Mechanical characterization of collagen fibers and scaffolds for tissue engineering

A Biomimetic Material with a High Bio-responsibility for Bone Reconstruction and Tissue Engineering

A biomimetic composite was prepared using type-I collagen as the matrix, and particles of sol-gel-derived bioactive glass (58S), hyaluronic acid and phosphatidylserine as additives. The material has an interconnected 3-D porous structure with a porosity > 85%. When incubated in simulated body fluid (SBF), the composite induced the formation of microcrystals of bone-like hydroxyapatite (HA), suggesting good bioactive properties. During the in vitro cell-culture experiment, MC3T3-E1 cells adhered to, migrated and spread on the surface of the porous composite. The material was employed to repair a 10-mm defect in a rabbit's radius. The composite was gradually degraded within 8 weeks and replaced by new bone. After 12 weeks, the bone marrow cavity was restored and the Haversian canal was noted from the histological observation. The biomimetic composite is a potential scaffold material for bone reconstruction and bone tissue engineering.

Acromioclavicular joint reconstruction using a tendon graft: a biomechanical study comparing a novel "sutured throughout" tendon graft to a standard tendon graft

BACKGROUND

With a recurrence rate of over 30%, techniques that offer stronger acromioclavicular (AC) joint reconstruction through increased graft strength may provide longevity. The purpose of our study was to determine the biomechanical strength of a novel tendon graft sutured throughout compared to a native tendon graft in Grade 3 anatomical AC joint reconstruction.

METHODS

For this in vitro experiment, nine paired (n = 18) embalmed cadaveric AC joints of three males and six females (age 86 years, range 51-94 years) were harvested. Anatomic repair with fresh bovine Achilles tendon grafts without bone block was simulated. Specimens were divided into two groups; with group 1 using grafts with ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) suture ran throughout the entire length. In group 2, reconstruction with only native allografts was performed. The distal scapula and humerus were casted in epoxy compound and mounted on the mechanical testing machine. Tensile tests were performed using a mechanical testing machine at the rate of 50 mm/min. Maximum load and displacement to failure were collected.

RESULTS

The average load to failure was significantly higher for group 1 compared to group 2, with mean values of 437.5 N ± 160.7 N and 94.4 N ± 43.6 N, (p = 0.001). The average displacement to failure was not significantly different, with 29.7 mm ± 10.6 mm in group 1 and 25 mm ± 9.1 mm in group 2 (p = 0.25).

CONCLUSION

We conclude that a UHMWPE suture reinforced graft can provide a 3.6 times stronger AC joint reconstruction compared to a native graft.

Designing Biopolymer Microthreads for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Native tissue structures possess elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM) architectures that inspire the design of fibrous structures in the field of regenerative medicine. We review the literature with respect to the successes and failures, as well as the future promise of biopolymer microthreads as scaffolds to promote endogenous and exogenous tissue regeneration. Biomimetic microthread tissue constructs have been proposed for the functional regeneration of tendon, ligament, skeletal muscle, and ventricular myocardial tissues. To date, biopolymer microthreads have demonstrated promising results as materials to recapitulate the hierarchical structure of simple and complex tissues and well as biochemical signaling cues to direct cell-mediated tissue regeneration. Biopolymer microthreads have also demonstrated exciting potential as a platform technology for the targeted delivery of stem cells and therapeutic molecules. Future studies will focus on the design of microthread-based tissue analogs that strategically integrate growth factors and progenitor cells to temporally direct cell-mediated processes that promote enhanced functional tissue regeneration.

Anterior Cruciate Ligament: Structure, Injuries and Regenerative Treatments

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is one of the most vulnerable ligaments of the knee. ACL impairment results in episodic instability, chondral and meniscal injury and early osteoarthritis. The poor self-healing capacity of ACL makes surgical treatment inevitable. Current ACL reconstructions include a substitution of torn ACL via biological grafts such as autograft, allograft. This review provides an insight of ACL structure, orientation and properties followed by comparing the performance of various constructs that have been used for ACL replacement. New approaches, undertaken to induce ACL regeneration and fabricate biomimetic scaffolds, are also discussed.

Enhanced Cutaneous Wound Healing In Vivo by Standardized Crude Extract of Poincianella pluviosa

Wound healing is a complex process that involves several biological events, and a delay in this process may cause economic and social problems for the patient. The search continues for new alternative treatments to aid healing, including the use of herbal medicines. Members of the genus Caesalpinia are used in traditional medicine to treat wounds. The related species Poincianella pluviosa (DC.) L.P. Queiroz increases the cell viability of keratinocytes and fibroblasts and stimulates the proliferation of keratinocytes in vitro. The crude extract (CE) from bark of P. pluviosa was evaluated in the wound-healing process in vivo, to validate the traditional use and the in vitro activity. Standardized CE was incorporated into a gel and applied on cutaneous wounds (TCEG) and compared with the formulation without CE (Control) for 4, 7, 10, or 14 days of treatment. The effects of the CE on wound re-epithelialization; cell proliferation; permeation, using photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS); and proteins, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD-2) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) were evaluated. The TCEG stimulated the migration of keratinocytes at day 4 and proliferation on the following days, with a high concentration of cells in metaphase at 7 days. Type I collagen formed more rapidly in the TCEG. PAS showed that the CE had permeated through the skin. TCEG stimulated VEGF at day 4 and SOD-2 and COX-2 at day 7. The results suggest that the CE promoted the regulation of proteins and helped to accelerate the processes involved in healing, promoting early angiogenesis. This led to an increase in the re-epithelialized surface, with significant mitotic activity. Maturation of collagen fibers was also enhanced, which may affect the resistance of the extracellular matrix. PAS indicated a correlation between the rate of diffusion and biological events during the healing process. The CE from P. pluviosa appears promising as an aid in healing.

A meso-scale layer-specific structural constitutive model of the mitral heart valve leaflets

Fundamental to developing a deeper understanding of pathophysiological remodeling in mitral valve (MV) disease is the development of an accurate tissue-level constitutive model. In the present work, we developed a novel meso-scale (i.e. at the level of the fiber, 10-100 μm in length scale) structural constitutive model (MSSCM) for MV leaflet tissues. Due to its four-layer structure, we focused on the contributions from the distinct collagen and elastin fiber networks within each tissue layer. Requisite collagen and elastin fibrous structural information for each layer were quantified using second harmonic generation microscopy and conventional histology. A comprehensive mechanical dataset was also used to guide model formulation and parameter estimation. Furthermore, novel to tissue-level structural constitutive modeling approaches, we allowed the collagen fiber recruitment function to vary with orientation. Results indicated that the MSSCM predicted a surprisingly consistent mean effective collagen fiber modulus of 162.72 MPa, and demonstrated excellent predictive capability for extra-physiological loading regimes. There were also anterior-posterior leaflet-specific differences, such as tighter collagen and elastin fiber orientation distributions (ODF) in the anterior leaflet, and a thicker and stiffer atrialis in the posterior leaflet. While a degree of angular variance was observed, the tight valvular tissue ODF also left little room for any physically meaningful angular variance in fiber mechanical responses. Finally, a novel fibril-level (0.1-1 μm) validation approach was used to compare the predicted collagen fiber/fibril mechanical behavior with extant MV small angle X-ray scattering data. Results demonstrated excellent agreement, indicating that the MSSCM fully captures the tissue-level function. Future utilization of the MSSCM in computational models of the MV will aid in producing highly accurate simulations in non-physiological loading states that can occur in repair situations, as well as guide the form of simplified models for real-time simulation tools.

A novel fibre-ensemble level constitutive model for exogenous cross-linked collagenous tissues

Exogenous cross-linking of soft collagenous tissues is a common method for biomaterial development and medical therapies. To enable improved applications through computational methods, physically realistic constitutive models are required. Yet, despite decades of research, development and clinical use, no such model exists. In this study, we develop the first rigorous full structural model (i.e. explicitly incorporating various features of the collagen fibre architecture) for exogenously cross-linked soft tissues. This was made possible, in-part, with the use of native to cross-linked matched experimental datasets and an extension to the collagenous structural constitutive model so that the uncross-linked collagen fibre responses could be mapped to the cross-linked configuration. This allowed us to separate the effects of cross-linking from kinematic changes induced in the cross-linking process, which in turn allowed the non-fibrous tissue matrix component and the interaction effects to be identified. It was determined that the matrix could be modelled as an isotropic material using a modified Yeoh model. The most novel findings of this study were that: (i) the effective collagen fibre modulus was unaffected by cross-linking and (ii) fibre-ensemble interactions played a large role in stress development, often dominating the total tissue response (depending on the stress component and loading path considered). An important utility of the present model is its ability to separate the effects of exogenous cross-linking on the fibres from changes due to the matrix. Applications of this approach include the utilization in the design of novel chemical treatments to produce specific mechanical responses and the study of fatigue damage in bioprosthetic heart valve biomaterials.

Tunability of collagen matrix mechanical properties via multiple modes of mineralization

Functionally graded, mineralized collagen tissues exist at soft-to-hard material attachments throughout the body. However, the details of how collagen and hydroxyapatite mineral (HA) interact are not fully understood, hampering efforts to develop tissue-engineered constructs that can assist with repair of injuries at the attachments of soft tissues to bone. In this study, spatial control of mineralization was achieved in collagen matrices using simulated body fluids (SBFs). Based upon previous observations of poor bonding between reconstituted collagen and HA deposited using SBF, we hypothesized that mineralizing collagen in the presence of fetuin (which inhibits surface mineralization) would lead to more mineral deposition within the scaffold and therefore a greater increase in stiffness and toughness compared with collagen mineralized without fetuin. We tested this hypothesis through integrated synthesis, mechanical testing and modelling of graded, mineralized reconstituted collagen constructs. Results supported the hypothesis, and further suggested that mineralization on the interior of reconstituted collagen constructs, as promoted by fetuin, led to superior bonding between HA and collagen. The results provide us guidance for the development of mineralized collagen scaffolds, with implications for bone and tendon-to-bone tissue engineering.

Evaluation of bioprosthetic heart valve failure using a matrix-fibril shear stress transfer approach

A matrix-fibril shear stress transfer approach is devised and developed in this paper to analyse the primary biomechanical factors which initiate the structural degeneration of the bioprosthetic heart valves (BHVs). Using this approach, the critical length of the collagen fibrils l c and the interface shear acting on the fibrils in both BHV and natural aortic valve (AV) tissues under physiological loading conditions are calculated and presented. It is shown that the required critical fibril length to provide effective reinforcement to the natural AV and the BHV tissue is l c  = 25.36 µm and l c  = 66.81 µm, respectively. Furthermore, the magnitude of the required shear force acting on fibril interface to break a cross-linked fibril in the BHV tissue is shown to be 38 µN, while the required interfacial force to break the bonds between the fibril and the surrounding extracellular matrix is 31 µN. Direct correlations are underpinned between these values and the ultimate failure strength and the failure mode of the BHV tissue compared with the natural AV, and are verified against the existing experimental data. The analyses presented in this paper explain the role of fibril interface shear and critical length in regulating the biomechanics of the structural failure of the BHVs, for the first time. This insight facilitates further understanding into the underlying causes of the structural degeneration of the BHVs in vivo.

Characterization of irreversible physio-mechanical processes in stretched fetal membranes

We perform bulge tests on live fetal membrane (FM) tissues that simulate the mechanical conditions prior to contractions. Experimental results reveal an irreversible mechanical behavior that appears during loading and is significantly different than the mechanical behavior that appears during unloading or in subsequent loading cycles. The irreversible behavior results in a residual strain that does not recover upon unloading and remains the same for at least 1h after the FM is unloaded. Surprisingly, the irreversible behavior demonstrates a linear stress-strain relation. We introduce a new model for the mechanical response of collagen tissues, which accounts for the irreversible deformation and provides predictions in agreement with our experimental results. The basic assumption of the model is that the constitutive stress-strain relationship of individual elements that compose the collagen fibers has a plateau segment during which an irreversible transformation/deformation occurs. Fittings of calculated and measured stress-strain curves reveal a well-defined single-value property of collagenous tissues, which is related to the threshold strain εth for irreversible transformation. Further discussion of several physio-mechanical processes that can induce irreversible behavior indicate that the most probable process, which is in agreement with our results for εth, is a phase transformation of collagen molecules from an α-helix to a β-sheet structure. A phase transformation is a manifestation of a significant change in the molecular structure of the collagen tissues that can alter connections with surrounding molecules and may lead to critical biological changes, e.g., an initiation of labor.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

This study is driven by the hypothesis that pre-contraction mechanical stretch of the fetal membrane (FM) can lead to a change in the microstructure of the FM, which in turn induces a critical biological (hormonal) change that leads to the initiation of labor. We present mechanical characterizations of live FM tissues that reveal a significant irreversible process and a new model for the mechanical response of collagen tissues, which accounts for this process. Fittings of calculated and measured results reveal a well-defined single-value property of collagenous tissues, which is related to the threshold strain for irreversible transformation. Further discussion indicates that the irreversible deformation is induced by a phase transformation of collagen molecules that can lead to critical biological changes.

Manipulation of in vitro collagen matrix architecture for scaffolds of improved physiological relevance

Type I collagen is a versatile biomaterial that is widely used in medical applications due to its weak antigenicity, robust biocompatibility, and its ability to be modified for a wide array of applications. As such, collagen has become a major component of many tissue engineering scaffolds, drug delivery platforms, and substrates for in vitro cell culture. In these applications, collagen constructs are fabricated to recapitulate a diverse set of conditions. Collagen fibrils can be aligned during or post-fabrication, cross-linked via numerous techniques, polymerized to create various fibril sizes and densities, and copolymerized into a wide array of composite scaffolds. Here, we review approaches that have been used to tune collagen to better recapitulate physiological environments for use in tissue engineering applications and studies of basic cell behavior. We discuss techniques to control fibril alignment, methods for cross-linking collagen constructs to modulate stiffness, and composite collagen constructs to better mimic physiological extracellular matrix.

Remodeling of fibrous extracellular matrices by contractile cells: predictions from discrete fiber network simulations

Contractile forces exerted on the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM) lead to the alignment and stretching of constituent fibers within the vicinity of cells. As a consequence, the matrix reorganizes to form thick bundles of aligned fibers that enable force transmission over distances larger than the size of the cells. Contractile force-mediated remodeling of ECM fibers has bearing on a number of physiologic and pathophysiologic phenomena. In this work, we present a computational model to capture cell-mediated remodeling within fibrous matrices using finite element-based discrete fiber network simulations. The model is shown to accurately capture collagen alignment, heterogeneous deformations, and long-range force transmission observed experimentally. The zone of mechanical influence surrounding a single contractile cell and the interaction between two cells are predicted from the strain-induced alignment of fibers. Through parametric studies, the effect of cell contractility and cell shape anisotropy on matrix remodeling and force transmission are quantified and summarized in a phase diagram. For highly contractile and elongated cells, we find a sensing distance that is ten times the cell size, in agreement with experimental observations.

The materials science of collagen

Collagen is the principal biopolymer in the extracellular matrix of both vertebrates and invertebrates. It is produced in specialized cells (fibroblasts) and extracted into the body by a series of intra and extracellular steps. It is prevalent in connective tissues, and the arrangement of collagen determines the mechanical response. In biomineralized materials, its fraction and spatial distribution provide the necessary toughness and anisotropy. We review the structure of collagen, with emphasis on its hierarchical arrangement, and present constitutive equations that describe its mechanical response, classified into three groups: hyperelastic macroscopic models based on strain energy in which strain energy functions are developed; macroscopic mathematical fits with a nonlinear constitutive response; structurally and physically based models where a constitutive equation of a linear elastic material is modified by geometric characteristics. Viscoelasticity is incorporated into the existing constitutive models and the effect of hydration is discussed. We illustrate the importance of collagen with descriptions of its organization and properties in skin, fish scales, and bone, focusing on the findings of our group.

Effect of 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide and N-hydroxysuccinimide concentrations on the mechanical and biological characteristics of cross-linked collagen fibres for tendon repair

Reconstituted type I collagen fibres have received considerable interest as tendon implant materials due to their chemical and structural similarity to the native tissue. Fibres produced through a semi-continuous extrusion process were cross-linked with different concentrations of the zero-length cross-linker 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) in combination with N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS). Tensile properties of the fibres were considered, along with imaging of both surface structure and fibrillar alignment. Resistance of the fibres to bacterial collagenase was investigated and fibre sections seeded with human tendon cells for biological characterization, including cell adhesion and proliferation. The work clearly demonstrated that whilst the concentration of EDC and NHS had no significant effect on the mechanics, a higher concentration was associated with higher collagenase resistance, but also provided a less attractive surface for cell adhesion and proliferation. A lower cross-linking concentration offered a more biocompatible material without reduction in mechanics and with a potentially more optimal degradability.

Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in a rabbit model using silk-collagen scaffold and comparison with autograft

The objective of the present study was to perform an in vivo assessment of a novel silk-collagen scaffold for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. First, a silk-collagen scaffold was fabricated by combining sericin-extracted knitted silk fibroin mesh and type I collagen to mimic the components of the ligament. Scaffolds were electron-beam sterilized and rolled up to replace the ACL in 20 rabbits in the scaffold group, and autologous semitendinosus tendons were used to reconstruct the ACL in the autograft control group. At 4 and 16 weeks after surgery, grafts were retrieved and analyzed for neoligament regeneration and tendon-bone healing. To evaluate neoligament regeneration, H&E and immunohistochemical staining was performed, and to assess tendon-bone healing, micro-CT, biomechanical test, H&E and Russell-Movat pentachrome staining were performed. Cell infiltration increased over time in the scaffold group, and abundant fibroblast-like cells were found in the core of the scaffold graft at 16 weeks postoperatively. Tenascin-C was strongly positive in newly regenerated tissue at 4 and 16 weeks postoperatively in the scaffold group, similar to observations in the autograft group. Compared with the autograft group, tendon-bone healing was better in the scaffold group with trabecular bone growth into the scaffold. The results indicate that the silk-collagen scaffold has considerable potential for clinical application.

The past, present and future in scaffold-based tendon treatments

Tendon injuries represent a significant clinical burden on healthcare systems worldwide. As the human population ages and the life expectancy increases, tendon injuries will become more prevalent, especially among young individuals with long life ahead of them. Advancements in engineering, chemistry and biology have made available an array of three-dimensional scaffold-based intervention strategies, natural or synthetic in origin. Further, functionalisation strategies, based on biophysical, biochemical and biological cues, offer control over cellular functions; localisation and sustained release of therapeutics/biologics; and the ability to positively interact with the host to promote repair and regeneration. Herein, we critically discuss current therapies and emerging technologies that aim to transform tendon treatments in the years to come.

Structure-based constitutive model can accurately predict planar biaxial properties of aortic wall tissue

Structure-based constitutive models might help in exploring mechanisms by which arterial wall histology is linked to wall mechanics. This study aims to validate a recently proposed structure-based constitutive model. Specifically, the model's ability to predict mechanical biaxial response of porcine aortic tissue with predefined collagen structure was tested. Histological slices from porcine thoracic aorta wall (n=9) were automatically processed to quantify the collagen fiber organization, and mechanical testing identified the non-linear properties of the wall samples (n=18) over a wide range of biaxial stretches. Histological and mechanical experimental data were used to identify the model parameters of a recently proposed multi-scale constitutive description for arterial layers. The model predictive capability was tested with respect to interpolation and extrapolation. Collagen in the media was predominantly aligned in circumferential direction (planar von Mises distribution with concentration parameter bM=1.03 ± 0.23), and its coherence decreased gradually from the luminal to the abluminal tissue layers (inner media, b=1.54 ± 0.40; outer media, b=0.72 ± 0.20). In contrast, the collagen in the adventitia was aligned almost isotropically (bA=0.27 ± 0.11), and no features, such as families of coherent fibers, were identified. The applied constitutive model captured the aorta biaxial properties accurately (coefficient of determination R(2)=0.95 ± 0.03) over the entire range of biaxial deformations and with physically meaningful model parameters. Good predictive properties, well outside the parameter identification space, were observed (R(2)=0.92 ± 0.04). Multi-scale constitutive models equipped with realistic micro-histological data can predict macroscopic non-linear aorta wall properties. Collagen largely defines already low strain properties of media, which explains the origin of wall anisotropy seen at this strain level. The structure and mechanical properties of adventitia are well designed to protect the media from axial and circumferential overloads.

Effect of fiber orientation of collagen-based electrospun meshes on human fibroblasts for ligament tissue engineering applications

Within the past two decades polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) has gained considerable attention as a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer that is suitable for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In this present study, we have investigated the potential of PLGA, collagen I (ColI), and polyurethane (PU) scaffolds for ligament tissue regeneration. Two different ratios of PLGA (50:50 and 85:15) were used to determine the effects on mechanical tensile properties and cell adhesion. The Young's modulus, tensile stress at yield, and ultimate tensile strain of PLGA(50:50)-ColI-PU scaffolds demonstrated similar tensile properties to that of ligaments found in the knee. Whereas, scaffolds composed of PLGA(85:15)-ColI-PU had lower tensile properties than that of ligaments. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of fiber orientation on mechanical properties and our results indicate that aligned fiber scaffolds demonstrate higher tensile properties than scaffolds with random fiber orientation. Also, human fibroblasts attached and proliferated with no need for additional surface modifications to the presented electrospun scaffolds in both categories. Collectively, our investigation demonstrates the effectiveness of electrospun PLGA scaffolds as a suitable candidate for regenerative medicine, capable of being manipulated and combined with other polymers to create three-dimensional microenvironments with adjustable tensile properties to mimic native tissues.

Long-range force transmission in fibrous matrices enabled by tension-driven alignment of fibers

Cells can sense and respond to mechanical signals over relatively long distances across fibrous extracellular matrices. Recently proposed models suggest that long-range force transmission can be attributed to the nonlinear elasticity or fibrous nature of collagen matrices, yet the mechanism whereby fibers align remains unknown. Moreover, cell shape and anisotropy of cellular contraction are not considered in existing models, although recent experiments have shown that they play crucial roles. Here, we explore all of the key factors that influence long-range force transmission in cell-populated collagen matrices: alignment of collagen fibers, responses to applied force, strain stiffening properties of the aligned fibers, aspect ratios of the cells, and the polarization of cellular contraction. A constitutive law accounting for mechanically driven collagen fiber reorientation is proposed. We systematically investigate the range of collagen-fiber alignment using both finite-element simulations and analytical calculations. Our results show that tension-driven collagen-fiber alignment plays a crucial role in force transmission. Small critical stretch for fiber alignment, large fiber stiffness and fiber strain-hardening behavior enable long-range interaction. Furthermore, the range of collagen-fiber alignment for elliptical cells with polarized contraction is much larger than that for spherical cells with diagonal contraction. A phase diagram showing the range of force transmission as a function of cell shape and polarization and matrix properties is presented. Our results are in good agreement with recent experiments, and highlight the factors that influence long-range force transmission, in particular tension-driven alignment of fibers. Our work has important relevance to biological processes including development, cancer metastasis, and wound healing, suggesting conditions whereby cells communicate over long distances.

Review of collagen I hydrogels for bioengineered tissue microenvironments: characterization of mechanics, structure, and transport

Type I collagen hydrogels have been used successfully as three-dimensional substrates for cell culture and have shown promise as scaffolds for engineered tissues and tumors. A critical step in the development of collagen hydrogels as viable tissue mimics is quantitative characterization of hydrogel properties and their correlation with fabrication parameters, which enables hydrogels to be tuned to match specific tissues or fulfill engineering requirements. A significant body of work has been devoted to characterization of collagen I hydrogels; however, due to the breadth of materials and techniques used for characterization, published data are often disjoint and hence their utility to the community is reduced. This review aims to determine the parameter space covered by existing data and identify key gaps in the literature so that future characterization and use of collagen I hydrogels for research can be most efficiently conducted. This review is divided into three sections: (1) relevant fabrication parameters are introduced and several of the most popular methods of controlling and regulating them are described, (2) hydrogel properties most relevant for tissue engineering are presented and discussed along with their characterization techniques, (3) the state of collagen I hydrogel characterization is recapitulated and future directions are proposed. Ultimately, this review can serve as a resource for selection of fabrication parameters and material characterization methodologies in order to increase the usefulness of future collagen-hydrogel-based characterization studies and tissue engineering experiments.

Protein-based materials in load-bearing tissue-engineering applications

Proteins such as collagen and elastin are robust molecules that constitute nanocomponents in the hierarchically organized ultrastructures of bone and tendon as well as in some of the soft tissues that have load-bearing functions. In the present paper, the macromolecular structure and function of the proteins are reviewed and the potential of mammalian and non-mammalian proteins in the engineering of load-bearing tissue substitutes are discussed. Chimeric proteins have become an important structural biomaterial source and their potential in tissue engineering is highlighted. Processing of proteins challenge investigators and in this review rapid prototyping and microfabrication are proposed as methods for obtaining precisely defined custom-built tissue engineered structures with intrinsic microarchitecture.

Controlled formation of cross-linked collagen fibers for neural tissue engineering applications

Fibrous scaffolds engineered to direct the growth of tissues can be important in forming architecturally functional tissue such as aligning regenerating nerves with their target. Collagen is a commonly used substrate used for neuronal growth applications in the form of surface coatings and hydrogels. The wet spinning technique can create collagen fibers without the use of organic solvents and is typically accomplished by extruding a collagen dispersion into a coagulation bath. To create well-controlled and uniform collagen fibers, we developed an automatic wet spinning device with precise control over the spinning and fiber collection parameters. A fiber collection belt allowed the continuous formation of very soft and delicate fibers up to half a meter in length. Wet-spun collagen fibers were characterized by tensile and thermal behavior, diameter uniformity, the swelling response in phosphate buffered saline and their biocompatibility with dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and Schwann cells. Fibers formed from 0.75% weight by volume (w/v) collagen dispersions formed the best fibers in terms of tensile behavior and fiber uniformity. Fibers post-treated with the cross-linkers glutaraldehyde and genipin exhibited increased mechanical stability and reduced swelling. Importantly, genipin-treated fibers were conducive to DRG neurons and Schwann cell survival and growth, which validated the use of this cross-linker for neural tissue engineering applications.

New development of carbonate apatite-chitosan scaffold based on lyophilization technique for bone tissue engineering

Carbonate apatite-chitosan scaffolds (CA-ChSs) were fabricated using the lyophilization technique. It was found that ChSs prepared with 200 mg chitosan powder (ChSs200) had well-structured three-dimensional architecture with high porosity and good retentive form without brittleness. In addition, it was shown that the number of osteoblast-like cells MC3T3-E1 proliferated on desalinated ChSs200 was larger than that on the non-desalinated ChSs200. CA-ChSs were fabricated by adding 100 mg carbonate apatite (CA) to 200 mg chitosan gels followed by freeze-drying (CA100ChSs200). SEM observation revealed that CA100ChSs200 had favorable three- dimensional porous structures. The number of living cells increased more rapidly on CA100ChSs200 prepared with different amounts of CA than on ChSs. ALP activity significantly increased after day 14 and reached a plateau after day 21 in ChSs200 and CA100ChSs200. It was concluded that newly developed CA100ChSs200 may be a possible scaffold material for tissue engineering.

A novel method to apply osteogenic potential of adipose derived stem cells in orthopaedic surgery

Background

A number of publications have reported that adipose derived stem cells (ADSCs) have the capacity to be induced to differentiate into osteoblasts both in vitro and in vivo. However, it has been difficult to use separate ADSCs for cortical bone regeneration and bone reconstruction so far. Inspired by the research around stromal stem cells and cell sheets, we developed a new method to fabricate ADSCs sheets to accelerate and enhance the bone regeneration and bone reconstruction.

Purpose

To fabricate ADSCs sheets and evaluate their capacity to be induced to differentiate to osteoblasts in vitro.

Methods

Human adipose derived stem cells (hADSCs) were employed in this research. The fabricating medium containing 50 µM ascorbate-2-phosphate was used to enhance the secretion of collagen protein by the ADSCs and thus to make the cell sheets of ADSCs. As the separate ADSCs were divided into osteo-induction group and control group, the ADSCs sheets were also divided into two groups depending on induction by osteogenesis medium or no induction. The osteogenic capacity of each group was evaluated by ALP staining, Alizarin Red staining and ALP activity.

Results

The ADSCs sheets were fabricated after one-week culture in the fabricating medium. The ALP staining of ADSCs sheets showed positive results after 5 days osteo-induction and the Alizarin Red staining of ADSCs sheets showed positive results after 1 week osteo-induction. The ALP activity showed significant differences between these four groups. The ALP activity of ADSCs sheets groups showed higher value than that of separate ADSCs.

Conclusion

The experiments demonstrated that ADSCs sheets have better capacity than separate ADSCs to be induced to differentiate into osteoblasts. This indicates that it is possible to use the ADSCs sheets as a source of mesenchymal stem cells for bone regeneration and bone reconstruction.

Fracture mechanics of collagen fibrils: influence of natural cross-links

Tendons are important load-bearing structures, which are frequently injured in both sports and work. Type I collagen fibrils are the primary components of tendons and carry most of the mechanical loads experienced by the tissue, however, knowledge of how load is transmitted between and within fibrils is limited. The presence of covalent enzymatic cross-links between collagen molecules is an important factor that has been shown to influence mechanical behavior of the tendons. To improve our understanding of how molecular bonds translate into tendon mechanics, we used an atomic force microscopy technique to measure the mechanical behavior of individual collagen fibrils loaded to failure. Fibrils from human patellar tendons, rat-tail tendons (RTTs), NaBH₄ reduced RTTs, and tail tendons of Zucker diabetic fat rats were tested. We found a characteristic three-phase stress-strain behavior in the human collagen fibrils. There was an initial rise in modulus followed by a plateau with reduced modulus, which was finally followed by an even greater increase in stress and modulus before failure. The RTTs also displayed the initial increase and plateau phase, but the third region was virtually absent and the plateau continued until failure. The importance of cross-link lability was investigated by NaBH₄ reduction of the rat-tail fibrils, which did not alter their behavior. These findings shed light on the function of cross-links at the fibril level, but further studies will be required to establish the underlying mechanisms.

In vitro two-dimensional and three-dimensional tenocyte culture for tendon tissue engineering

In order to examine the differentiation potential of the tenocytes expanded in our defined culture medium (reported previously) and the effect of sequential combination of the two culture conditions on human tenocytes, a two-dimensional and three-dimensional experimental approach was used. Human tenocytes were sequentially exposed to 1% fetal bovine serum (FBS) + 50 ng/ml platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGFBB ) + 50 ng/ml basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) for the first 14 days (expansion phase) followed by a further 14-day culture in the presence of 10 ng/ml transforming growth factor β-3 plus 50 ng/ml insulin-like growth factor 1, but in the absence of serum (differentiation phase). The results showed that by sequential treatment of human tenocytes maintaining a long-term two-dimensional tenocyte culture in vitro for up to 28 days was possible. These findings were further verified using a three-dimensional scaffold (Bombyx silk) whereby the tendon-like constructs formed resembled macroscopically and microscopically the constructs formed in 10% FBS supplemented culture media and the human hamstring tendon. These findings were further substantiated using haematoxylin and eosin staining, scanning electron microscopy and by immunohistochemical detection of type I collagen. In addition, the mechanical properties of the three-dimensional constructs were determined to be significantly superior to that of the natural human hamstring tendon. This is the first report to demonstrate a possible approach in expanding and differentiating human tenocytes for tendon tissue engineering.

Biocomposites reinforced by fibers or tubes as scaffolds for tissue engineering or regenerative medicine

As a dynamic and hierarchically organized composite, native extracellular matrix (ECM) not only supplies mechanical support, which the embedded cells need, but also regulates various cellular activities through interaction with them. On the basis of the ECM-mimetic principle, good biocompatibility and appropriate mechanical properties are the two basic requirements that the ideal scaffolds for the tissue engineering or regenerative medicine need. Some fibers and tubes have been shown effective to reinforce scaffolds for tissue engineering or regenerative medicine. In this review, three parts, namely properties affected by the addition of fibers or tubes, scaffolds reinforced by fibers or tubes for soft tissue repair, and scaffolds reinforced by fibers or tubes for hard tissue repair are stated, which shows that tissue repair or regeneration efficacy was enhanced significantly by fiber or tube reinforcement. In addition, it indicates that these reinforcing agents can improve the biocompatibility and biodegradation of the scaffolds in most cases. However, there are still some concerns, such as the homogeneousness in structure or composition throughout the reinforced scaffolds, the adhesive strength between the matrix and the fibers or tubes, cytotoxicity of nanoscaled reinforcing agents, etc., which were also discussed in the conclusion and perspectives part.

Type I collagen and polyvinyl alcohol blend fiber scaffold for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

The aim of this study was to perform an evaluation of a braided fiber scaffold for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. The scaffold was composed of 50% type I collagen (Col-I) and 50% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). First, the biocompatibility and in vitro weight loss of the scaffold were tested. Then, the scaffolds were used to reconstruct the ACL in China Bama mimi pigs. At 24 weeks post-operation, the mechanical properties and histology of the regenerated ACL were analyzed. The maximum load and tensile strength were 472.43± 15.2 N and 29.71± 0.96 MPa, respectively; both were ~75% of those of native ACL and ~90% of those of fiber scaffold. This indicated that the scaffold maintained a large portion of native ACL's mechanical properties, and tissue formation on the scaffold compensated most of the tensile strength loss caused by scaffold degradation. Histology and immunohistology analysis showed the morphology and major extracellular matrix components of the regenerated ligament resembled the native ACL. Thus, the Col-I/PVA blend fiber ACL scaffold showed good potential for clinical applications.

Effects of cysteine proteases on the structural and mechanical properties of collagen fibers

Excessive cathepsin K (catK)-mediated turnover of fibrillar type I and II collagens in bone and cartilage leads to osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. However, little is known about how catK degrades compact collagen macromolecules. The present study is aimed to explore the structural and mechanical consequences of collagen fiber degradation by catK. Mouse tail type I collagen fibers were incubated with either catK or non-collagenase cathepsins. Methods used include scanning electron microscopy, protein electrophoresis, atomic force microscopy, and tensile strength testing. Our study revealed evidence of proteoglycan network degradation, followed by the progressive disassembly of macroscopic collagen fibers into primary structural elements by catK. Proteolytically released GAGs are involved in the generation of collagenolytically active catK-GAG complexes as shown by AFM. In addition to their structural disintegration, a decrease in the tensile properties of fibers was observed due to the action of catK. The Young's moduli of untreated collagen fibers versus catK-treated fibers in dehydrated conditions were 3.2 ± 0.68 GPa and 1.9 ± 0.65 GPa, respectively. In contrast, cathepsin L, V, B, and S revealed no collagenase activity, except the disruption of proteoglycan-GAG interfibrillar bridges, which slightly decreased the tensile strength of fibers.

In situ cell-matrix mechanics in tendon fascicles and seeded collagen gels: implications for the multiscale design of biomaterials

Designing biomaterials to mimic and function within the complex mechanobiological conditions of connective tissues requires a detailed understanding of the micromechanical environment of the cell. The objective of our study was to measure the in situ cell-matrix strains from applied tension in both tendon fascicles and cell-seeded type I collagen scaffolds using laser scanning confocal microscopy techniques. Tendon fascicles and collagen gels were fluorescently labelled to simultaneously visualise the extracellular matrix and cell nuclei under applied tensile strains of 5%. There were significant differences observed in the micromechanics at the cell-matrix scale suggesting that the type I collagen scaffold did not replicate the pattern of native tendon strains. In particular, although the overall in situ tensile strains in the matrix were quite similar (∼2.5%) between the tendon fascicles and the collagen scaffolds, there were significant differences at the cell-matrix boundary with visible shear across cell nuclei of >1 μm measured in native tendon which was not observed at all in the collagen scaffolds. Similarly, there was significant non-uniformity of intercellular strains with relative sliding observed between cell rows in tendon which again was not observed in the collagen scaffolds where the strain environment was much more uniform. If the native micromechanical environment is not replicated in biomaterial scaffolds, then the cells may receive incorrect or mixed mechanical signals which could affect their biosynthetic response to mechanical load in tissue engineering applications. This study highlights the importance of considering the microscale mechanics in the design of biomaterial scaffolds and the need to incorporate such features in computational models of connective tissues.

Synthetic collagen fascicles for the regeneration of tendon tissue

The structure of an ideal scaffold for tendon regeneration must be designed to provide a mechanical, structural and chemotactic microenvironment for native cellular activity to synthesize functional (i.e. load bearing) tissue. Collagen fibre scaffolds for this application have shown some promise to date, although the microstructural control required to mimic the native tendon environment has yet to be achieved allowing for minimal control of critical in vivo properties such as degradation rate and mass transport. In this report we describe the fabrication of a novel multi-fibre collagen fascicle structure, based on type-I collagen with failure stress of 25-49 MPa, approximating the strength and structure of native tendon tissue. We demonstrate a microscopic fabrication process based on the automated assembly of type-I collagen fibres with the ability to produce a controllable fascicle-like, structural motif allowing variable numbers of fibres per fascicle. We have confirmed that the resulting post-fabrication type-I collagen structure retains the essential phase behaviour, alignment and spectral characteristics of aligned native type-I collagen. We have also shown that both ovine tendon fibroblasts and human white blood cells in whole blood readily infiltrate the matrix on a macroscopic scale and that these cells adhere to the fibre surface after seven days in culture. The study has indicated that the synthetic collagen fascicle system may be a suitable biomaterial scaffold to provide a rationally designed implantable matrix material to mediate tendon repair and regeneration.

Natural stiffening increases flaw tolerance of biological fibers

Many fibers in biomaterials such as tendon, elastin, or silk feature a nonlinear stiffening behavior of the stress-strain relationship, where the rigidity of the material increases severely as the material is being stretched. Here we show that such nonlinear stiffening is beneficial for a fiber's ability to withstand cracks, leading to a flaw tolerant state in which stress concentrations around cracks are diminished. Our findings, established by molecular mechanics and the derivation of a theoretical scaling law, explain experimentally observed fiber sizes in a range of biomaterials and point to the importance of nonlinear stiffening to enhance their fracture properties. Our study suggests that nonlinear stiffening provides a mechanism by which nanoscale mechanical properties can be scaled up, providing a means towards bioinspired fibrous material and structural design.

Breast epithelial tissue morphology is affected in 3D cultures by species-specific collagen-based extracellular matrix

Collagen-based gels have been widely used to determine the factors that regulate branching morphogenesis in the mammary gland. The patterns of biomechanical gradients and collagen reorganization influence the shape and orientation of epithelial structures in three-dimensional (3D) conditions. We explored in greater detail whether collagen type I fibers with distinct biomechanical and fiber-assembling properties, isolated from either bovine or rat tail tendon, differentially affected the epithelial phenotype in a tissue culture model of the human breast. Rat tail collagen fibers were densely packed into significantly longer and thicker bundles compared to those of the bovine type (average fascicle length 7.35 and 2.29 μm, respectively; p = 0.0001), indicating increased fiber alignment and biomechanical enablement in the former. MCF10A epithelial cells formed elaborated branched tubular structures in bovine but only nonbranched ducts and acini in rat tail collagen matrices. Ductal branching in bovine collagen was associated with interactions between neighboring structures mediated through packed collagen fibers; these fiber-mediated interactions were absent in rat tail collagen gels. Normal breast fibroblasts increased the final size and number of ducts only in rat tail collagen gels while not affecting branching. Our results suggest that the species of origin of collagen used in organotypic cultures may influence epithelial differentiation into alveolar or ductal structures and the patterns of epithelial branching. These observations underscore the importance of considering the species of origin and fiber alignment properties of collagen when engineering branching organs in 3D matrices and interpreting their role in the tissue phenotype.

Rotator cuff regeneration using a bioabsorbable material with bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in a rabbit model

BACKGROUND

Rotator cuff regeneration using tissue engineering techniques is a challenging treatment in elderly patients with irreparable rotator cuff tears.

HYPOTHESIS

A polyglycolic acid sheet scaffold with seeded mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may enhance the expression of type I collagen products and increase the mechanical strength of the regenerated tendon in vivo.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

METHODS

A surgically created defect of infraspinatus tendons of rabbits was reconstructed with 2 different materials, a polyglycolic acid (PGA) sheet alone (PGA group) (n = 34) and a PGA sheet seeded with autologously cultured MSCs (MSC group) (n = 34). The authors created a tendon defect model without embedding any graft as the control model (control group) (n = 34). The rabbits were sacrificed at 4, 8, and 16 weeks after the operation and then were histologically evaluated. The rabbits were also biomechanically evaluated by measuring the ultimate failure loads and Young's modulus at 4 and 16 weeks following implantation.

RESULTS

In the MSC group, the fibrocartilage layers and Sharpey fibers were found regularly in the insertion site at 8 weeks compared with the PGA group. In control group, thin membranes with many fibroblasts arranged in an irregular pattern linked the end of the torn cuff to the bone without any Sharpey fibers and type I collagen. A large volume of type I collagen was found in comparison with type III collagen at 16 weeks in the MSC group, whereas type III collagen was more prevalent than type I in the PGA group. The tendon maturing score in the MSC group had higher values than the PGA and control groups at 8 and 16 weeks (mean values were 21.0 ± 0.89, 24.0 ± 2.53 in the MSC group; 16.7 ± 2.25, 21.3 ± 2.42 in the PGA group; and 10.2 ± 0.98, 12.2 ± 1.72 in the control group, respectively) (P < .05). The results of the mechanical analysis revealed that the regenerated tendons in the MSC group had better tensile strength than in the PGA and control groups at 16 weeks (mean values were 3.04 ± 0.54 in the MSC group, 2.38 ± 0.63 in the PGA group, and 1.58 ± 0.13 in the control group) (P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Bone marrow-derived MSCs were able to regenerate tendon-bone insertions and the tendon belly, including the production of type I collagen, and increased the mechanical strength of the regenerated rotator cuff tendon.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Rotator cuff regeneration using MSCs is a promising treatment for massive rotator cuff defects.

Combining flagelliform and dragline spider silk motifs to produce tunable synthetic biopolymer fibers

The two Flag/MaSp 2 silk proteins produced recombinantly were based on the basic consensus repeat of the dragline silk spidroin 2 protein (MaSp 2) from the Nephila clavipes orb weaving spider. However, the proline-containing pentapeptides juxtaposed to the polyalanine segments resembled those found in the flagelliform silk protein (Flag) composing the web spiral: (GPGGX(1) GPGGX(2))(2) with X(1) /X(2) = A/A or Y/S. Fibers were formed from protein films in aqueous solutions or extruded from resolubilized protein dopes in organic conditions when the Flag motif was (GPGGX(1) GPGGX(2))(2) with X(1) /X(2) = Y/S or A/A, respectively. Post-fiber processing involved similar drawing ratios (2-2.5×) before or after water-treatment. Structural (ssNMR and XRD) and morphological (SEM) changes in the fibers were compared to the mechanical properties of the fibers at each step. Nuclear magnetic resonance indicated that the fraction of β-sheet nanocrystals in the polyalanine regions formed upon extrusion, increased during stretching, and was maximized after water-treatment. X-ray diffraction showed that nanocrystallite orientation parallel to the fiber axis increased the ultimate strength and initial stiffness of the fibers. Water furthered nanocrystal orientation and three-dimensional growth while plasticizing the amorphous regions, thus producing tougher fibers due to increased extensibility. These fibers were highly hygroscopic and had similar internal network organization, thus similar range of mechanical properties that depended on their diameters. The overall structure of the consensus repeat of the silk-like protein dictated the mechanical properties of the fibers while protein molecular weight limited these same properties. Subtle structural motif re-design impacted protein self-assembly mechanisms and requirements for fiber formation.

Functionalized poly(γ-Glutamic Acid) fibrous scaffolds for tissue engineering

Poly(γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA) is a biocompatible, enzymatically-degradable, natural polymer with a higher resistance to hydrolysis than polyesters commonly used for tissue engineering scaffolds such as poly(L-lactide) (PLLA). Notably, γ-PGA's free carboxyl side groups allow for simple chemical functionalization, making it a versatile candidate for producing scaffolds. Here, a series of water-resistant fibrous scaffolds were engineered from ethyl (Et), propyl (Pr) and benzyl (Bn) esterifications of γ-PGA. All scaffolds were non-cytotoxic and γ-PGA-Bn showed an increase in cell adhesion of hMSCs compared to γ-PGA-Et and γ-PGA-Pr. Moreover, cells on γ-PGA-Bn showed three-fold higher viability at day 14 and significantly higher adhesion when compared with PLLA scaffolds, despite having a similar hydrophobicity. Cell attachment decreased by 40% when the polymer was only partially modified with benzyl groups (γ-PGA-Bn-77%), but was restored when integrin-binding RGD peptide was conjugated to the remaining free carboxylic groups, indicating the peptide was accessible and able to bind integrins. The mechanism behind the cell-material interactions on γ-PGA-Bn scaffolds was further investigated through protein adsorption and fibronectin conformation experiments. These results, in addition to the cell-adhesion studies, suggest an inherent effect of the benzyl modification in the mechanism of cell attachment to γ-PGA-Bn scaffolds. Finally, γ-PGA-Bn scaffolds cultured in osteogenic media were also efficient in supporting hMSCs differentiation towards an osteogenic lineage as determined by alkaline phosphatase and Runx2 gene expression. Taken together these data suggest that esterified γ-PGA polymer scaffolds are new and versatile candidates for tissue engineering applications and that, intriguingly, aromatic functionality plays a key role in the cell-scaffold interaction.

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR UNDER UNCONFINED COMPRESSION LOADINGS OF DENSE FIBRILLAR COLLAGEN MATRICES MIMETIC OF LIVING TISSUES

Bio-artificial tissues are being developed as replacements for damaged biologic tissues and their mechanical properties are critical for load-bearing applications. Reconstituted dense three-dimensional (3D) fibrillar collagen matrices are promising materials for tissue engineering, at the light of their interaction with fibroblasts.1,2 The mechanical properties of these fibrillar collagen matrices are now being characterized under unconfined compression loading for various strain rates and collagen concentrations. The data were compared to those obtained in the same conditions with a biological tissue, the rat dermis. The results show a very sensitive behavior to both the displacement rate, typical of biological soft tissues, and the collagen concentration varying between 5 and 40 mg/ml. The link between the mechanical properties and the microscopic structure of the collagen scaffolds show an increasing viscoelastic modulus with respect to the fibril density. It is found that the matrices at 5 mg/ml and the dorsal rat skin (DRS) exhibit similar stress–strain response when submitted to the same external unconfined compression load. Such results highlight the interest of these matrices as potential tissue substitutes.