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Lee AM, Tai LH, Zador A, Wilbrecht L. Between the primate and 'reptilian' brain: Rodent models demonstrate the role of corticostriatal circuits in decision making. Neuroscience 2015; 296:66-74. [PMID: 25575943 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Decision making can be defined as the flexible integration and transformation of information from the external world into action. Recently, the development of novel genetic tools and new behavioral paradigms has made it attractive to study behavior of all kinds in rodents. By some perspectives, rodents are not an acceptable model for the study of decision making due to their simpler behavior often attributed to their less extensive cortical development when compared to non-human primates. We argue that decision making can be approached with a common framework across species. We review insights from comparative anatomy that suggest the expansion of cortical-striatal connectivity is a key development in evolutionary increases in behavioral flexibility. We briefly review studies that establish a role for corticostriatal circuits in integrative decision making. Finally, we provide an overview of a few recent, highly complementary rodent decision making studies using genetic tools, revealing with new cellular and temporal resolution how, when and where information can be integrated and compared in striatal circuits to influence choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Moses Lee
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco
| | - Lung-Hao Tai
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Anthony Zador
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY
| | - Linda Wilbrecht
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
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102
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Häusser
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and in the Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, UK
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103
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104
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Transforming Our Approach to Translational Neuroscience: The Role and Impact of Charitable Nonprofits in Research. Neuron 2014; 84:526-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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105
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Illuminating circuitry relevant to psychiatric disorders with optogenetics. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2014; 30:9-16. [PMID: 25215625 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The brain's remarkable capacity to generate cognition and behavior is mediated by an extraordinarily complex set of neural interactions that remain largely mysterious. This complexity poses a significant challenge in developing therapeutic interventions to ameliorate psychiatric disease. Accordingly, few new classes of drugs have been made available for patients with mental illness since the 1950s. Optogenetics offers the ability to selectively manipulate individual neural circuit elements that underlie disease-relevant behaviors and is currently accelerating the pace of preclinical research into neurobiological mechanisms of disease. In this review, we highlight recent findings from studies that employ optogenetic approaches to gain insight into normal and aberrant brain function relevant to mental illness. Emerging data from these efforts offers an exquisitely detailed picture of disease-relevant neural circuits in action, and hints at the potential of optogenetics to open up entirely new avenues in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
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106
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Gunaydin LA, Grosenick L, Finkelstein JC, Kauvar IV, Fenno LE, Adhikari A, Lammel S, Mirzabekov JJ, Airan RD, Zalocusky KA, Tye KM, Anikeeva P, Malenka RC, Deisseroth K. Natural neural projection dynamics underlying social behavior. Cell 2014; 157:1535-51. [PMID: 24949967 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 921] [Impact Index Per Article: 92.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Social interaction is a complex behavior essential for many species and is impaired in major neuropsychiatric disorders. Pharmacological studies have implicated certain neurotransmitter systems in social behavior, but circuit-level understanding of endogenous neural activity during social interaction is lacking. We therefore developed and applied a new methodology, termed fiber photometry, to optically record natural neural activity in genetically and connectivity-defined projections to elucidate the real-time role of specified pathways in mammalian behavior. Fiber photometry revealed that activity dynamics of a ventral tegmental area (VTA)-to-nucleus accumbens (NAc) projection could encode and predict key features of social, but not novel object, interaction. Consistent with this observation, optogenetic control of cells specifically contributing to this projection was sufficient to modulate social behavior, which was mediated by type 1 dopamine receptor signaling downstream in the NAc. Direct observation of deep projection-specific activity in this way captures a fundamental and previously inaccessible dimension of mammalian circuit dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Gunaydin
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Logan Grosenick
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Neuroscience Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Joel C Finkelstein
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Isaac V Kauvar
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Lief E Fenno
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Neuroscience Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Avishek Adhikari
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Stephan Lammel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Julie J Mirzabekov
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Raag D Airan
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kelly A Zalocusky
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Neuroscience Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kay M Tye
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Polina Anikeeva
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Robert C Malenka
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Karl Deisseroth
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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107
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Breton YA, Conover K, Shizgal P. The effect of probability discounting on reward seeking: a three-dimensional perspective. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:284. [PMID: 25202245 PMCID: PMC4142602 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rats will work for electrical stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle. The rewarding effect arises from the volleys of action potentials fired by the stimulation and subsequent spatio-temporal integration of their post-synpatic impact. The proportion of time allocated to self-stimulation depends on the intensity of the rewarding effect as well as on other key determinants of decision-making, such as subjective opportunity costs and reward probability. We have proposed that a 3D model relating time allocation to the intensity and cost of reward can distinguish manipulations acting prior to the output of the spatio-temporal integrator from those acting at or beyond it. Here, we test this proposition by varying reward probability, a variable that influences the computation of payoff in the 3D model downstream from the output of the integrator. On riskless trials, reward was delivered on every occasion that the rat held down the lever for a cumulative duration called the “price,” whereas on risky trials, reward was delivered with probability 0.75 or 0.50. According to the model, the 3D structure relating time allocation to reward intensity and price is shifted leftward along the price axis by reductions in reward probability; the magnitude of the shift estimates the change in subjective probability. The predictions were borne out: reducing reward probability shifted the 3D structure systematically along the price axis while producing only small, inconsistent displacements along the pulse-frequency axis. The results confirm that the model can accurately distinguish manipulations acting at or beyond the spatio-temporal integrator and strengthen the conclusions of previous studies showing similar shifts following dopaminergic manipulations. Subjective and objective reward probabilities appeared indistinguishable over the range of 0.5 ≤ p ≤ 1.0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick-André Breton
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Kent Conover
- Groupe de Recherche en Neurobiologie Comportementale, Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Peter Shizgal
- Groupe de Recherche en Neurobiologie Comportementale, Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University Montreal, QC, Canada
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108
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Whittle AJ, Walsh J, de Lecea L. Light and chemical control of neuronal circuits: possible applications in neurotherapy. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 14:1007-17. [PMID: 25115180 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.948850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Millions of people worldwide suffer from diseases that result from a failure of central pathways to regulate behavioral and physiological processes. Advances in genetics and pharmacology have already allowed us to appreciate that rather than this dysregulation being systemic throughout the brain, it is usually rooted in specific subsets of dysfunctional cells within discrete neurological circuits. This article discusses the advent of opto- and chemogenetic tools and how they are providing the means to dissect these circuits with a degree of temporal and spatial sensitivity not previously possible. We also highlight the potential applications for treating disease and the key developments likely to have the greatest impact over the next 5 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Whittle
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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109
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Williams NR, Taylor JJ, Kerns S, Short EB, Kantor EM, George MS. Interventional psychiatry: why now? J Clin Psychiatry 2014; 75:895-7. [PMID: 25191910 PMCID: PMC4221242 DOI: 10.4088/jcp.13l08745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Interventional psychiatry offers substantial therapeutic benefits in some neuropsychiatric disorders and enormous potential in treating others. However, as interventional diagnostics and therapeutics require specialized knowledge and skill foreign to many psychiatrists, the emerging subspecialty of interventional psychiatry must be more formally integrated into the continuum of psychiatric training to ensure both safe application and continued growth. By establishing training paradigms for interventional psychiatry, academic medical centers can help fill this knowledge gap. The cultivation of a properly trained cohort of interventional psychiatrists will better meet the challenges of treatment-resistant psychiatric illness through safe and ethical practice, while facilitating a more informed development and integration of novel neuromodulation techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolan R. Williams
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina,Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina
| | - Joseph J. Taylor
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina,Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina
| | - Suzanne Kerns
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina
| | - E. Baron Short
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina
| | | | - Mark S. George
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina,Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina,Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC
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110
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Allsop SA, Vander Weele CM, Wichmann R, Tye KM. Optogenetic insights on the relationship between anxiety-related behaviors and social deficits. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:241. [PMID: 25076878 PMCID: PMC4099964 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Many psychiatric illnesses are characterized by deficits in the social domain. For example, there is a high rate of co-morbidity between autism spectrum disorders and anxiety disorders. However, the common neural circuit mechanisms by which social deficits and other psychiatric disease states, such as anxiety, are co-expressed remains unclear. Here, we review optogenetic investigations of neural circuits in animal models of anxiety-related behaviors and social behaviors and discuss the important role of the amygdala in mediating aspects of these behaviors. In particular, we focus on recent evidence that projections from the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to the ventral hippocampus (vHPC) modulate anxiety-related behaviors and also alter social interaction. Understanding how this circuit influences both social behavior and anxiety may provide a mechanistic explanation for the pathogenesis of social anxiety disorder, as well as the prevalence of patients co-diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders and anxiety disorders. Furthermore, elucidating how circuits that modulate social behavior also mediate other complex emotional states will lead to a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms by which social deficits are expressed in psychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A. Allsop
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard UniversityBoston, MA, USA
| | - Caitlin M. Vander Weele
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA, USA
| | - Romy Wichmann
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kay M. Tye
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA, USA
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111
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Han VZ, Magnus G, Zhang Y, Wei AD, Turner EE. Bidirectional modulation of deep cerebellar nuclear cells revealed by optogenetic manipulation of inhibitory inputs from Purkinje cells. Neuroscience 2014; 277:250-66. [PMID: 25020121 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
In the mammalian cerebellum, deep cerebellar nuclear (DCN) cells convey all information from cortical Purkinje cells (PCs) to premotor nuclei and other brain regions. However, how DCN cells integrate inhibitory input from PCs with excitatory inputs from other sources has been difficult to assess, in part due to the large spatial separation between cortical PCs and their target cells in the nuclei. To circumvent this problem we have used a Cre-mediated genetic approach to generate mice in which channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), fused with a fluorescent reporter, is selectively expressed by GABAergic neurons, including PCs. In recordings from brain slice preparations from this model, mammalian PCs can be robustly depolarized and discharged by brief photostimulation. In recordings of postsynaptic DCN cells, photostimulation of PC axons induces a strong inhibition that resembles these cells' responses to focal electrical stimulation, but without a requirement for the glutamate receptor blockers typically applied in such experiments. In this optogenetic model, laser pulses as brief as 1 ms can reliably induce an inhibition that shuts down the spontaneous spiking of a DCN cell for ∼50 ms. If bursts of such brief light pulses are delivered, a fixed pattern of bistable bursting emerges. If these pulses are delivered continuously to a spontaneously bistable cell, the immediate response to such photostimulation is inhibitory in the cell's depolarized state and excitatory when the membrane has repolarized; a less regular burst pattern then persists after stimulation has been terminated. These results indicate that the spiking activity of DCN cells can be bidirectionally modulated by the optically activated synaptic inhibition of cortical PCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Z Han
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, United States.
| | - G Magnus
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, United States
| | - Y Zhang
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, United States; Department of Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Xijing Hospital, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - A D Wei
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, United States; Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98101, United States
| | - E E Turner
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States; Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
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112
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Abstract
Significant progress is being made in defining the genetic etiology of schizophrenia. As the list of implicated genes grows, parallel developments in gene editing technology provide new methods to investigate gene function in model systems. The confluence of these two research fields--gene discovery and functional biology--may offer novel insights into schizophrenia etiology. We review recent advances in these fields, consider the likely obstacles to progress, and consider strategies as to how these can be overcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane E. McCarthy
- Stanley Institute of Cognitive Genomics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Woodbury, NY
| | - W. Richard McCombie
- Stanley Institute of Cognitive Genomics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Woodbury, NY
| | - Aiden Corvin
- Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland,*To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; tel: +353-1-8962467, fax: +353-1-8963405, e-mail:
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113
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Berndt A, Lee SY, Ramakrishnan C, Deisseroth K. Structure-guided transformation of channelrhodopsin into a light-activated chloride channel. Science 2014; 344:420-4. [PMID: 24763591 PMCID: PMC4096039 DOI: 10.1126/science.1252367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Using light to silence electrical activity in targeted cells is a major goal of optogenetics. Available optogenetic proteins that directly move ions to achieve silencing are inefficient, pumping only a single ion per photon across the cell membrane rather than allowing many ions per photon to flow through a channel pore. Building on high-resolution crystal-structure analysis, pore vestibule modeling, and structure-guided protein engineering, we designed and characterized a class of channelrhodopsins (originally cation-conducting) converted into chloride-conducting anion channels. These tools enable fast optical inhibition of action potentials and can be engineered to display step-function kinetics for stable inhibition, outlasting light pulses and for orders-of-magnitude-greater light sensitivity of inhibited cells. The resulting family of proteins defines an approach to more physiological, efficient, and sensitive optogenetic inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Berndt
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Soo Yeun Lee
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Charu Ramakrishnan
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Karl Deisseroth
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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114
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Treadway MT, Pizzagalli DA. Imaging the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder - from localist models to circuit-based analysis. BIOLOGY OF MOOD & ANXIETY DISORDERS 2014; 4:5. [PMID: 24606595 PMCID: PMC3995947 DOI: 10.1186/2045-5380-4-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The neuroimaging literature of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) has grown substantially over the last several decades, facilitating great advances in the identification of specific brain regions, neurotransmitter systems and networks associated with depressive illness. Despite this progress, fundamental questions remain about the pathophysiology and etiology of MDD. More importantly, this body of work has yet to directly influence clinical practice. It has long been a goal for the fields of clinical psychology and psychiatry to have a means of making objective diagnoses of mental disorders. Frustratingly little movement has been achieved on this front, however, and the 'gold-standard’ of diagnostic validity and reliability remains expert consensus. In light of this challenge, the focus of the current review is to provide a critical summary of key findings from different neuroimaging approaches in MDD research, including structural, functional and neurochemical imaging studies. Following this summary, we discuss some of the current conceptual obstacles to better understanding the pathophysiology of depression, and conclude with recommendations for future neuroimaging research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Treadway
- Center for Depression Anxiety and Stress Research, McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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