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Koskela M, Bäck S, Võikar V, Richie CT, Domanskyi A, Harvey BK, Airavaara M. Update of neurotrophic factors in neurobiology of addiction and future directions. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 97:189-200. [PMID: 27189755 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug addiction is a chronic brain disease and drugs of abuse cause long lasting neuroadaptations. Addiction is characterized by the loss of control over drug use despite harmful consequences, and high rates of relapse even after long periods of abstinence. Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are well known for their actions on neuronal survival in the peripheral nervous system. Moreover, NTFs have been shown to be involved in synaptic plasticity in the brain. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) are two of the most studied NTFs and both of them have been reported to increase craving when administered into the mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system after drug self-administration. Here we review recent data on BDNF and GDNF functions in addiction-related behavior and discuss them in relation to previous findings. Finally, we give an insight into how new technologies could aid in further elucidating the role of these factors in drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryna Koskela
- Institute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Susanne Bäck
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Vootele Võikar
- Neuroscience Center, P.O. Box 56, 00014, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Christopher T Richie
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Andrii Domanskyi
- Institute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Brandon K Harvey
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mikko Airavaara
- Institute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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102
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Reilly KM. Using the Collaborative Cross to Study the Role of Genetic Diversity in Cancer-Related Phenotypes. Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2016; 2016:pdb.prot079178. [PMID: 26933242 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.prot079178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Human populations are genetically diverse and often a single mouse model can only represent a small subset of the human population. Studying genetic diversity directly can improve the predictive value of mouse models of cancer biology and research on the effects of carcinogens and therapeutics in humans. The collaborative cross is a panel of inbred mouse lines that captures 90% of the genetic diversity of the Mus musculus strain and can help identify regions of the genome that are responsible for variation in cancer phenotypes across the population. The appropriate procedure will depend on the mouse model used; here, three mouse cross designs are described as examples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlyne M Reilly
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland 21702
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103
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Kalueff AV, Echevarria DJ, Homechaudhuri S, Stewart AM, Collier AD, Kaluyeva AA, Li S, Liu Y, Chen P, Wang J, Yang L, Mitra A, Pal S, Chaudhuri A, Roy A, Biswas M, Roy D, Podder A, Poudel MK, Katare DP, Mani RJ, Kyzar EJ, Gaikwad S, Nguyen M, Song C. Zebrafish neurobehavioral phenomics for aquatic neuropharmacology and toxicology research. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 170:297-309. [PMID: 26372090 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are rapidly emerging as an important model organism for aquatic neuropharmacology and toxicology research. The behavioral/phenotypic complexity of zebrafish allows for thorough dissection of complex human brain disorders and drug-evoked pathological states. As numerous zebrafish models become available with a wide spectrum of behavioral, genetic, and environmental methods to test novel drugs, here we discuss recent zebrafish phenomics methods to facilitate drug discovery, particularly in the field of biological psychiatry. Additionally, behavioral, neurological, and endocrine endpoints are becoming increasingly well-characterized in zebrafish, making them an inexpensive, robust and effective model for toxicology research and pharmacological screening. We also discuss zebrafish behavioral phenotypes, experimental considerations, pharmacological candidates and relevance of zebrafish neurophenomics to other 'omics' (e.g., genomic, proteomic) approaches. Finally, we critically evaluate the limitations of utilizing this model organism, and outline future strategies of research in the field of zebrafish phenomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan V Kalueff
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China; The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA; Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia; Chemical-Technological Institute and Institute of Natural Sciences, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg 620002, Russia.
| | - David J Echevarria
- The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Sumit Homechaudhuri
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Adam Michael Stewart
- The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA
| | - Adam D Collier
- The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | | | - Shaomin Li
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China
| | - Yingcong Liu
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China
| | - Peirong Chen
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China
| | - JiaJia Wang
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China
| | - Anisa Mitra
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Subharthi Pal
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Adwitiya Chaudhuri
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Anwesha Roy
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Missidona Biswas
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Dola Roy
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Anupam Podder
- Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Manoj K Poudel
- The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA
| | - Deepshikha P Katare
- Proteomics and Translational Research Lab, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201303, UP, India
| | - Ruchi J Mani
- Proteomics and Translational Research Lab, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201303, UP, India
| | - Evan J Kyzar
- The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1601 W Taylor St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Siddharth Gaikwad
- Graduate Institute of Neural and Cognitive Sciences, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Michael Nguyen
- The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA 70458, USA; ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA
| | - Cai Song
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China; Graduate Institute of Neural and Cognitive Sciences, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
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104
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Bradman MJ, Ferrini F, Salio C, Merighi A. Practical mechanical threshold estimation in rodents using von Frey hairs/Semmes–Weinstein monofilaments: Towards a rational method. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 255:92-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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105
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Stewart AM, Kaluyeva AA, Poudel MK, Nguyen M, Song C, Kalueff AV. Building Zebrafish Neurobehavioral Phenomics: Effects of Common Environmental Factors on Anxiety and Locomotor Activity. Zebrafish 2015; 12:339-48. [DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2015.1106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Adam Michael Stewart
- International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), ZENEREI Institute, Slidell, Louisiana
| | - Alexandra A. Kaluyeva
- International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), ZENEREI Institute, Slidell, Louisiana
| | - Manoj K. Poudel
- International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), ZENEREI Institute, Slidell, Louisiana
| | - Michael Nguyen
- International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), ZENEREI Institute, Slidell, Louisiana
| | - Cai Song
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University (GDOU), Zhanjiang, China
| | - Allan V. Kalueff
- International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), ZENEREI Institute, Slidell, Louisiana
- Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University (GDOU), Zhanjiang, China
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University (SPSU), St. Petersburg, Russia
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106
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Abstract
In this article, we refer to an original opinion paper written by Prof. Frank Beach in 1950 ("The Snark was a Boojum"). In his manuscript, Beach explicitly criticised the field of comparative psychology because of the disparity between the original understanding of comparativeness and its practical overly specialised implementation. Specialisation encompassed both experimental species (rats accounted for 70% of all subjects) and test paradigms (dominated by conditioning/learning experiments). Herein, we attempt to evaluate the extent to which these considerations apply to current behavioural neuroscience. Such evaluation is particularly interesting in the context of "translational research" that has recently gained growing attention. As a community, we believe that preclinical findings are intended to inform clinical practice at the level of therapies and knowledge advancements. Yet, limited reproducibility of experimental results and failures to translate preclinical research into clinical trial sindicate that these expectations are not entirely fulfilled. Theoretical considerations suggest that, before concluding that a given phenomenon is of relevance to our species, it should be observed in more than a single experimental model (be it an animal strain or species) and tested in more than a single standardized test battery. Yet, current approaches appear limited in terms of variability and overspecialised in terms of operative procedures. Specifically, as in 1950, rodents (mice instead of rats) still constitute the vast majority of animal species investigated. Additionally, the scientific community strives to homogenise experimental test strategies, thereby not only limiting the generalizability of the findings, but also working against the design of innovative approaches. Finally, we discuss the importance of evolutionary-adaptive considerations within the field of laboratory research. Specifically, resting upon empirical evidence indicating that developing individuals adjust their long-term phenotype according to early environmental demands, we propose that current rearing and housing standards do not adequately prepare experimental subjects to their actual adult environments. Specifically, while the adult life of a laboratory animal is characterized by frequent stimulations and challenges, the neonatal life is dominated by quietness and stability. We suggest that such form of mismatch may remarkably influence the reproducibility and reliability of experimental findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Macrì
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Roma, Italy
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, Institute of Neuro and Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestraße 13, 48149 Münster, Germany
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107
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Model homes for model organisms: Intersections of animal welfare and behavioral neuroscience around the environment of the laboratory mouse. BIOSOCIETIES 2015. [DOI: 10.1057/biosoc.2015.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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108
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Ackert-Bicknell CL, Anderson LC, Sheehan S, Hill WG, Chang B, Churchill GA, Chesler EJ, Korstanje R, Peters LL. Aging Research Using Mouse Models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 5:95-133. [PMID: 26069080 DOI: 10.1002/9780470942390.mo140195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Despite the dramatic increase in human lifespan over the past century, there remains pronounced variability in "health-span," or the period of time in which one is generally healthy and free of disease. Much of the variability in health-span and lifespan is thought to be genetic in origin. Understanding the genetic mechanisms of aging and identifying ways to boost longevity is a primary goal in aging research. Here, we describe a pipeline of phenotypic assays for assessing mouse models of aging. This pipeline includes behavior/cognition testing, body composition analysis, and tests of kidney function, hematopoiesis, and immune function, as well as physical parameters. We also describe study design methods for assessing lifespan and health-span, and other important considerations when conducting aging research in the laboratory mouse. The tools and assays provided can assist researchers with understanding the correlative relationships between age-associated phenotypes and, ultimately, the role of specific genes in the aging process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl L Ackert-Bicknell
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine.,Present address: University of Rochester, Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Rochester, New York
| | | | | | - Warren G Hill
- Laboratory of Voiding Dysfunction, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Bo Chang
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine
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109
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Labots M, Van Lith HA, Ohl F, Arndt SS. The modified hole board--measuring behavior, cognition and social interaction in mice and rats. J Vis Exp 2015:52529. [PMID: 25938188 PMCID: PMC4541485 DOI: 10.3791/52529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure multiple dimensions of unconditioned behavior in small laboratory mammals (e.g., mice, rats, tree shrews and small primates). This paradigm is a valuable alternative for the use of a behavioral test battery, since a broad behavioral spectrum of an animal's behavioral profile can be investigated in one single test. The apparatus consists of a box, representing the 'protected' area, separated from a group compartment. A board, on which small cylinders are staggered in three lines, is placed in the center of the box, representing the 'unprotected' area of the set-up. The cognitive abilities of the animals can be measured by baiting some cylinders on the board and measuring the working and reference memory. Other unconditioned behavior, such as activity-related-, anxiety-related- and social behavior, can be observed using this paradigm. Behavioral flexibility and the ability to habituate to a novel environment can additionally be observed by subjecting the animals to multiple trials in the mHB, revealing insight into the animals' adaptive capacities. Due to testing order effects in a behavioral test battery, naïve animals should be used for each individual experiment. By testing multiple behavioral dimensions in a single paradigm and thereby circumventing this issue, the number of experimental animals used is reduced. Furthermore, by avoiding social isolation during testing and without the need to food deprive the animals, the mHB represents a behavioral test system, inducing if any, very low amount of stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike Labots
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus;
| | - Hein A Van Lith
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus
| | - Frauke Ohl
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus
| | - Saskia S Arndt
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus
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110
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van Lith HA, Laarakker MC, Lozeman-van't Klooster JG, Ohl F. Chromosomal assignment of quantitative trait loci influencing baseline circulating total cholesterol level in male laboratory mice: report of a consomic strain survey and comparison with published results. BMC Res Notes 2015; 8:128. [PMID: 25889519 PMCID: PMC4404604 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-015-1078-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background An important risk for atherosclerosis is a low level of HDL cholesterol. Baseline HDL cholesterol is under complex genetic and environmental control. Here we report on results of male mice from a consomic strain survey and the parental inbred strains for baseline circulating total cholesterol concentration, which is almost the same as HDL cholesterol in chow fed mice. The consomic strains have been derived from C57BL/6J (host strain) and A/J (donor strain) inbred lines. The work contributes to the value of the mouse as an animal model for studying the genetic background of differences in baseline circulating total and HDL cholesterol levels. Results The consomic strain survey suggested that mouse chromosomes 1, 7, 9, 14, 16, 17, 19, X, and Y contained at least one quantitative trait locus that is involved in baseline circulating total cholesterol concentration. All consomic lines, for which there is evidence that the substituted chromosome contains a quantitative trait locus, increase compared to the host strain baseline circulating total cholesterol concentration. Since there is evidence that ‘body weight’, ‘age at blood sampling’, ‘time of the day blood was collected’, and ‘season’ influence this phenotype, additional statistical analyses (with these variables as covariates) were performed. Now there is only evidence for quantitative trait loci on chromosomes 1, 8, 12, and Y. Taken the present results together with previous consomic strain surveys there is evidence that all mouse chromosomes carry quantitative trait loci that control baseline circulating total cholesterol levels. There was however little agreement between the present consomic strain results and previous sets of data. This might be explained by seasonal effects and differences in methodological variables such as age of the mice, fasting versus non-fasting, percentage of dietary fat, unanesthetized versus anesthetized mice, and the daily light–dark cycle. Conclusions The present findings, when compared with previous consomic strain surveys, clearly illustrate the complexity of the genetic-environmental architecture for the regulation of baseline circulating total cholesterol levels in mice. Different data can be obtained from different labs and it underscores that animal geneticists should present as accurate a picture as possible of the laboratory mouse’s environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hein A van Lith
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Marijke C Laarakker
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Current address: Boston Scientific Nederland B.V., Nieuwegein, The Netherlands.
| | - José G Lozeman-van't Klooster
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Frauke Ohl
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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111
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Rohrs EL, Kloefkorn HE, Lakes EH, Jacobs BY, Neubert JK, Caudle RM, Allen KD. A novel operant-based behavioral assay of mechanical allodynia in the orofacial region of rats. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 248:1-6. [PMID: 25823368 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detecting behaviors related to orofacial pain in rodent models often relies on subjective investigator grades or methods that place the animal in a stressful environment. In this study, an operant-based behavioral assay is presented for the assessment of orofacial tactile sensitivity in the rat. NEW METHODS In the testing chamber, rats are provided access to a sweetened condensed milk bottle; however, a 360° array of stainless steel wire loops impedes access. To receive the reward, an animal must engage the wires across the orofacial region. Contact with the bottle triggers a motor, requiring the animal to accept increasing pressure on the face during the test. To evaluate this approach, tolerated bottle distance was measured for 10 hairless Sprague Dawley rats at baseline and 30 min after application of capsaicin cream (0.1%) to the face. The experiment was repeated to evaluate the ability of morphine to reverse this effect. RESULTS The application of capsaicin cream reduced tolerated bottle distance measures relative to baseline (p<0.05). As long as morphine did not cause reduced participation due to sedation, subcutaneous morphine dosing reduced the effects of capsaicin (p<0.001). Comparison with existing method: For behavioral tests, experimenters often make subjective decisions of an animal's response. Operant methods can reduce these effects by measuring an animal's selection in a reward-conflict decision. Herein, a method to measure orofacial sensitivity is presented using an operant system. CONCLUSIONS This operant device allows for consistent measurement of heightened tactile sensitivity in the orofacial regions of the rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric L Rohrs
- J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, 1275 Center Drive Biomedical Sciences Building, JG56, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States.
| | - Heidi E Kloefkorn
- J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, 1275 Center Drive Biomedical Sciences Building, JG56, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States.
| | - Emily H Lakes
- J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, 1275 Center Drive Biomedical Sciences Building, JG56, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States; Institute for Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
| | - Brittany Y Jacobs
- J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, 1275 Center Drive Biomedical Sciences Building, JG56, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States.
| | - John K Neubert
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Pain Research and Intervention Center of Excellence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
| | - Robert M Caudle
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Pain Research and Intervention Center of Excellence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
| | - Kyle D Allen
- J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, 1275 Center Drive Biomedical Sciences Building, JG56, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States; Pain Research and Intervention Center of Excellence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Institute for Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Nanoscience Institute for Medical and Engineering Technology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
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112
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Rodriguez-Zas SL, Nixon SE, Lawson MA, Mccusker RH, Southey BR, O'Connor JC, Dantzer R, Kelley KW. Advancing the understanding of behaviors associated with Bacille Calmette Guérin infection using multivariate analysis. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 44:176-86. [PMID: 25300921 PMCID: PMC4275396 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral indicators in the murine Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) model of inflammation have been studied individually; however, the variability of the behaviors across BCG levels and the mouse-to-mouse variation within BCG-treatment group are only partially understood. The objectives of this study were: (1) to gain a comprehensive understanding of sickness and depression-like behaviors in a BCG model of inflammation using multivariate approaches, and (2) to explore behavioral differences between BCG-treatment groups and among mice within group. Adult mice were challenged with either 0mg (saline), 5mg or 10mg of BCG (BCG-treatment groups: BCG0, BCG5, or BCG10, respectively) at Day 0 of the experiment. Sickness indicators included body weight changes between Day 0 and Day 2 and between Day 2 and Day 5, and horizontal locomotor activity and vertical activity (rearing) measured at Day 6. Depression-like indicators included duration of immobility in the forced swim test and in the tail suspension test at Day 6 and sucrose consumption in the sucrose preference test at Day 7. The simultaneous consideration of complementary sickness and depression-like indicators enabled a more precise characterization of behavioral changes associated with BCG-treatment and of mouse-to-mouse variation, relative to the analysis of indicators individually. Univariate and multivariate analyses confirmed differences between BCG-treatment groups in weight change early on the trial. Significant differences between BCG-treatment groups in depression-like behaviors were still measurable after Day 5. The potential for multivariate models to account for the correlation between behavioral indicators and to augment the analytical precision relative to univariate models was demonstrated both for sickness and for depression-like indicators. Unsupervised learning approaches revealed the complementary information provided by the sickness and depression-like indicators considered. Supervised learning approaches using cross-validation confirmed subtle differences between BCG-treatment groups and among mice within group identified by the consideration of sickness and depression-like indicators. These findings support the recommendation for multivariate and multidimensional analyses of sickness and depression-like indicators to augment the systemic understanding of the behavioral changes associated with infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra L Rodriguez-Zas
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA; Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
| | - Scott E Nixon
- Illinois Informatics Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Marcus A Lawson
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Robert H Mccusker
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Bruce R Southey
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jason C O'Connor
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Robert Dantzer
- Department of Symptom Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Keith W Kelley
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Boerner KE, Schinkel M, Chambers CT. It is not as simple as boys versus girls: the role of sex differences in pain across the lifespan. Pain Manag 2015; 5:1-4. [DOI: 10.2217/pmt.14.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Katelynn E Boerner
- Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, IWK Health Centre, Canada
- Centre for Pediatric Pain Research, K8536 (8th floor, Children's site), IWK Health Centre, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3K 6R8 Canada
| | - Meghan Schinkel
- Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, IWK Health Centre, Canada
- Centre for Pediatric Pain Research, K8536 (8th floor, Children's site), IWK Health Centre, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3K 6R8 Canada
| | - Christine T Chambers
- Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, IWK Health Centre, Canada
- Centre for Pediatric Pain Research, K8536 (8th floor, Children's site), IWK Health Centre, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3K 6R8 Canada
- Pediatrics, Dalhousie University, IWK Health Centre, Canada
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114
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Luna SPL, Lopes C, Rosa AC, Oliveira FA, Crosignani N, Taylor PM, Pantoja JC. Validation of mechanical, electrical and thermal nociceptive stimulation methods in horses. Equine Vet J 2014; 47:609-14. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. P. L. Luna
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesiology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Univ Estadual Paulista, UNESP; Botucatu SP Brazil
| | - C. Lopes
- Department of Anesthesiology; Faculty of Medicine; Univ Estadual Paulista, UNESP; Botucatu SP Brazil
| | - A. C. Rosa
- Department of Anesthesiology; Faculty of Medicine; Univ Estadual Paulista, UNESP; Botucatu SP Brazil
| | - F. A. Oliveira
- Department of Anesthesiology; Faculty of Medicine; Univ Estadual Paulista, UNESP; Botucatu SP Brazil
| | - N. Crosignani
- Department of Anesthesiology; Faculty of Medicine; Univ Estadual Paulista, UNESP; Botucatu SP Brazil
| | | | - J. C. Pantoja
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene and Public Health; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Univ Estadual Paulista, UNESP; Botucatu SP Brazil
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115
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Leonelli S, Ankeny RA, Nelson NC, Ramsden E. Making organisms model human behavior: situated models in North-American alcohol research, since 1950. SCIENCE IN CONTEXT 2014; 27:485-509. [PMID: 25233743 PMCID: PMC4274764 DOI: 10.1017/s0269889714000155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
We examine the criteria used to validate the use of nonhuman organisms in North-American alcohol addiction research from the 1950s to the present day. We argue that this field, where the similarities between behaviors in humans and non-humans are particularly difficult to assess, has addressed questions of model validity by transforming the situatedness of non-human organisms into an experimental tool. We demonstrate that model validity does not hinge on the standardization of one type of organism in isolation, as often the case with genetic model organisms. Rather, organisms are viewed as necessarily situated: they cannot be understood as a model for human behavior in isolation from their environmental conditions. Hence the environment itself is standardized as part of the modeling process; and model validity is assessed with reference to the environmental conditions under which organisms are studied.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rachel A. Ankeny
- School of History & Politics, University of Adelaide, Napier 423, Adelaide 5005 SA, Australia,
| | - Nicole C. Nelson
- Department of Social Studies of Medicine, McGill University, 3647 Peel Room 207, Montreal QC, H3A 1X1, Canada,
| | - Edmund Ramsden
- Centre for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Simon Building, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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116
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Erasmus M, Swanson J. Temperamental turkeys: Reliability of behavioural responses to four tests of fear. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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117
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Sittig LJ, Jeong C, Tixier E, Davis J, Barrios-Camacho CM, Palmer AA. Phenotypic instability between the near isogenic substrains BALB/cJ and BALB/cByJ. Mamm Genome 2014; 25:564-72. [PMID: 24997021 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-014-9531-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Closely related substrains of inbred mice often show phenotypic differences that are presumed to be caused by recent mutations. The substrains BALB/cJ and BALB/cByJ, which were separated in 1935, have been reported to show numerous highly significant behavioral and morphological differences. In an effort to identify some of the causal mutations, we phenotyped BALB/cJ and BALB/cByJ mice as well as their F1, F2, and N2 progeny for behavioral and morphological phenotypes. We also generated whole-genome sequence data for both inbred strains (~3.5× coverage) with the intention of identifying polymorphic markers to be used for linkage analysis. We observed significant differences in body weight, the weight of the heart, liver, spleen and brain, and corpus callosum length between the two substrains. We also observed that BALB/cJ animals showed greater anxiety-like behavior in the open field test, less depression-like behavior in the tail suspension test, and reduced aggression compared to BALB/cByJ mice. Some but not all of these physiological and behavioral results were inconsistent with prior publications. These inconsistencies led us to suspect that the differences were due to, or modified by, non-genetic factors. Thus, we did not perform linkage analysis. We provide a comprehensive summary of the prior literature about phenotypic differences between these substrains as well as our current findings. We conclude that many differences between these strains are unstable and therefore ill-suited to linkage analysis; the source of this instability is unclear. We discuss the broader implications of these observations for the design of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Sittig
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, 920 E 58th St. CLSC-501, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA,
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118
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Bryant CD, Guido MA, Kole LA, Cheng R. The heritability of oxycodone reward and concomitant phenotypes in a LG/J × SM/J mouse advanced intercross line. Addict Biol 2014; 19:552-61. [PMID: 23231598 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The rewarding property of opioids likely contributes to their abuse potential. Therefore, determining the genetic basis of opioid reward could aid in understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of opioid addiction, provided that it is a heritable trait. Here, we characterized the rewarding property of the widely abused prescription opioid oxycodone (OXY) in the conditioned place preference (CPP) assay using LG/J and SM/J parental inbred mouse strains and 17 parent-offspring families of a LG/J × SM/J F47 /F48 advanced intercross line (AIL). Following OXY training (5 mg/kg, i.p.), SM/J mice and AIL mice, but not LG/J mice, showed an increase in preference for the OXY-paired side, suggesting a genetic basis for OXY-CPP. SM/J mice showed greater locomotor activity than LG/J mice in response to both saline and OXY. LG/J, SM/J, and AIL mice all exhibited robust OXY-induced locomotor sensitization. Narrow-sense heritability (h(2) ) estimates of the phenotypes using linear regression and maximum likelihood estimation showed good agreement (r = 0.91). OXY-CPP was clearly not a heritable trait whereas drug-free- and OXY-induced locomotor activity and sensitization were significantly and sometimes highly heritable (h(2) = 0.30-0.84). Interestingly, the number of transitions between the saline- and OXY-paired sides emerged as a reliably heritable trait following OXY training (h(2) = 0.46-0.66) and could represent a genetic component of drug-seeking behavior. Thus, although OXY-CPP does not appear to be amenable to genome-wide quantitative trait locus mapping, this protocol will be useful for mapping other traits potentially relevant to opioid abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camron D. Bryant
- Department of Human Genetics; The University of Chicago; Chicago IL USA
| | - Michael A. Guido
- Department of Human Genetics; The University of Chicago; Chicago IL USA
| | - Loren A. Kole
- Department of Human Genetics; The University of Chicago; Chicago IL USA
| | - Riyan Cheng
- Department of Human Genetics; The University of Chicago; Chicago IL USA
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119
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Experimenter effects on behavioral test scores of eight inbred mouse strains under the influence of ethanol. Behav Brain Res 2014; 272:46-54. [PMID: 24933191 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Eight standard inbred mouse strains were evaluated for ethanol effects on a refined battery of behavioral tests in a study that was originally designed to assess the influence of rat odors in the colony on mouse behaviors. As part of the design of the study, two experimenters conducted the tests, and the study was carefully balanced so that equal numbers of mice in all groups and times of day were tested by each experimenter. A defect in airflow in the facility compromised the odor manipulation, and in fact the different odor exposure groups did not differ in their behaviors. The two experimenters, however, obtained markedly different results for three of the tests. Certain of the experimenter effects arose from the way they judged behaviors that were not automated and had to be rated by the experimenter, such as slips on the balance beam. Others were not evident prior to ethanol injection but had a major influence after the injection. For several measures, the experimenter effects were notably different for different inbred strains. Methods to evaluate and reduce the impact of experimenter effects in future research are discussed.
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120
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Richter SH, Vogel AS, Ueltzhöffer K, Muzzillo C, Vogt MA, Lankisch K, Armbruster-Genç DJN, Riva MA, Fiebach CJ, Gass P, Vollmayr B. Touchscreen-paradigm for mice reveals cross-species evidence for an antagonistic relationship of cognitive flexibility and stability. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:154. [PMID: 24834036 PMCID: PMC4017158 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The abilities to either flexibly adjust behavior according to changing demands (cognitive flexibility) or to maintain it in the face of potential distractors (cognitive stability) are critical for adaptive behavior in many situations. Recently, a novel human paradigm has found individual differences of cognitive flexibility and stability to be related to common prefrontal networks. The aims of the present study were, first, to translate this paradigm from humans to mice and, second, to test conceptual predictions of a computational model of prefrontal working memory mechanisms, the Dual State Theory, which assumes an antagonistic relation between cognitive flexibility and stability. Mice were trained in a touchscreen-paradigm to discriminate visual cues. The task involved “ongoing” and cued “switch” trials. In addition distractor cues were interspersed to test the ability to resist distraction, and an ambiguous condition assessed the spontaneous switching between two possible responses without explicit cues. While response times did not differ substantially between conditions, error rates (ER) increased from the “ongoing” baseline condition to the most complex condition, where subjects were required to switch between two responses in the presence of a distracting cue. Importantly, subjects switching more often spontaneously were found to be more distractible by task irrelevant cues, but also more flexible in situations, where switching was required. These results support a dichotomy of cognitive flexibility and stability as predicted by the Dual State Theory. Furthermore, they replicate critical aspects of the human paradigm, which indicates the translational potential of the testing procedure and supports the use of touchscreen procedures in preclinical animal research.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Helene Richter
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany ; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anne S Vogel
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany ; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany
| | - Kai Ueltzhöffer
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany ; Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Chiara Muzzillo
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan Milan, Italy
| | - Miriam A Vogt
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Katja Lankisch
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany ; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany
| | - Diana J N Armbruster-Genç
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany ; Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Marco A Riva
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan Milan, Italy
| | - Christian J Fiebach
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany ; Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Germany ; Center for Individual Development and Adaptive Education Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Peter Gass
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany ; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany
| | - Barbara Vollmayr
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany ; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg/Mannheim, Germany
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121
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Seltzer Z. Nothing in pain makes sense except in the light of genetics. Pain 2014; 155:841-842. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Revised: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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122
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Langford DJ, de C Williams AC. The caring, sharing rat? Pain 2014; 155:1183-1184. [PMID: 24708992 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dale J Langford
- Physiological Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Research Department of Clinical, Educational & Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
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123
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Reproducibility and relevance of future behavioral sciences should benefit from a cross fertilization of past recommendations and today's technology: "Back to the future". J Neurosci Methods 2014; 234:2-12. [PMID: 24632384 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Thanks to the discovery of novel technologies and sophisticated analysis tools we can now 'see' molecules, genes and even patterns of gene expression, which have resulted in major advances in many areas of biology. Recently, similar technologies have been developed for behavioral studies. However, the wide implementation of such technological progress in behavioral research remains behind, as if there are inhibiting factors for accepting and adopting available innovations. The methods of the majority of studies measuring and interpreting behavior of laboratory animals seem to have frozen in time somewhere in the last century. As an example of the so-called classical tests, we will present the history and shortcomings of one of the most frequently used tests, the open field. Similar objections and critical remarks, however, can be made with regard to the elevated plus maze, light-dark box, various other mazes, object recognition tests, etc. Possible solutions and recommendations on how progress in behavioral neuroscience can be achieved and accelerated will be discussed in the second part of this review.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The handling of experimental animals prior to experimental interventions is often poorly described, even though it may affect the final functional outcome. This study explores how the use of repeated handling of C57BL/6 mice prior to Morris water maze (MWM) tests can affect the performance. METHODS AND MATERIALS The handled animals were subjected to the escalating handling protocol, with the investigator spending 5 min per day per cage for 8 days prior to the MWM test. On the last days of handling, the mice were introduced to water and the concept of a hidden platform. The MWM test consisted of four daily trials for 90 s per day for 4 days with a hidden platform. A probe test was performed 4 days after the last learning trial. Control animals were not handled prior to MWM. RESULTS Handling reduced the latency to find the platform on the first 2 days of the MWM tests and reduced thigmotaxis. The mice increased their swim speed and elicited more explorative behavior in the learning trials and to some lesser extent in the probe trials. CONCLUSIONS The improvement in MWM navigation was most likely due to reduced stress and anxiety regarding the investigator and the test. Handled mice displayed less variability than non-handled mice, suggesting that by using a controlled handling protocol prior to the experiments fewer C57BL/6 mice would be needed to achieve statistically significant differences in studies of learning and spatial memory using MWM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lars Hillered
- Department of Neuroscience, Section of Neurosurgery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Clausen
- Department of Neuroscience, Section of Neurosurgery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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125
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Mak IW, Evaniew N, Ghert M. Lost in translation: animal models and clinical trials in cancer treatment. Am J Transl Res 2014; 8:1911-21. [PMID: 25342884 PMCID: PMC4206199 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s49584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is the term used to describe over 100 diseases that share several common hallmarks. Despite prevention, early detection, and novel therapies, cancer is still the second leading cause of death in the USA. Successful bench-to-bedside translation of basic scientific findings about cancer into therapeutic interventions for patients depends on the selection of appropriate animal experimental models. Cancer research uses animal and human cancer cell lines in vitro to study biochemical pathways in these cancer cells. In this review, we summarize the important animal models of cancer with focus on their advantages and limitations. Mouse cancer models are well known, and are frequently used for cancer research. Rodent models have revolutionized our ability to study gene and protein functions in vivo and to better understand their molecular pathways and mechanisms. Xenograft and chemically or genetically induced mouse cancers are the most commonly used rodent cancer models. Companion animals with spontaneous neoplasms are still an underexploited tool for making rapid advances in human and veterinary cancer therapies by testing new drugs and delivery systems that have shown promise in vitro and in vivo in mouse models. Companion animals have a relatively high incidence of cancers, with biological behavior, response to therapy, and response to cytotoxic agents similar to those in humans. Shorter overall lifespan and more rapid disease progression are factors contributing to the advantages of a companion animal model. In addition, the current focus is on discovering molecular targets for new therapeutic drugs to improve survival and quality of life in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Wy Mak
- Department of Surgery, McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada ; Juravinski Cancer Centre, Hamilton Health Sciences Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nathan Evaniew
- Department of Surgery, McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada ; Juravinski Cancer Centre, Hamilton Health Sciences Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michelle Ghert
- Department of Surgery, McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada ; Juravinski Cancer Centre, Hamilton Health Sciences Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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126
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Cobos EJ, Portillo-Salido E. "Bedside-to-Bench" Behavioral Outcomes in Animal Models of Pain: Beyond the Evaluation of Reflexes. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 11:560-91. [PMID: 24396334 PMCID: PMC3849784 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x113119990041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the myriad promising new targets and candidate analgesics recently identified in preclinical pain studies, little translation to novel pain medications has been generated. The pain phenotype in humans involves complex behavioral alterations, including changes in daily living activities and psychological disturbances. These behavioral changes are not reflected by the outcome measures traditionally used in rodents for preclinical pain testing, which are based on reflexes evoked by sensory stimuli of different types (mechanical, thermal or chemical). These measures do not evaluate the impact of the pain experience on the global behavior or disability of the animals, and therefore only consider a limited aspect of the pain phenotype. The development of relevant new outcomes indicative of pain to increase the validity of animal models of pain has been increasingly pursued over the past few years. The aim has been to translate “bedside-to-bench” outcomes from the human pain phenotype to rodents, in order to complement traditional pain outcomes by providing a closer and more realistic measure of clinical pain in rodents. This review summarizes and discusses the most important nonstandard outcomes for pain assessment in preclinical studies. The advantages and drawbacks of these techniques are considered, and their potential impact on the validation of potential analgesics is evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique J Cobos
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, Avenida de Madrid 11, 18012 Granada
| | - Enrique Portillo-Salido
- Drug Discovery and Preclinical Development, Esteve, Avenida Mare de Déu de Montserrat 221, 08041 Barcelona, Spain
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127
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Abstract
Behavioral methods are extensively used in pain research. Rodent modeling tends to rely on evoked responses but there is a growing interest in behavioral readouts that may capture elements of ongoing pain and disability, reflecting the major clinical signs and symptoms. Clinically, analgesics show greater efficacy in acute pain after standard surgery than in chronic conditions but are never completely effective on a population basis. In contrast, experimental pharmacological studies in rodents often demonstrate full efficacy, but there is variability in sensitivity between models and readouts. Full efficacy is rarely seen when more complex or multiple readouts are used to quantify behavior, especially after acute surgery or in studies of clinical pain in animals. Models with excellent sensitivity for a particular drug class exist and are suitable for screening mechanistically similar drugs. However, if used to compare drugs with different modes of action or to predict magnitude of clinical efficacy, these models will be misleading. Effective use of behavioral pharmacology in pain research is thus dependent on selection and validation of the best models for the purpose.
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128
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Garner JP. The significance of meaning: why do over 90% of behavioral neuroscience results fail to translate to humans, and what can we do to fix it? ILAR J 2014; 55:438-56. [PMID: 25541546 PMCID: PMC4342719 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilu047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The vast majority of drugs entering human trials fail. This problem (called "attrition") is widely recognized as a public health crisis, and has been discussed openly for the last two decades. Multiple recent reviews argue that animals may be just too different physiologically, anatomically, and psychologically from humans to be able to predict human outcomes, essentially questioning the justification of basic biomedical research in animals. This review argues instead that the philosophy and practice of experimental design and analysis is so different in basic animal work and human clinical trials that an animal experiment (as currently conducted) cannot reasonably predict the outcome of a human trial. Thus, attrition does reflect a lack of predictive validity of animal experiments, but it would be a tragic mistake to conclude that animal models cannot show predictive validity. A variety of contributing factors to poor validity are reviewed. The need to adopt methods and models that are highly specific (i.e., which can identify true negative results) in order to complement the current preponderance of highly sensitive methods (which are prone to false positive results) is emphasized. Concepts in biomarker-based medicine are offered as a potential solution, and changes in the use of animal models required to embrace a translational biomarker-based approach are outlined. In essence, this review advocates a fundamental shift, where we treat every aspect of an animal experiment that we can as if it was a clinical trial in a human population. However, it is unrealistic to expect researchers to adopt a new methodology that cannot be empirically justified until a successful human trial. "Validation with known failures" is proposed as a solution. Thus new methods or models can be compared against existing ones using a drug that has translated (a known positive) and one that has failed (a known negative). Current methods should incorrectly identify both as effective, but a more specific method should identify the negative compound correctly. By using a library of known failures we can thereby empirically test the impact of suggested solutions such as enrichment, controlled heterogenization, biomarker-based models, or reverse-translated measures.
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129
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Clemens LE, Jansson EKH, Portal E, Riess O, Nguyen HP. A behavioral comparison of the common laboratory rat strains Lister Hooded, Lewis, Fischer 344 and Wistar in an automated homecage system. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2013; 13:305-21. [DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- L. E. Clemens
- Centre for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - E. K. H. Jansson
- Centre for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - E. Portal
- Centre for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - O. Riess
- Centre for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - H. P. Nguyen
- Centre for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
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130
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Bastos LF, Prazeres JD, Godin AM, Menezes RR, Soares DG, Ferreira WC, Dutra MM, Machado RR, Coelho MM. Sex-independent suppression of experimental inflammatory pain by minocycline in two mouse strains. Neurosci Lett 2013; 553:110-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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131
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Nylander I, Roman E. Is the rodent maternal separation model a valid and effective model for studies on the early-life impact on ethanol consumption? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 229:555-69. [PMID: 23982922 PMCID: PMC3782650 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3217-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Early-life events can cause long-term neurobiological and behavioural changes with a resultant effect upon reward and addiction processes that enhance risk to develop alcohol use disorders. Maternal separation (MS) is used to study the mediating mechanisms of early-life influences in rodents. In MS studies, the pups are exposed to maternal absence during the first postnatal weeks. The outcome of MS experiments exhibits considerable variation and questions have been raised about the validity of MS models. OBJECTIVES This short review aims to provide information about experimental conditions that are important to consider when assessing the impact of early-life environment on voluntary ethanol consumption. RESULTS The results from currently used MS protocols are not uniform. However, studies consistently show that longer separations of intact litters predispose for higher ethanol consumption and/or preference in adult male rats as compared to shorter periods of MS. Studies using individual pup MS paradigms, other controls, low ethanol concentrations, adult females or examining adolescent consumption reported no differences or inconsistent results. CONCLUSIONS There is no "a rodent MS model", there are several models and they generate different results. The compiled literature shows that MS is a model of choice for analysis of early-life effects on voluntary ethanol consumption but there are examples of MS paradigms that are not suitable. These studies emphasize the importance to carefully designed MS experiments to supply the optimal conditions to definitely test the research hypothesis and to be particulate in the interpretation of the outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Nylander
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology Addiction & Behaviour, Uppsala University, Box 591, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden,
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132
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Figueroa JD, Cordero K, Serrano-Illan M, Almeyda A, Baldeosingh K, Almaguel FG, De Leon M. Metabolomics uncovers dietary omega-3 fatty acid-derived metabolites implicated in anti-nociceptive responses after experimental spinal cord injury. Neuroscience 2013; 255:1-18. [PMID: 24042033 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Chronic neuropathic pain is a frequent comorbidity following spinal cord injury (SCI) and often fails to respond to conventional pain management strategies. Preventive administration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or the consumption of a diet rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (O3PUFAs) confers potent prophylaxis against SCI and improves functional recovery. The present study examines whether this novel dietary strategy provides significant antinociceptive benefits in rats experiencing SCI-induced pain. Rats were fed control chow or chow enriched with O3PUFAs for 8weeks before being subjected to sham or cord contusion surgeries, continuing the same diets after surgery for another 8 more weeks. The paw sensitivity to noxious heat was quantified for at least 8weeks post-SCI using the Hargreaves test. We found that SCI rats consuming the preventive O3PUFA-enriched diet exhibited a significant reduction in thermal hyperalgesia compared to those consuming the normal diet. Functional neurometabolomic profiling revealed a distinctive deregulation in the metabolism of endocannabinoids (eCB) and related N-acyl ethanolamines (NAEs) at 8weeks post-SCI. We found that O3PUFAs consumption led to a robust accumulation of novel NAE precursors, including the glycerophospho-containing docosahexaenoyl ethanolamine (DHEA), docosapentaenoyl ethanolamine (DPEA), and eicosapentaenoyl ethanolamine (EPEA). The tissue levels of these metabolites were significantly correlated with the antihyperalgesic phenotype. In addition, rats consuming the O3PUFA-rich diet showed reduced sprouting of nociceptive fibers containing CGRP and dorsal horn neuron p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) expression, well-established biomarkers of pain. The spinal cord levels of inositols were positively correlated with thermal hyperalgesia, supporting their role as biomarkers of chronic neuropathic pain. Notably, the O3PUFA-rich dietary intervention reduced the levels of these metabolites. Collectively, these results demonstrate the prophylactic value of dietary O3PUFA against SCI-mediated chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Figueroa
- Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States; Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States; Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States
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133
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Ferguson SA, Maier KL. A review of seasonal/circannual effects of laboratory rodent behavior. Physiol Behav 2013; 119:130-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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134
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Ahn SH, Jang EH, Choi JH, Lee HR, Bakes J, Kong YY, Kaang BK. Basal anxiety during an open field test is correlated with individual differences in contextually conditioned fear in mice. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2013.790840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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135
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Vierck CJ, Cannon RL, Acosta-Rua AJ. Evaluation of lateral spinal hemisection as a preclinical model of spinal cord injury pain. Exp Brain Res 2013; 228:305-12. [PMID: 23681298 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3563-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Operant escape from nociceptive thermal stimulation of 13 Long-Evans rats was compared before and after lateral spinal hemisection, to determine whether this lesion configuration provides an appropriate preclinical model of the hyperalgesia that can be associated with human spinal cord injury. Escape from 44 °C and from 47 °C stimulation was not affected following sham spinal surgery but was significantly reduced over 20 weeks of postoperative testing following lateral spinal hemisection. This result is opposite to previous reports of enhanced reflex withdrawal in response to thermal stimulation of rats following lateral spinal hemisection. In addition, the latency of reflexive lick/guard responses to 44 °C was increased and the duration of lick/guard responding was decreased in the present study (hyporeflexia). Thus, previous assessments of simple withdrawal reflexes have described a hyperreflexia following lateral spinal hemisection that was not replicated by lick/guard testing, and postoperative escape responding revealed hypoalgesia rather than the increased pain sensitivity expected in a model of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Vierck
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0244, USA.
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136
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Chang EY, Chen X, Sandhu A, Li CY, Luo ZD. Spinal 5-HT3 receptors facilitate behavioural hypersensitivity induced by elevated calcium channel alpha-2-delta-1 protein. Eur J Pain 2013; 17:505-13. [PMID: 23065867 PMCID: PMC3548964 DOI: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2012.00221.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peripheral nerve injury induces up-regulation of the calcium channel alpha-2-delta-1 proteins in the dorsal root ganglia and dorsal spinal cord that correlates with neuropathic pain development. Similar behavioural hypersensitivity was also observed in injury-free transgenic (TG) mice over-expressing the alpha-2-delta-1 proteins in neuronal tissues. To investigate pathways regulating alpha-2-delta-1 protein-mediated behavioural hypersensitivity, we examined whether spinal serotonergic 5-HT3 receptors are involved similarly in the modulation of behavioural hypersensitivity induced by either peripheral nerve injury in a nerve injury model or neuronal alpha-2-delta-1 over-expression in the TG model. METHODS The effects of blocking behavioural hypersensitivity in these two models by intrathecal or systemic injections of 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, ondansetron, were compared. RESULTS Our data indicated that the TG mice displayed similar behavioural hypersensitivities to non-painful mechanical stimulation (tactile allodynia) and painful thermal stimulation (thermal hyperalgesia) as that observed in the nerve injury model. Interestingly, tactile allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in both models can be blocked similarly by intrathecal, but not systemic, injection of ondansetron. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that spinal 5-HT3 receptors are likely to play a role in alpha-2-delta-1-mediated behavioural hypersensitivities through a descending serotonergic facilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Y Chang
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Care School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, USA
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137
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138
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Huang C, Zou W, Lee K, Wang E, Zhu X, Guo Q. Different symptoms of neuropathic pain can be induced by different degrees of compressive force on the C7 dorsal root of rats. Spine J 2012; 12:1154-60. [PMID: 23245939 DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2012.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2011] [Revised: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT Neuropathic pain after nerve injuries is characterized by positive and negative sensory symptoms and signs. The extent of sensory fiber loss after nerve injuries has been demonstrated to correlate with symptoms of neuropathic pain by quantitative sensory testing and confirmed by biopsies of small nerve fibers. However, the relationship between the pathologic changes of large nerves on injuries and resulting pain symptoms remains unclear. PURPOSE To investigate the relationship between the extent of dorsal root injury and resulting symptoms of neuropathic pain. STUDY DESIGN Nerve injury and assessment of the following pain-related behaviors and neuropathologic changes. METHODS A total of 24 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 250 to 300 g were randomly divided into three groups (n=8 each): sham group operated on but without nerve compression, 70 gf group, and 180 gf group; a compression force of 70 or 180 g was applied to the right C7 dorsal root, separately. Threshold thermal and mechanical pains were measured before surgery (baseline) and on the first, third, fifth, and seventh day after surgery. On the seventh day after surgery, all rats were killed, and the structural alterations of nerve fibers within the compressed areas were examined. RESULTS A compression force of 70 g resulted in hyperalgesia, whereas a compression force of 180 g induced hypoalgesia in the ipsilateral forepaw in response to both mechanical and thermal stimulations within 7 days after injury. Light microscopy and electron microscopy revealed a mild to moderate sensory fiber loss after 70-gf compression and a more severe sensory fiber loss after 180-gf compression. CONCLUSIONS Transient injuries on sensory fibers can produce either positive or negative symptoms of neuropathic pain, and the different extent of sensory fiber loss after different degrees of injuries might account for the varied resulting symptoms of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changsheng Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Rd, Changsha 410008, China
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139
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Hendrich J, Alvarez P, Joseph EK, Ferrari LF, Chen X, Levine JD. In vivo and in vitro comparison of female and male nociceptors. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2012; 13:1224-31. [PMID: 23146406 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2012.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED While it is generally accepted that women have lower pain thresholds for diverse forms of noxious stimuli, the mechanistic basis for this sexual dimorphism in nociceptive pain remains to be elucidated. We confirmed, in the rat, that females have lower cutaneous mechanical nociceptive thresholds and established a similar sexual dimorphism in muscle. To determine if a peripheral mechanism underlies this sexual dimorphism in pain threshold, we compared biophysical properties of cultured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons that innervated the gastrocnemius muscle in female and male rats. DRG neurons from female rats, which innervated the gastrocnemius muscle, had a more hyperpolarized resting membrane potential. To determine if this was associated with a higher mechanical nociceptive threshold, in contradiction to our working hypothesis, we compared the function, in vivo, of nociceptive afferents innervating the gastrocnemius muscle in male and female rats. C-fiber nociceptors innervating muscle in female rats had higher mechanical thresholds than those in males. Other response characteristics of these nociceptors were not significantly different. Thus, both in vitro and in vivo electrophysiology experiments support the idea that lower mechanical nociceptive threshold in females may be due to sexual dimorphism in central nervous system mechanisms, a difference large enough to overcome an opposing difference in peripheral pain mechanisms. PERSPECTIVE This article unifies in vivo and in vitro electrophysiology with behavioral data examining the differences in mechanical nociceptive threshold between male and female rats. The data provide a novel perspective on the peripheral and behavioral outcomes of noxious mechanical stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Hendrich
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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140
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Tricklebank MD, Garner JP. The Possibilities and Limitations of Animal Models for Psychiatric Disorders. DRUG DISCOVERY FOR PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/9781849734943-00534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In the search for novel treatments for psychiatric disorders, many compounds that have shown promising pharmacological properties in disease models have failed to induce benefit in patients. There is good reason to believe that the preclinical approaches routinely used in drug discovery often provide an overly optimistic picture of clinical potential. Here we discuss some of the factors that we believe lead to erroneous decision-making, including: false interpretations of the behavioural significance of drug effects in the model species; fundamental flaws in aspects of experimental design and analysis; and misconceptions about the criteria that need to be applied before a model can be said to be validated. Only by focusing on well-constructed biological hypotheses of drug action in conjunction with reliable neurochemical, electrophysiological and behavioural assays that can be demonstrated to engage clinically relevant brain circuits will the chances of clinical success be improved. As psychiatric disorders come to be viewed less descriptively and more mechanistically as developmental disorders in brain circuits, incorporating biomarkers – measured biological variables that can indicate a normal or abnormal biological etiological process – will become the essential key to improving model development and validation, and target assessment and refinement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D. Tricklebank
- Lilly Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Eli Lilly and Co. Ltd, Erl Wood Manor, Sunninghill Road, Windlesham, Surrey GU20 6PH UK
| | - Joseph P. Garner
- Department of Comparative Medicine and, by courtesy, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Stanford University 287 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305-5410 USA
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Varani AP, Moutinho LM, Bettler B, Balerio GN. Acute behavioural responses to nicotine and nicotine withdrawal syndrome are modified in GABA(B1) knockout mice. Neuropharmacology 2012; 63:863-72. [PMID: 22727822 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Revised: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Nicotine is the main active component of tobacco, and has both acute and chronic pharmacological effects that can contribute to its abuse potential in humans. The aim of the present study was to evaluate a possible role of GABA(B) receptors in acute and chronic responses to nicotine administration, by comparing GABA(B1) knockout mice and their wild-type littermates. In wild-type mice, acute nicotine administration (0.5, 1, 3 and 6 mg/kg, sc) dose-dependently decreased locomotor activity, and induced antinociceptive responses in the tail-immersion and hot-plate tests. In GABA(B1) knockout mice, the hypolocomotive effect was observed only with the highest dose of nicotine, and the antinociceptive responses in both tests were significantly reduced in GABA(B1) knockout mice compared to their wild-type littermate. Additionally, nicotine elicited anxiolytic- (0.05 mg/kg) and anxiogenic-like (0.8 mg/kg) responses in the elevated plus-maze test in wild-type mice, while selectively the anxiolytic-like effect was abolished in GABA(B1) knockout mice. We further investigated nicotine withdrawal in mice chronically treated with nicotine (25 mg/kg/day, sc). Mecamylamine (1 mg/kg, sc) precipitated several somatic signs of nicotine withdrawal in wild-type mice. However, signs of nicotine withdrawal were missing in GABA(B1) knockout mice. Finally, there was a decreased immunoreactivity of Fos-positive nuclei in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, basolateral amygdaloid nucleus and hippocampal dentate gyrus in abstinent wild-type but not in GABA(B1) knockout mice. These results reveal an interaction between the GABA(B) system and the neurochemical systems through which nicotine exerts its acute and long-term effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés P Varani
- Instituto de Investigaciones Farmacológicas-CONICET, Junín 956, 5° Piso, Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina
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142
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Cloutier S, Panksepp J, Newberry RC. Playful handling by caretakers reduces fear of humans in the laboratory rat. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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143
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Ramírez-Solis R, Ryder E, Houghton R, White JK, Bottomley J. Large-scale mouse knockouts and phenotypes. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2012; 4:547-63. [PMID: 22899600 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Standardized phenotypic analysis of mutant forms of every gene in the mouse genome will provide fundamental insights into mammalian gene function and advance human and animal health. The availability of the human and mouse genome sequences, the development of embryonic stem cell mutagenesis technology, the standardization of phenotypic analysis pipelines, and the paradigm-shifting industrialization of these processes have made this a realistic and achievable goal. The size of this enterprise will require global coordination to ensure economies of scale in both the generation and primary phenotypic analysis of the mutant strains, and to minimize unnecessary duplication of effort. To provide more depth to the functional annotation of the genome, effective mechanisms will also need to be developed to disseminate the information and resources produced to the wider community. Better models of disease, potential new drug targets with novel mechanisms of action, and completely unsuspected genotype-phenotype relationships covering broad aspects of biology will become apparent. To reach these goals, solutions to challenges in mouse production and distribution, as well as development of novel, ever more powerful phenotypic analysis modalities will be necessary. It is a challenging and exciting time to work in mouse genetics.
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Maixner W, Diatchenko L, Dubner R, Fillingim RB, Greenspan JD, Knott C, Ohrbach R, Weir B, Slade GD. Orofacial pain prospective evaluation and risk assessment study--the OPPERA study. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2012; 12:T4-11.e1-2. [PMID: 22074751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Revised: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William Maixner
- Center for Neurosensory Disorders, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7455, USA.
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Boleij H, Salomons AR, van Sprundel M, Arndt SS, Ohl F. Not all mice are equal: welfare implications of behavioural habituation profiles in four 129 mouse substrains. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42544. [PMID: 22880028 PMCID: PMC3411796 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Safeguarding the welfare of animals is an important aim when defining housing and management standards in animal based, experimental research. While such standards are usually defined per animal species, it is known that considerable differences between laboratory mouse strains exist, for example with regard to their emotional traits. Following earlier experiments, in which we found that 129P3 mice show a lack of habituation of anxiety related behaviour after repeated exposure to an initially novel environment (non-adaptive profile), we here investigated four other 129 inbred mouse substrains (129S2/SvPas, 129S2/SvHsd (exp 1); 129P2 and 129X1 (exp 2)) on habituation of anxiety related behaviour. Male mice of each strain were repeatedly placed in the modified hole board test, measuring anxiety-related behaviour, exploratory and locomotor behaviour. The results reveal that all four substrains show a lack of habituation behaviour throughout the period of testing. Although not in all of the substrains a possible confounding effect of general activity can be excluded, our findings suggest that the genetic background of the 129 substrains may increase their vulnerability to cope with environmental challenges, such as exposure to novelty. This vulnerability might negatively affect the welfare of these mice under standard laboratory conditions when compared with other strains. Based on our findings we suggest to consider (sub)strain-specific guidelines and protocols, taking the (subs)train-specific adaptive capabilities into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hetty Boleij
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Division of Animal Welfare and Laboratory Animal Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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146
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Lewejohann L, Zipser B, Sachser N. "Personality" in laboratory mice used for biomedical research: a way of understanding variability? Dev Psychobiol 2012; 53:624-30. [PMID: 21866543 DOI: 10.1002/dev.20553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The mouse, including countless lines of transgenic and knockout mice, has become the most prominent model organism in biomedical research. Behavioral characterization is often conducted in batteries of short tests on locomotion, anxiety, learning and memory, etc. In such tests, any individual differences within groups are usually considered to be disturbing variance. In order to reduce variance in experimental animal research enormous efforts of standardization have been made. While a substantial reduction of variability has been reached compared to the earlier years of experimental animal studies a considerable amount of inter-individual differences still seems to escape standardization. This effect is demonstrated and evaluated by re-analyzing data from two experiments conducted in our laboratory with inbred mice. Interestingly, behavioral patterns of individual animals seem to be correlated across context and time. In evolutionary biology, "animal personalities" have been discussed recently to comprise such stable patterns. We argue here, that nonrandom behavioral correlations across contexts and time might underlie the variability commonly found in biomedical mouse studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Lewejohann
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Muenster, Badestraße 13, D-48149 Muenster, Germany.
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147
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Guillemette A, Dansereau MA, Beaudet N, Richelson E, Sarret P. Intrathecal administration of NTS1 agonists reverses nociceptive behaviors in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Eur J Pain 2012; 16:473-84. [PMID: 22396077 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2011.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Chronic neuropathic pain arising from peripheral nerve damage is a severe clinical issue where there is a major unmet medical need. We previously demonstrated that both neurotensin (NT) receptor subtypes 1 (NTS1) and 2 (NTS2) are involved in mediating the naloxone-insensitive antinociceptive effects of neurotensin in different analgesic tests including hotplate, tail-flick, and tonic pain. However, the role of these receptors in neuropathic pain management has been poorly investigated. In the present study, we therefore examined whether intrathecal delivery of NTS1 agonists was effective in reducing neuropathic pain symptoms in rats. Neuropathy was induced by sciatic nerve constriction (CCI model), and the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia on the ipsi- and contralateral hind paws was examined 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post-surgery. CCI-operated rats exhibited significant increases in thermal and mechanical hypersensitivities over a 28-day testing period. Spinal injection of NT to CCI rats alleviated the behavioral responses to radiant heat and mechanical stimuli, with a maximal reversal of 91% of allodynia at 6 μg/kg. Intrathecal administration of the NTS1-selective agonist, PD149163 (30-90 μg/kg) also produced potent anti-allodynic and anti-hyperalgesic effects in nerve-injured rats. Likewise, heat hyperalgesia and tactile allodynia produced by CCI of the sciatic nerve were fully reversed by the NTS1 agonist, NT69L (5-25 μg/kg). Altogether, these results support the idea that the NTS1 receptor subtype is involved in pain modulation, and the potential use of NTS1 agonists for the treatment of painful neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Guillemette
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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148
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Howerton CL, Garner JP, Mench JA. A system utilizing radio frequency identification (RFID) technology to monitor individual rodent behavior in complex social settings. J Neurosci Methods 2012; 209:74-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Revised: 05/30/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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149
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Crabbe JC, Harkness JH, Spence SE, Huang LC, Metten P. Intermittent availability of ethanol does not always lead to elevated drinking in mice. Alcohol Alcohol 2012; 47:509-17. [PMID: 22717273 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/ags067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Intermittent access (IA) to an alcohol (ethanol) solution can lead rats to higher ethanol intakes than continuous access, and a recent report showed increased drinking in C57BL/6J mice offered 20% ethanol vs. water 3X/week (Prior studies have offered ethanol during 24 h periods, either continuously or intermittently.). METHODS We tested the high-preference C57BL/6J inbred mice: we also studied High Drinking in the Dark (HDID) mice, a line we have selectively bred to reach intoxicating blood ethanol levels after a short period of access to a single bottle of 20% ethanol. RESULTS Neither HDID or C57BL/6J male mice offered ethanol every other day during only a 4-h access period showed greater daily intake than mice offered ethanol daily for 4 h. There was a small increase in drinking with 24 h IA in C57BL/6J mice. An experiment with HDID mice and their control heterogeneous stock stock modeled closely after a published study with C57BL/6J mice (Hwa, Chu, Levinson SA et al. Persistent escalation of alcohol drinking in C57BL/6J mice with intermittent access to 20% ethanol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011;35:1938-1947) showed no significant elevation with 24 h IA exposure in either sex of any genotype. Finally, a near replication of the Hwa et al. study showed modestly greater intake in C57BL/6J mice, confirming the efficacy of 24 h IA. CONCLUSION We conclude that 4 h of IA is likely insufficient to elevate drinking in mice. The lack of effect in HDID mice and their controls further suggests that not all genotypes respond to intermittency.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Crabbe
- Portland Alcohol Research Center, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, VA Medical Center (R&D 12), 3710 SW US Veterans Hospital Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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150
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Pincedé I, Pollin B, Meert T, Plaghki L, Le Bars D. Psychophysics of a nociceptive test in the mouse: ambient temperature as a key factor for variation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36699. [PMID: 22629325 PMCID: PMC3356344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mouse is increasingly used in biomedical research, notably in behavioral neurosciences for the development of tests or models of pain. Our goal was to provide the scientific community with an outstanding tool that allows the determination of psychophysical descriptors of a nociceptive reaction, which are inaccessible with conventional methods: namely the true threshold, true latency, conduction velocity of the peripheral fibers that trigger the response and latency of the central decision-making process. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Basically, the procedures involved heating of the tail with a CO(2) laser, recording of tail temperature with an infrared camera and stopping the heating when the animal reacted. The method is based mainly on the measurement of three observable variables, namely the initial temperature, the heating rate and the temperature reached at the actual moment of the reaction following random variations in noxious radiant heat. The initial temperature of the tail, which itself depends on the ambient temperature, very markedly influenced the behavioral threshold, the behavioral latency and the conduction velocity of the peripheral fibers but not the latency of the central decision-making. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We have validated a psychophysical approach to nociceptive reactions for the mouse, which has already been described for rats and Humans. It enables the determination of four variables, which contribute to the overall latency of the response. The usefulness of such an approach was demonstrated by providing new fundamental findings regarding the influence of ambient temperature on nociceptive processes. We conclude by challenging the validity of using as "pain index" the reaction time of a behavioral response to an increasing heat stimulus and emphasize the need for a very careful control of the ambient temperature, as a prevailing environmental source of variation, during any behavioral testing of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanne Pincedé
- Team “Pain", INSERM UMRS 975, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Faculté de Médecine UPMC, Paris, France
| | - Bernard Pollin
- Team “Pain", INSERM UMRS 975, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Faculté de Médecine UPMC, Paris, France
| | - Theo Meert
- Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Léon Plaghki
- Unité READ, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Daniel Le Bars
- Team “Pain", INSERM UMRS 975, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Faculté de Médecine UPMC, Paris, France
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