420–480, South Korea
| | - Dong Van Quyen
- Molecular Microbiology Lab, Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
- University of Science and Technology of Ha Noi, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam, and
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139
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Glenny W, Cavigli I, Daughenbaugh KF, Radford R, Kegley SE, Flenniken ML. Honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony health and pathogen composition in migratory beekeeping operations involved in California almond pollination. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182814. [PMID: 28817641 PMCID: PMC5560708 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Honey bees are important pollinators of agricultural crops. Pathogens and other factors have been implicated in high annual losses of honey bee colonies in North America and some European countries. To further investigate the relationship between multiple factors, including pathogen prevalence and abundance and colony health, we monitored commercially managed migratory honey bee colonies involved in California almond pollination in 2014. At each sampling event, honey bee colony health was assessed, using colony population size as a proxy for health, and the prevalence and abundance of seven honey bee pathogens was evaluated using PCR and quantitative PCR, respectively. In this sample cohort, pathogen prevalence and abundance did not correlate with colony health, but did correlate with the date of sampling. In general, pathogen prevalence (i.e., the number of specific pathogens harbored within a colony) was lower early in the year (January-March) and was greater in the summer, with peak prevalence occurring in June. Pathogen abundance in individual honey bee colonies varied throughout the year and was strongly associated with the sampling date, and was influenced by beekeeping operation, colony health, and mite infestation level. Together, data from this and other observational cohort studies that monitor individual honey bee colonies and precisely account for sampling date (i.e., day of year) will lead to a better understanding of the influence of pathogens on colony mortality and the effects of other factors on these associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Glenny
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
- Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Ian Cavigli
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Katie F. Daughenbaugh
- Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Rosemarie Radford
- Pesticide Research Institute, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Susan E. Kegley
- Pesticide Research Institute, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Michelle L. Flenniken
- Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
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140
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O'Neal ST, Swale DR, Anderson TD. ATP-sensitive inwardly rectifying potassium channel regulation of viral infections in honey bees. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8668. [PMID: 28819165 PMCID: PMC5561242 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09448-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey bees are economically important pollinators of a wide variety of crops that have attracted the attention of both researchers and the public alike due to unusual declines in the numbers of managed colonies in some parts of the world. Viral infections are thought to be a significant factor contributing to these declines, but viruses have proven a challenging pathogen to study in a bee model and interactions between viruses and the bee antiviral immune response remain poorly understood. In the work described here, we have demonstrated the use of flock house virus (FHV) as a model system for virus infection in bees and revealed an important role for the regulation of the bee antiviral immune response by ATP-sensitive inwardly rectifying potassium (KATP) channels. We have shown that treatment with the KATP channel agonist pinacidil increases survival of bees while decreasing viral replication following infection with FHV, whereas treatment with the KATP channel antagonist tolbutamide decreases survival and increases viral replication. Our results suggest that KATP channels provide a significant link between cellular metabolism and the antiviral immune response in bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott T O'Neal
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Daniel R Swale
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University AgCenter, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Troy D Anderson
- Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA.
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141
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Remnant EJ, Shi M, Buchmann G, Blacquière T, Holmes EC, Beekman M, Ashe A. A Diverse Range of Novel RNA Viruses in Geographically Distinct Honey Bee Populations. J Virol 2017; 91:e00158-17. [PMID: 28515299 PMCID: PMC5533899 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00158-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the diversity and consequences of viruses present in honey bees is critical for maintaining pollinator health and managing the spread of disease. The viral landscape of honey bees (Apis mellifera) has changed dramatically since the emergence of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, which increased the spread of virulent variants of viruses such as deformed wing virus. Previous genomic studies have focused on colonies suffering from infections by Varroa and virulent viruses, which could mask other viral species present in honey bees, resulting in a distorted view of viral diversity. To capture the viral diversity within colonies that are exposed to mites but do not suffer the ultimate consequences of the infestation, we examined populations of honey bees that have evolved naturally or have been selected for resistance to Varroa This analysis revealed seven novel viruses isolated from honey bees sampled globally, including the first identification of negative-sense RNA viruses in honey bees. Notably, two rhabdoviruses were present in three geographically diverse locations and were also present in Varroa mites parasitizing the bees. To characterize the antiviral response, we performed deep sequencing of small RNA populations in honey bees and mites. This provided evidence of a Dicer-mediated immune response in honey bees, while the viral small RNA profile in Varroa mites was novel and distinct from the response observed in bees. Overall, we show that viral diversity in honey bee colonies is greater than previously thought, which encourages additional studies of the bee virome on a global scale and which may ultimately improve disease management.IMPORTANCE Honey bee populations have become increasingly susceptible to colony losses due to pathogenic viruses spread by parasitic Varroa mites. To date, 24 viruses have been described in honey bees, with most belonging to the order Picornavirales Collapsing Varroa-infected colonies are often overwhelmed with high levels of picornaviruses. To examine the underlying viral diversity in honey bees, we employed viral metatranscriptomics analyses on three geographically diverse Varroa-resistant populations from Europe, Africa, and the Pacific. We describe seven novel viruses from a range of diverse viral families, including two viruses that are present in all three locations. In honey bees, small RNA sequences indicate that these viruses are processed by Dicer and the RNA interference pathway, whereas Varroa mites produce strikingly novel small RNA patterns. This work increases the number and diversity of known honey bee viruses and will ultimately contribute to improved disease management in our most important agricultural pollinator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Remnant
- Behaviour and Genetics of Social Insects Laboratory, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mang Shi
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gabriele Buchmann
- Behaviour and Genetics of Social Insects Laboratory, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Edward C Holmes
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Madeleine Beekman
- Behaviour and Genetics of Social Insects Laboratory, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Alyson Ashe
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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142
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O'Neal ST, Brewster CC, Bloomquist JR, Anderson TD. Amitraz and its metabolite modulate honey bee cardiac function and tolerance to viral infection. J Invertebr Pathol 2017; 149:119-126. [PMID: 28797906 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2017.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Revised: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The health and survival of managed honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies are affected by multiple factors, one of the most important being the interaction between viral pathogens and infestations of the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor. Currently, the only effective strategy available for mitigating the impact of viral infections is the chemical control of mite populations. Unfortunately, the use of in-hive acaricides comes at a price, as they can produce sublethal effects that are difficult to quantify, but may ultimately be as damaging as the mites they are used to treat. The goal of this study was to investigate the physiological and immunological effects of the formamidine acaricide amitraz and its primary metabolite in honey bees. Using flock house virus as a model for viral infection, this study found that exposure to a formamidine acaricide may have a negative impact on the ability of honey bees to tolerate viral infection. Furthermore, this work has demonstrated that amitraz and its metabolite significantly alter honey bee cardiac function, most likely through interaction with octopamine receptors. The results suggest a potential drawback to the in-hive use of amitraz and raise intriguing questions about the relationship between insect cardiac function and disease tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott T O'Neal
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | | | - Jeffrey R Bloomquist
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Troy D Anderson
- Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
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143
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DeGrandi-Hoffman G, Ahumada F, Graham H. Are Dispersal Mechanisms Changing the Host-Parasite Relationship and Increasing the Virulence of Varroa destructor (Mesostigmata: Varroidae) in Managed Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Colonies? ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2017; 46:737-746. [PMID: 28486589 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvx077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Varroa (Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman) are a serious pest of European honey bees (Apis mellifera L.), and difficult to control in managed colonies. In our 11-mo longitudinal study, we applied multiple miticide treatments, yet mite numbers remained high and colony losses exceeded 55%. High mortality from varroa in managed apiaries is a departure from the effects of the mite in feral colonies where bees and varroa can coexist. Differences in mite survival strategies and dispersal mechanisms may be contributing factors. In feral colonies, mites can disperse through swarming. In managed apiaries, where swarming is reduced, mites disperse on foragers robbing or drifting from infested hives. Using a honey bee-varroa population model, we show that yearly swarming curtails varroa population growth, enabling colony survival for >5 yr. Without swarming, colonies collapsed by the third year. To disperse, varroa must attach to foragers that then enter other hives. We hypothesize that stress from parasitism and virus infection combined with effects that viruses have on cognitive function may contribute to forager drift and mite and virus dispersal. We also hypothesize that drifting foragers with mites can measurably increase mite populations. Simulations initialized with field data indicate that low levels of drifting foragers with mites can create sharp increases in mite populations in the fall and heavily infested colonies in the spring. We suggest new research directions to investigate factors leading to mite dispersal on foragers, and mite management strategies with consideration of varroa as a migratory pest.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Henry Graham
- Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, USDA-ARS, 2000 East Allen Rd., Tucson, AZ 85719
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144
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Zanni V, Galbraith DA, Annoscia D, Grozinger CM, Nazzi F. Transcriptional signatures of parasitization and markers of colony decline in Varroa-infested honey bees (Apis mellifera). INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 87:1-13. [PMID: 28595898 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2017.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Extensive annual losses of honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera L.) reported in the northern hemisphere represent a global problem for agriculture and biodiversity. The parasitic mite Varroa destructor, in association with deformed wing virus (DWV), plays a key role in this phenomenon, but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. To elucidate these mechanisms, we analyzed the gene expression profile of uninfested and mite infested bees, under laboratory and field conditions, highlighting the effects of parasitization on the bee's transcriptome under a variety of conditions and scenarios. Parasitization was significantly correlated with higher viral loads. Honey bees exposed to mite infestation exhibited an altered expression of genes related to stress response, immunity, nervous system function, metabolism and behavioural maturation. Additionally, mite infested young bees showed a gene expression profile resembling that of forager bees. To identify potential molecular markers of colony decline, the expression of genes that were commonly regulated across the experiments were subsequently assessed in colonies experiencing increasing mite infestation levels. These studies suggest that PGRP-2, hymenoptaecin, a glucan recognition protein, UNC93 and a p450 cytocrome maybe suitable general biomarkers of Varroa-induced colony decline. Furthermore, the reliability of vitellogenin, a yolk protein previously identified as a good marker of colony survival, was confirmed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Zanni
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Via delle Scienze 206, 33100, Udine, Italy.
| | - David A Galbraith
- Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Desiderato Annoscia
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Via delle Scienze 206, 33100, Udine, Italy.
| | - Christina M Grozinger
- Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Francesco Nazzi
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Via delle Scienze 206, 33100, Udine, Italy.
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145
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Roberts JMK, Anderson DL, Durr PA. Absence of deformed wing virus and Varroa destructor in Australia provides unique perspectives on honeybee viral landscapes and colony losses. Sci Rep 2017; 7:6925. [PMID: 28761114 PMCID: PMC5537221 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07290-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Honeybee (Apis mellifera) health is threatened globally by the complex interaction of multiple stressors, including the parasitic mite Varroa destructor and a number of pathogenic viruses. Australia provides a unique opportunity to study this pathogenic viral landscape in the absence of V. destructor. We analysed 1,240A. mellifera colonies across Australia by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and next-generation sequencing (NGS). Five viruses were prevalent: black queen cell virus (BQCV), sacbrood virus (SBV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) and the Lake Sinai viruses (LSV1 and LSV2), of which the latter three were detected for the first time in Australia. We also showed several viruses were absent in our sampling, including deformed wing virus (DWV) and slow bee paralysis virus (SBPV). Our findings highlight that viruses can be highly prevalent in A. mellifera populations independently of V. destructor. Placing these results in an international context, our results support the hypothesis that the co-pathogenic interaction of V. destructor and DWV is a key driver of increased colony losses, but additional stressors such as pesticides, poor nutrition, etc. may enable more severe and frequent colony losses to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M K Roberts
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| | - Denis L Anderson
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
- ADFCA, Research and Development Division, Al Ain, UAE
| | - Peter A Durr
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, 3219, Australia
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146
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Brutscher LM, Daughenbaugh KF, Flenniken ML. Virus and dsRNA-triggered transcriptional responses reveal key components of honey bee antiviral defense. Sci Rep 2017; 7:6448. [PMID: 28743868 PMCID: PMC5526946 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06623-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent high annual losses of honey bee colonies are associated with many factors, including RNA virus infections. Honey bee antiviral responses include RNA interference and immune pathway activation, but their relative roles in antiviral defense are not well understood. To better characterize the mechanism(s) of honey bee antiviral defense, bees were infected with a model virus in the presence or absence of dsRNA, a virus associated molecular pattern. Regardless of sequence specificity, dsRNA reduced virus abundance. We utilized next generation sequencing to examine transcriptional responses triggered by virus and dsRNA at three time-points post-infection. Hundreds of genes exhibited differential expression in response to co-treatment of dsRNA and virus. Virus-infected bees had greater expression of genes involved in RNAi, Toll, Imd, and JAK-STAT pathways, but the majority of differentially expressed genes are not well characterized. To confirm the virus limiting role of two genes, including the well-characterized gene, dicer, and a probable uncharacterized cyclin dependent kinase in honey bees, we utilized RNAi to reduce their expression in vivo and determined that virus abundance increased, supporting their involvement in antiviral defense. Together, these results further our understanding of honey bee antiviral defense, particularly the role of a non-sequence specific dsRNA-mediated antiviral pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Brutscher
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA.,Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Katie F Daughenbaugh
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA.,Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Michelle L Flenniken
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA. .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA. .,Pollinator Health Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA.
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147
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Elucidating the mechanisms underlying the beneficial health effects of dietary pollen on honey bees (Apis mellifera) infested by Varroa mite ectoparasites. Sci Rep 2017; 7:6258. [PMID: 28740210 PMCID: PMC5524784 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06488-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites and pathogens of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) are key factors underlying colony losses, which are threatening the beekeeping industry and agriculture as a whole. To control the spread and development of pathogen infections within the colony, honey bees use plant resins with antibiotic activity, but little is known about the properties of other substances, that are mainly used as a foodstuff, for controlling possible diseases both at the individual and colony level. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that pollen is beneficial for honey bees challenged with the parasitic mite Varroa destructor associated to the Deformed Wing Virus. First, we studied the effects of pollen on the survival of infested bees, under laboratory and field conditions, and observed that a pollen rich diet can compensate the deleterious effects of mite parasitization. Subsequently, we characterized the pollen compounds responsible for the observed positive effects. Finally, based on the results of a transcriptomic analysis of parasitized bees fed with pollen or not, we developed a comprehensive framework for interpreting the observed effects of pollen on honey bee health, which incorporates the possible effects on cuticle integrity, energetic metabolism and immune response.
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148
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Natsopoulou ME, McMahon DP, Doublet V, Frey E, Rosenkranz P, Paxton RJ. The virulent, emerging genotype B of Deformed wing virus is closely linked to overwinter honeybee worker loss. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5242. [PMID: 28701778 PMCID: PMC5507926 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05596-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Bees are considered to be threatened globally, with severe overwinter losses of the most important commercial pollinator, the Western honeybee, a major concern in the Northern Hemisphere. Emerging infectious diseases have risen to prominence due to their temporal correlation with colony losses. Among these is Deformed wing virus (DWV), which has been frequently linked to colony mortality. We now provide evidence of a strong statistical association between overwintering colony decline in the field and the presence of DWV genotype-B (DWV-B), a genetic variant of DWV that has recently been shown to be more virulent than the original DWV genotype-A. We link the prevalence of DWV-B directly to a quantitative measure of overwinter decline (workforce mortality) of honeybee colonies in the field. We demonstrate that increased prevalence of virus infection in individual bees is associated with higher overwinter mortality. We also observed a substantial reduction of infected colonies in the spring, suggesting that virus-infected individuals had died during the winter. Our findings demonstrate that DWV-B, plus possible A/B recombinants exhibiting DWV-B at PCR primer binding sites, may be a major cause of elevated overwinter honeybee loss. Its potential emergence in naïve populations of bees may have far-reaching ecological and economic impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrsini E Natsopoulou
- Institute for Biology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 8, 06120, Halle (Saale), Germany. .,Section for Organismal Biology, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Dino P McMahon
- School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK.,Institute of Biology, Free University Berlin, Schwendenerstr. 1, 14195, Berlin, Germany.,Department for Materials and Environment, BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vincent Doublet
- Institute for Biology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 8, 06120, Halle (Saale), Germany.,German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle-Jena-Leipzig (iDiv), Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Eva Frey
- Apicultural State Institute, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Rosenkranz
- Apicultural State Institute, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Robert J Paxton
- Institute for Biology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 8, 06120, Halle (Saale), Germany.,School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK.,German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle-Jena-Leipzig (iDiv), Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
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149
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Gisder S, Genersch E. Viruses of commercialized insect pollinators. J Invertebr Pathol 2017; 147:51-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2016.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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150
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Abstract
Ticks are important vectors of viruses that infect and cause disease in man, livestock, and companion animals. The major focus of investigation of tick-borne viruses has been the interaction with the mammalian host, particularly the mechanisms underlying disease and the development of vaccines to prevent infection. Only recently has research begun to investigate the interaction of the virus with the tick host. This is striking when considering that the virus spends far more time infecting the tick vector relative to the vertebrate host. The assumption has been that the tick host and virus have evolved to reach an equilibrium whereby virus infection does not impede the tick life cycle and conversely, the tick does not restrict virus replication and through blood-feeding on vertebrates, disseminates the virus. The development and application of new technologies to tick-pathogen interactions has been fuelled by a number of developments in recent years. This includes the release of the first draft of a tick genome, that of Ixodes scapularis, and the availability of tick-cell lines as convenient models to investigate interactions. One of the by-products of these investigations has been the observation of familiar proteins in new situations. One such protein family is Toll and Toll-like receptors that in vertebrates play a key role in detection of microorganisms, including viruses. But does Toll signaling play a similar role in detection of virus infection in ticks, and if it does, how does this affect the maintenance of viruses within the tick?
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Johnson
- Animal and Plant Health AgencyAddlestone, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Health and Medicine, University of SurreyGuildford, United Kingdom
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