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Schüürmann J, Quehl P, Lindhorst F, Lang K, Jose J. Autodisplay of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase for redox cofactor regeneration at the cell surface. Biotechnol Bioeng 2017; 114:1658-1669. [PMID: 28401536 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Inherent cofactor regeneration is a pivotal feature of whole cell biocatalysis. For specific biotechnological applications, surface display of enzymes is emerging as a tool to circumvent mass transfer limitations or enzyme stability problems. Even complex reactions can be accomplished applying displayed enzymes. Yet, industrial utilization of the technique is still impeded by lacking cofactor regeneration at the cell surface. Here, we report on the surface display of a glucose-6-phoshate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) via Autodisplay to address this limitation and regenerate NADPH directly at the cell surface. The obtained whole cell biocatalyst demonstrated similar kinetic parameters compared to the purified enzyme, more precisely KM values of 0.2 mM for NADP+ and calculated total turnover numbers of 107 . However, the KM for the substrate G6P increased by a factor of 7 to yield 1.5 mM. The whole cell biocatalyst was cheaper to produce, easy to separate from the reaction mixture and reusable in consecutive reaction cycles. Furthermore, lyophilization allowed storage at room temperature. The whole cell biocatalyst displaying G6PDH was applicable for NADPH regeneration in combination with soluble as well as surface displayed enzymes and model reactions in combination with bacterial CYP102A1 and human CYP1A2 were realized. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017;114: 1658-1669. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Schüürmann
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, PharmaCampus, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Paul Quehl
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, PharmaCampus, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Fabian Lindhorst
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, PharmaCampus, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Kristina Lang
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, PharmaCampus, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Joachim Jose
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, PharmaCampus, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
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102
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Latham J, Brandenburger E, Shepherd SA, Menon BRK, Micklefield J. Development of Halogenase Enzymes for Use in Synthesis. Chem Rev 2017; 118:232-269. [PMID: 28466644 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Nature has evolved halogenase enzymes to regioselectively halogenate a diverse range of biosynthetic precursors, with the halogens introduced often having a profound effect on the biological activity of the resulting natural products. Synthetic endeavors to create non-natural bioactive small molecules for pharmaceutical and agrochemical applications have also arrived at a similar conclusion: halogens can dramatically improve the properties of organic molecules for selective modulation of biological targets in vivo. Consequently, a high proportion of pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals on the market today possess halogens. Halogenated organic compounds are also common intermediates in synthesis and are particularly valuable in metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. Despite the potential utility of organohalogens, traditional nonenzymatic halogenation chemistry utilizes deleterious reagents and often lacks regiocontrol. Reliable, facile, and cleaner methods for the regioselective halogenation of organic compounds are therefore essential in the development of economical and environmentally friendly industrial processes. A potential avenue toward such methods is the use of halogenase enzymes, responsible for the biosynthesis of halogenated natural products, as biocatalysts. This Review will discuss advances in developing halogenases for biocatalysis, potential untapped sources of such biocatalysts and how further optimization of these enzymes is required to achieve the goal of industrial scale biohalogenation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Latham
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Eileen Brandenburger
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A Shepherd
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Binuraj R K Menon
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Micklefield
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
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103
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Xu SH, Wang WW, Zhang C, Liu XF, Yu BY, Zhang J. Site-selective oxidation of unactivated C–H sp 3 bonds of oleanane triterpenes by Streptomyces griseus ATCC 13273. Tetrahedron 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2017.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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104
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105
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Theodosiou E, Breisch M, Julsing MK, Falcioni F, Bühler B, Schmid A. An artificial TCA cycle selects for efficient α-ketoglutarate dependent hydroxylase catalysis in engineered Escherichia coli. Biotechnol Bioeng 2017; 114:1511-1520. [PMID: 28266022 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Amino acid hydroxylases depend directly on the cellular TCA cycle via their cosubstrate α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) and are highly useful for the selective biocatalytic oxyfunctionalization of amino acids. This study evaluates TCA cycle engineering strategies to force and increase α-KG flux through proline-4-hydroxylase (P4H). The genes sucA (α-KG dehydrogenase E1 subunit) and sucC (succinyl-CoA synthetase β subunit) were alternately deleted together with aceA (isocitrate lyase) in proline degradation-deficient Escherichia coli strains (ΔputA) expressing the p4h gene. Whereas, the ΔsucCΔaceAΔputA strain grew in minimal medium in the absence of P4H, relying on the activity of fumarate reductase, growth of the ΔsucAΔaceAΔputA strictly depended on P4H activity, thus coupling growth to proline hydroxylation. P4H restored growth, even when proline was not externally added. However, the reduced succinyl-CoA pool caused a 27% decrease of the average cell size compared to the wildtype strain. Medium supplementation partially restored the morphology and, in some cases, enhanced proline hydroxylation activity. The specific proline hydroxylation rate doubled when putP, encoding the Na+ /l-proline transporter, was overexpressed in the ΔsucAΔaceAΔputA strain. This is in contrast to wildtype and ΔputA single-knock out strains, in which α-KG availability obviously limited proline hydroxylation. Such α-KG limitation was relieved in the ΔsucAΔaceAΔputA strain. Furthermore, the ΔsucAΔaceAΔputA strain was used to demonstrate an agar plate-based method for the identification and selection of active α-KG dependent hydroxylases. This together with the possibility to waive selection pressure and overcome α-KG limitation in respective hydroxylation processes based on living cells emphasizes the potential of TCA cycle engineering for the productive application of α-KG dependent hydroxylases. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017;114: 1511-1520. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Theodosiou
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, Leipzig 04318, Germany
| | - Marina Breisch
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Mattijs K Julsing
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Francesco Falcioni
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, Leipzig 04318, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, Leipzig 04318, Germany
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106
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Hydrolase BioH knockout in E. coli enables efficient fatty acid methyl ester bioprocessing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 44:339-351. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-016-1890-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) originating from plant oils are most interesting renewable feedstocks for biofuels and bio-based materials. FAMEs can also be produced and/or functionalized by engineered microbes to give access to, e.g., polymer building blocks. Yet, they are often subject to hydrolysis yielding free fatty acids, which typically are degraded by microbes. We identified BioH as the key enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of medium-chain length FAME derivatives in different E. coli K-12 strains. E. coli ΔbioH strains showed up to 22-fold reduced FAME hydrolysis rates in comparison with respective wild-type strains. Knockout strains showed, beside the expected biotin auxotrophy, unchanged growth behavior and biocatalytic activity. Thus, high specific rates (~80 U gCDW −1) for terminal FAME oxyfunctionalization catalyzed by a recombinant alkane monooxygenase could be combined with reduced hydrolysis. Biotransformations in process-relevant two-liquid phase systems profited from reduced fatty acid accumulation and/or reduced substrate loss via free fatty acid metabolization. The BioH knockout strategy was beneficial in all tested strains, although its effect was found to differ according to specific strain properties, such as FAME hydrolysis and FFA degradation activities. BioH or functional analogs can be found in virtually all microorganisms, making bioH deletion a broadly applicable strategy for efficient microbial bioprocessing involving FAMEs.
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107
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Polakovič M, Švitel J, Bučko M, Filip J, Neděla V, Ansorge-Schumacher MB, Gemeiner P. Progress in biocatalysis with immobilized viable whole cells: systems development, reaction engineering and applications. Biotechnol Lett 2017; 39:667-683. [PMID: 28181062 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-017-2300-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Viable microbial cells are important biocatalysts in the production of fine chemicals and biofuels, in environmental applications and also in emerging applications such as biosensors or medicine. Their increasing significance is driven mainly by the intensive development of high performance recombinant strains supplying multienzyme cascade reaction pathways, and by advances in preservation of the native state and stability of whole-cell biocatalysts throughout their application. In many cases, the stability and performance of whole-cell biocatalysts can be highly improved by controlled immobilization techniques. This review summarizes the current progress in the development of immobilized whole-cell biocatalysts, the immobilization methods as well as in the bioreaction engineering aspects and economical aspects of their biocatalytic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Polakovič
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak Technical University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Juraj Švitel
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak Technical University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Marek Bučko
- Department of Glycobiotechnology, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jaroslav Filip
- Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Vilém Neděla
- Institute of Scientific Instruments, Academy of Sciences Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Peter Gemeiner
- Department of Glycobiotechnology, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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108
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Chate AV, Sukale SB, Ugale RS, Gill CH. Baker’s yeast: An efficient, green, and reusable biocatalyst for the one-pot synthesis of biologically important N-substituted decahydroacridine-1,8-dione derivatives. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2016.1266501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Asha V. Chate
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
| | - Shital B. Sukale
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
| | - Reshma S. Ugale
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
| | - Charansingh H. Gill
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India
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109
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Weber N, Gorwa-Grauslund M, Carlquist M. Improvement of whole-cell transamination with Saccharomyces cerevisiae using metabolic engineering and cell pre-adaptation. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:3. [PMID: 28049528 PMCID: PMC5209827 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-016-0615-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Whole-cell biocatalysis based on metabolically active baker’s yeast with engineered transamination activity can be used to generate molecules carrying a chiral amine moiety. A prerequisite is though to express efficient ω-transaminases and to reach sufficient intracellular precursor levels. Results Herein, the efficiency of three different ω-transaminases originating from Capsicum chinense, Chromobacterium violaceum, and Ochrobactrum anthropi was compared for whole-cell catalyzed kinetic resolution of racemic 1-phenylethylamine to (R)-1-phenylethylamine. The gene from the most promising candidate, C. violaceum ω-transaminase (CV-TA), was expressed in a strain lacking pyruvate decarboxylase activity, which thereby accumulate the co-substrate pyruvate during glucose assimilation. However, the conversion increased only slightly under the applied reaction conditions. In parallel, the effect of increasing the intracellular pyridoxal-5′-phosphate (PLP) level by omission of thiamine during cultivation was investigated. It was found that without thiamine, PLP supplementation was redundant to keep high in vivo transamination activity. Furthermore, higher reaction rates were achieved using a strain containing several copies of CV-TA gene, highlighting the necessity to also increase the intracellular transaminase level. At last, this strain was also investigated for asymmetric whole-cell bioconversion of acetophenone to (S)-1-phenylethylamine using l-alanine as amine donor. Although functionality could be demonstrated, the activity was extremely low indicating that the native co-product removal system was unable to drive the reaction towards the amine under the applied reaction conditions. Conclusions Altogether, our results demonstrate that (R)-1-phenylethylamine with >99% ee can be obtained via kinetic resolution at concentrations above 25 mM racemic substrate with glucose as sole co-substrate when combining appropriate genetic and process engineering approaches. Furthermore, the engineered yeast strain with highest transaminase activity was also shown to be operational as whole-cell catalyst for the production of (S)-1-phenylethylamine via asymmetric transamination of acetophenone, albeit with very low conversion. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-016-0615-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Weber
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden.,Evolva SA, Duggingerstrasse 23, 4153, Reinach, Switzerland
| | - Marie Gorwa-Grauslund
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden
| | - Magnus Carlquist
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden.
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110
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Xu SH, Zhang C, Wang WW, Yu BY, Zhang J. Site-selective biotransformation of ursane triterpenes by Streptomyces griseus ATCC 13273. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra01811h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The oxidization of unactivated C–H bonds of pentacyclic triterpenes (PTs) is of great interest for the structural modification of PTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Hua Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines
- China Pharmaceutical University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Chao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines
- China Pharmaceutical University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Wei-Wei Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research
- China Pharmaceutical University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Bo-Yang Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research
- China Pharmaceutical University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Jian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines
- China Pharmaceutical University
- Nanjing
- China
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111
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Sivaperumal P, Kamala K, Rajaram R. Bioremediation of Industrial Waste Through Enzyme Producing Marine Microorganisms. MARINE ENZYMES BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, PART III - APPLICATION OF MARINE ENZYMES 2017; 80:165-179. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2016.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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112
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Stankevičiūtė J, Vaitekūnas J, Petkevičius V, Gasparavičiūtė R, Tauraitė D, Meškys R. Oxyfunctionalization of pyridine derivatives using whole cells of Burkholderia sp. MAK1. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39129. [PMID: 27982075 PMCID: PMC5159870 DOI: 10.1038/srep39129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyridinols and pyridinamines are important intermediates with many applications in chemical industry. The pyridine derivatives are in great demand as synthons for pharmaceutical products. Moreover, pyridines are used either as biologically active substances or as building blocks for polymers with unique physical properties. Application of enzymes or whole cells is an attractive strategy for preparation of hydroxylated pyridines since the methods for chemical synthesis of pyridinols, particularly aminopyridinols, are usually limited or inefficient. Burkholderia sp. MAK1 (DSM102049), capable of using pyridin-2-ol as the sole carbon and energy source, was isolated from soil. Whole cells of Burkholderia sp. MAK1 were confirmed to possess a good ability to convert different pyridin-2-amines and pyridin-2-ones into their 5-hydroxy derivatives. Moreover, several methylpyridines as well as methylated pyrazines were converted to appropriate N-oxides. In conclusion, regioselective oxyfunctionalization of pyridine derivatives using whole cells of Burkholderia sp. MAK1 is a promising method for the preparation of various pyridin-5-ols and pyridin-N-oxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonita Stankevičiūtė
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, the Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Justas Vaitekūnas
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, the Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Vytautas Petkevičius
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, the Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Renata Gasparavičiūtė
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, the Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Daiva Tauraitė
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, the Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Rolandas Meškys
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, the Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Sauletekio al. 7, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
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113
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A whole cell biocatalyst for double oxidation of cyclooctane. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 43:1641-1646. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-016-1844-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A novel whole cell cascade for double oxidation of cyclooctane to cyclooctanone was developed. The one-pot oxidation cascade requires only a minimum of reaction components: resting E. coli cells in aqueous buffered medium (=catalyst), the target substrate and oxygen as environmental friendly oxidant. Conversion of cyclooctane was catalysed with high efficiency (50% yield) and excellent selectivity (>94%) to cyclooctanone. The reported oxidation cascade represents a novel whole cell system for double oxidation of non-activated alkanes including an integrated cofactor regeneration. Notably, two alcohol dehydrogenases from Lactobacillus brevis and from Rhodococcus erythropolis with opposite cofactor selectivities and one monooxygenase P450 BM3 were produced in a coexpression system in one single host. The system represents the most efficient route with a TTN of up to 24363 being a promising process in terms of sustainability as well.
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114
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Kadisch M, Julsing MK, Schrewe M, Jehmlich N, Scheer B, von Bergen M, Schmid A, Bühler B. Maximization of cell viability rather than biocatalyst activity improves whole-cell ω-oxyfunctionalization performance. Biotechnol Bioeng 2016; 114:874-884. [PMID: 27883174 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
It is a common misconception in whole-cell biocatalysis to refer to an enzyme as the biocatalyst, thereby neglecting the structural and metabolic framework provided by the cell. Here, the low whole-cell biocatalyst stability, that is, the stability of specific biocatalyst activity, in a process for the terminal oxyfunctionalization of renewable fatty acid methyl esters was investigated. This reaction, which is difficult to achieve by chemical means, is catalyzed by Escherichia coli featuring the monooxygenase system AlkBGT and the uptake facilitator AlkL from Pseudomonas putida GPo1. Corresponding products, that is, terminal alcohols, aldehydes, and acids, constitute versatile bifunctional building blocks, which are of special interest for polymer synthesis. It could clearly be shown that extensive dodecanoic acid methyl ester uptake mediated by high AlkL levels leads to whole-cell biocatalyst toxification. Thus, cell viability constitutes the primary factor limiting biocatalyst stability and, as a result, process durability. Hence, a compromise had to be found between low biocatalyst activity due to restricted substrate uptake and poor biocatalyst stability due to AlkL-mediated toxification. This was achieved by the fine-tuning of heterologous alkL expression, which, furthermore, enabled the identification of the alkBGT expression level as another critical factor determining biocatalyst stability. Controlled synthesis of AlkL and reduced alkBGT expression finally enabled an increase of product titers by a factor of 4.3 up to 229 g Lorg-1 in a two-liquid phase bioprocess setup. Clearly, ω-oxyfunctionalization process performance was determined by cell viability and thus biocatalyst stability rather than the maximally achievable specific biocatalyst activity. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017;114: 874-884. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Kadisch
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mattijs K Julsing
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Manfred Schrewe
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Nico Jehmlich
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Benjamin Scheer
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin von Bergen
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
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115
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Gehring C, Wessel M, Schaffer S, Thum O. The Power of Biocatalysis: A One-Pot Total Synthesis of Rhamnolipids from Butane as the Sole Carbon and Energy Source. ChemistryOpen 2016; 5:513-516. [PMID: 28032017 PMCID: PMC5167325 DOI: 10.1002/open.201600127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbially derived surfactants, so‐called biosurfactants, have drawn much attention in recent years and are expected to replace current petrochemical surfactants, owing to their environmental and toxicological benefits. One strategy to support that goal is to reduce production costs by replacing relatively expensive sugars with cheaper raw materials, such as short‐chain alkanes. Herein, we report the successful one‐pot total synthesis of rhamnolipids, a class of biosurfactants with 12 stereocenters, from butane as sole carbon and energy source through the design of a tailored whole‐cell biocatalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mirja Wessel
- Evonik Creavis GmbH Paul-Baumann-Str. 1 45772 Marl Germany
| | | | - Oliver Thum
- Evonik Creavis GmbH Paul-Baumann-Str. 1 45772 Marl Germany
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116
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Enhancing productivity for cascade biotransformation of styrene to (S)-vicinal diol with biphasic system in hollow fiber membrane bioreactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 101:1857-1868. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-7954-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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117
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Large-scale bioprocess competitiveness: the potential of dynamic metabolic control in two-stage fermentations. Curr Opin Chem Eng 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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118
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Jeon EY, Seo JH, Kang WR, Kim MJ, Lee JH, Oh DK, Park JB. Simultaneous Enzyme/Whole-Cell Biotransformation of Plant Oils into C9 Carboxylic Acids. ACS Catal 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b01884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Yeong Jeon
- Department
of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo-Hyun Seo
- Department
of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Ri Kang
- Department
of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Ji Kim
- Department
of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hoo Lee
- Department
of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Deok-Kun Oh
- Department
of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Byung Park
- Department
of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
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119
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Kirtz M, Klebensberger J, Otte KB, Richter SM, Hauer B. Production of ω-hydroxy octanoic acid with Escherichia coli. J Biotechnol 2016; 230:30-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2016.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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120
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Dennig A, Kurakin S, Kuhn M, Dordic A, Hall M, Faber K. Enzymatic Oxidative Tandem Decarboxylation of Dioic Acids to Terminal Dienes. European J Org Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201600358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dennig
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB); c/o Department of Chemistry; Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry; University of Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Sara Kurakin
- Department of Chemistry; Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry; University of Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Miriam Kuhn
- Department of Chemistry; Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry; University of Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Andela Dordic
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB); c/o Department of Chemistry; Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry; University of Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Mélanie Hall
- Department of Chemistry; Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry; University of Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Kurt Faber
- Department of Chemistry; Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry; University of Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
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121
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Yang JW, Zheng DJ, Cui BD, Yang M, Chen YZ. RNA-seq transcriptome analysis of a Pseudomonas strain with diversified catalytic properties growth under different culture medium. Microbiologyopen 2016; 5:626-36. [PMID: 27061463 PMCID: PMC4985596 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Biocatalysis is an emerging strategy for the production of enantio-pure organic molecules. However, lacking of commercially available enzymes restricts the widespread application of biocatalysis. In this study, we report a Pseudomonas strain which exhibited versatile oxidation activity to synthesize chiral sulfoxides when growing under M9-toluene medium and reduction activity to synthesize chiral alcohols when on Luria-Bertani (LB) medium, respectively. Further comparative transcriptome analysis on samples from these two cultural conditions has identified 1038 differentially expressed genes (DEG). Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment and KEGG pathways analysis demonstrate significant changes in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and biosynthesis of metabolites when cells cultured under different conditions. We have identified eight candidate enzymes from this bacterial which may have the potential to be used for synthesis of chiral alcohol and sulfoxide chemicals. This work provides insights into the mechanism of diversity in catalytic properties of this Pseudomonas strain growth with different cultural conditions, as well as candidate enzymes for further biocatalysis of enantiomerically pure molecules and pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Wei Yang
- Department of Biochemistry, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563003, China
| | - Dai-Jun Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Bao-Dong Cui
- Department of Biochemistry, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563003, China
| | - Min Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Yong-Zheng Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
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122
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Kaluzna I, Schmitges T, Straatman H, van Tegelen D, Müller M, Schürmann M, Mink D. Enabling Selective and Sustainable P450 Oxygenation Technology. Production of 4-Hydroxy-α-isophorone on Kilogram Scale. Org Process Res Dev 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.5b00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Kaluzna
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Schmitges
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Harrie Straatman
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Dennis van Tegelen
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Monika Müller
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Schürmann
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel Mink
- DSM Ahead R&D BV—Innovative Synthesis, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
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123
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Tieves F, Erenburg IN, Mahmoud O, Urlacher VB. Synthesis of chiral 2-alkanols fromn-alkanes by aP. putidawhole-cell biocatalyst. Biotechnol Bioeng 2016; 113:1845-52. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.25953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Tieves
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Isabelle N. Erenburg
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Osama Mahmoud
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Vlada B. Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
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124
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Ladkau N, Assmann M, Schrewe M, Julsing MK, Schmid A, Bühler B. Efficient production of the Nylon 12 monomer ω-aminododecanoic acid methyl ester from renewable dodecanoic acid methyl ester with engineered Escherichia coli. Metab Eng 2016; 36:1-9. [PMID: 26969251 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2016.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The expansion of microbial substrate and product scopes will be an important brick promoting future bioeconomy. In this study, an orthogonal pathway running in parallel to native metabolism and converting renewable dodecanoic acid methyl ester (DAME) via terminal alcohol and aldehyde to 12-aminododecanoic acid methyl ester (ADAME), a building block for the high-performance polymer Nylon 12, was engineered in Escherichia coli and optimized regarding substrate uptake, substrate requirements, host strain choice, flux, and product yield. Efficient DAME uptake was achieved by means of the hydrophobic outer membrane porin AlkL increasing maximum oxygenation and transamination activities 8.3 and 7.6-fold, respectively. An optimized coupling to the pyruvate node via a heterologous alanine dehydrogenase enabled efficient intracellular L-alanine supply, a prerequisite for self-sufficient whole-cell transaminase catalysis. Finally, the introduction of a respiratory chain-linked alcohol dehydrogenase enabled an increase in pathway flux, the minimization of undesired overoxidation to the respective carboxylic acid, and thus the efficient formation of ADAME as main product. The completely synthetic orthogonal pathway presented in this study sets the stage for Nylon 12 production from renewables. Its effective operation achieved via fine tuning the connectivity to native cell functionalities emphasizes the potential of this concept to expand microbial substrate and product scopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Ladkau
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Miriam Assmann
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Manfred Schrewe
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mattijs K Julsing
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany.
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125
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Soussan L, Pen N, Belleville MP, Marcano JS, Paolucci-Jeanjean D. Alkane biohydroxylation: Interests, constraints and future developments. J Biotechnol 2016; 222:117-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 01/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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126
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Knudsen JD, Hägglöf C, Weber N, Carlquist M. Increased availability of NADH in metabolically engineered baker's yeast improves transaminase-oxidoreductase coupled asymmetric whole-cell bioconversion. Microb Cell Fact 2016; 15:37. [PMID: 26879378 PMCID: PMC4754910 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-016-0430-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Saccharomyces cerevisiae can be engineered to perform a multitude of different chemical reactions that are not programmed in its original genetic code. It has a large potential to function as whole-cell biocatalyst for one-pot multistep synthesis of various organic molecules, and it may thus serve as a powerful alternative or complement to traditional organic synthetic routes for new chemical entities (NCEs). However, although the selectivity in many cases is high, the catalytic activity is often low which results in low space-time-yields. In the case for NADH-dependent heterologous reductive reactions, a possible constraint is the availability of cytosolic NADH, which may be limited due to competition with native oxidative enzymes that act to maintain redox homeostasis. In this study, the effect of increasing the availability of cytosolic NADH on the catalytic activity of engineered yeast for transamination-reduction coupled asymmetric one-pot conversion was investigated. RESULTS A series of active whole-cell biocatalysts were constructed by over-expressing the (S)-selective ω-transaminase (VAMT) from Capsicum chinense together with the NADH-dependent (S)-selective alcohol dehydrogenase (SADH) originating from Rhodococcus erythropolis in strains with or without deletion of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenases 1 and 2 (GPD1 and GPD2). The yeast strains were evaluated as catalysts for simultaneous: (a) kinetic resolution of the racemic mixture to (R)-1-phenylethylamine, and (b) reduction of the produced acetophenone to (S)-1-phenylethanol. For the gpd1Δgpd2Δ strain, cell metabolism was effectively used for the supply of both amine acceptors and the co-factor pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP) for the ω-transaminase, as well as for regenerating NADH for the reduction. In contrast, there was nearly no formation of (S)-1-phenylethanol when using the control strain with intact GPDs and over-expressing the VAMT-SADH coupling. It was found that a gpd1Δgpd2Δ strain over-expressing SADH had a 3-fold higher reduction rate and a 3-fold lower glucose requirement than the strain with intact GPDs over-expressing SADH. CONCLUSIONS Overall the results demonstrate that the deletion of the GPD1 and GPD2 genes significantly increases activity of the whole-cell biocatalyst, and at the same time reduces the co-substrate demand in a process configuration where only yeast and sugar is added to drive the reactions, i.e. without addition of external co-factors or prosthetic groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Dines Knudsen
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden.
- The Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.zza della Scienza 4, 20126, Milano (MI), Italy.
| | - Cecilia Hägglöf
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Nora Weber
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden.
- Evolva, Duggingerstrasse 23, 4153, Reinach, Switzerland.
| | - Magnus Carlquist
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00, Lund, Sweden.
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127
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Krone KM, Warias R, Ritter C, Li A, Acevedo-Rocha CG, Reetz MT, Belder D. Analysis of Enantioselective Biotransformations Using a Few Hundred Cells on an Integrated Microfluidic Chip. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:2102-5. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b12443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karin M. Krone
- Institute
of Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Linnéstrasse 3, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Rico Warias
- Institute
of Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Linnéstrasse 3, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Cornelia Ritter
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Aitao Li
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Carlos G. Acevedo-Rocha
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Detlev Belder
- Institute
of Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Linnéstrasse 3, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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128
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Whole-cell biocatalytic production of variously substituted β-aryl- and β-heteroaryl-β-amino acids. J Biotechnol 2016; 217:12-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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129
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Ferrer M, Martínez-Martínez M, Bargiela R, Streit WR, Golyshina OV, Golyshin PN. Estimating the success of enzyme bioprospecting through metagenomics: current status and future trends. Microb Biotechnol 2016; 9:22-34. [PMID: 26275154 PMCID: PMC4720405 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent reports have suggested that the establishment of industrially relevant enzyme collections from environmental genomes has become a routine procedure. Across the studies assessed, a mean number of approximately 44 active clones were obtained in an average size of approximately 53,000 clones tested using naïve screening protocols. This number could be significantly increased in shorter times when novel metagenome enzyme sequences obtained by direct sequencing are selected and subjected to high-throughput expression for subsequent production and characterization. The pre-screening of clone libraries by naïve screens followed by the pyrosequencing of the inserts allowed for a 106-fold increase in the success rate of identifying genes encoding enzymes of interest. However, a much longer time, usually on the order of years, is needed from the time of enzyme identification to the establishment of an industrial process. If the hit frequency for the identification of enzymes performing at high turnover rates under real application conditions could be increased while still covering a high natural diversity, the very expensive and time-consuming enzyme optimization phase would likely be significantly shortened. At this point, it is important to review the current knowledge about the success of fine-tuned naïve- and sequence-based screening protocols for enzyme selection and to describe the environments worldwide that have already been subjected to enzyme screen programmes through metagenomic tools. Here, we provide such estimations and suggest the current challenges and future actions needed before environmental enzymes can be successfully introduced into the market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Ferrer
- Institute of Catalysis, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Marie Curie 2, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mónica Martínez-Martínez
- Institute of Catalysis, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Marie Curie 2, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Bargiela
- Institute of Catalysis, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Marie Curie 2, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Wolfgang R Streit
- Biozentrum Klein Flottbek, Universität Hamburg, Ohnhorststraße 18, D-22609, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Olga V Golyshina
- School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, LL57 2UW, Gwynedd, UK
| | - Peter N Golyshin
- School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, LL57 2UW, Gwynedd, UK
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130
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Willrodt C, Hoschek A, Bühler B, Schmid A, Julsing MK. Decoupling production from growth by magnesium sulfate limitation boosts de novo limonene production. Biotechnol Bioeng 2015; 113:1305-14. [PMID: 26574166 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The microbial production of isoprenoids has recently developed into a prime example for successful bottom-up synthetic biology or top-down systems biology strategies. Respective fermentation processes typically rely on growing recombinant microorganisms. However, the fermentative production of isoprenoids has to compete with cellular maintenance and growth for carbon and energy. Non-growing but metabolically active E. coli cells were evaluated in this study as alternative biocatalyst configurations to reduce energy and carbon loss towards biomass formation. The use of non-growing cells in an optimized fermentation medium resulted in more than fivefold increased specific limonene yields on cell dry weight and glucose, as compared to the traditional growing-cell-approach. Initially, the stability of the resting-cell activity was limited. This instability was overcome via the optimization of the minimal fermentation medium enabling high and stable limonene production rates for up to 8 h and a high specific yield of ≥50 mg limonene per gram cell dry weight. Omitting MgSO4 from the fermentation medium was very promising to prohibit growth and allow high productivities. Applying a MgSO4 -limitation also improved limonene formation by growing cells during non-exponential growth involving a reduced biomass yield on glucose and a fourfold increase in specific limonene yields on biomass as compared to non-limited cultures. The control of microbial growth via the medium composition was identified as a key but yet underrated strategy for efficient isoprenoid production. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 1305-1314. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Willrodt
- Department Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Anna Hoschek
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Mattijs K Julsing
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
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131
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Ströhle FW, Kranen E, Schrader J, Maas R, Holtmann D. A simplified process design for P450 driven hydroxylation based on surface displayed enzymes. Biotechnol Bioeng 2015; 113:1225-33. [PMID: 26574191 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
New production routes for fine and bulk chemicals are important to establish further sustainable processes in industry. Besides the identification of new biocatalysts and new production routes the optimization of existing processes in regard to an improved utilization of the catalysts are needed. In this paper we describe the successful expression of P450BM3 on the surface of E. coli cells with the Autodisplay system. The successful hydroxylation of palmitic acid by using surface-displayed P450BM3 was shown. Besides optimization of surface protein expression, several cofactor regeneration systems were compared and evaluated. Afterwards, the development of a suitable process for the biocatalytic hydroxylation of fatty acids based on the re-use of the catalysts after a simple centrifugation was investigated. It was shown that the catalyst can be used for several times without any loss in activity. By using surface-displayed P450s in combination with an enzymatic cofactor regeneration system a total turnover number of up to 54,700 could be reached, to the knowledge of the authors the highest value reported for a P450 monooxygenase to date. Further optimizations of the described reaction system can have an enormous impact on the process design for more sustainable bioprocesses. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 1225-1233. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank W Ströhle
- DECHEMA-Forschungsinstitut, Biochemical Engineering, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, 60486, Germany
| | - Eva Kranen
- Autodisplay Biotech GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jens Schrader
- DECHEMA-Forschungsinstitut, Biochemical Engineering, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, 60486, Germany
| | - Ruth Maas
- Autodisplay Biotech GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dirk Holtmann
- DECHEMA-Forschungsinstitut, Biochemical Engineering, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, 60486, Germany.
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132
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Dennig A, Busto E, Kroutil W, Faber K. Biocatalytic One-Pot Synthesis of l-Tyrosine Derivatives from Monosubstituted Benzenes, Pyruvate, and Ammonia. ACS Catal 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.5b02129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dennig
- Department of Chemistry,
Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse
28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Eduardo Busto
- Department of Chemistry,
Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse
28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kroutil
- Department of Chemistry,
Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse
28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Kurt Faber
- Department of Chemistry,
Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse
28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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133
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Ramesh H, Zajkoska P, Rebroš M, Woodley JM. The effect of cultivation media and washing whole-cell biocatalysts on monoamine oxidase catalyzed oxidative desymmetrization of 3-azabicyclo[3,3,0]octane. Enzyme Microb Technol 2015; 83:7-13. [PMID: 26777245 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that washing whole-cells containing enzyme activities after fermentation, but prior to biocatalysis can improve their activity in the subsequent reaction. In this paper, we quantify the impact of both the fermentation media and cell washing on the performance of whole-cell biocatalysis. The results are illustrated using a recombinant monoamine oxidase (expressed in Escherichia coli, used in resting state) for the oxidative desymmetrization of 3-azabicyclo[3,3,0]octane. It was shown that the need for washing biocatalyst prior to use in a reaction is dependent upon growth medium. Unlike cells grown in LB medium, washing of the cells was essential for cells grown on TB medium. With TB media, washing the cells improved the final conversion by approximately a factor of two. Additionally, over 50-fold improvement was achieved in initial activity. A potential reason for this improvement in activity was identified to be the increase in transfer of substrates across the cell membrane as a result of cell washing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemalata Ramesh
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Building 229, Søltofts Plads, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Petra Zajkoska
- Institute of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Martin Rebroš
- Institute of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - John M Woodley
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Building 229, Søltofts Plads, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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134
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Sührer I, Langemann T, Lubitz W, Weuster-Botz D, Castiglione K. A novel one-step expression and immobilization method for the production of biocatalytic preparations. Microb Cell Fact 2015; 14:180. [PMID: 26577293 PMCID: PMC4650107 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-015-0371-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whole cell biocatalysts and isolated enzymes are considered as state of the art in biocatalytic preparations for industrial applications. Whole cells as biocatalysts are disadvantageous if substrate or products are toxic to the cells or undesired byproducts are formed due to the cellular metabolism. The use of isolated enzymes in comparison is more expensive due to the required downstream processing. Immobilization of enzymes after purification increases preparation costs for biocatalysts significantly, but allows for the efficient reuse of the enzymes in the biocatalytic process. For a more rapid processing one-step expression and immobilization is desirable. RESULTS This study focused on the development of a new one-step expression and immobilization technique for enzymes on the example of the β-galactosidase from Escherichia coli K12. The enzyme was expressed in E. coli with a C-terminal membrane anchor originating from cytochrome b5 from rabbit liver and was thus in situ immobilized to the inner surface of the cytosolic membrane. Then, the expression of a lytic phage protein (gene E from PhiX174) caused the formation of a pore in the cell wall of E. coli, which resulted in release of the cytosol. The cellular envelopes with immobilized enzymes were retained. Batch and fed-batch processes were developed for efficient production of these biocatalysts. It was possible to obtain cellular envelopes with up to 27,200 ± 10,460 immobilized enzyme molecules per cellular envelope (753 ± 190 U/gdry weight). A thorough characterization of the effects of membrane immobilization was performed. Comparison to whole cells showed that mass transfer limitation was reduced in cellular envelopes due to the pore formation. CONCLUSION In this study the feasibility of a new one-step expression and immobilization technique for the generation of biocatalytic preparations was demonstrated. The technique could be a useful tool especially for enzyme systems, which are not suitable for whole-cell biocatalysts due to severe mass transfer limitations or undesired side reactions mediated by cytosolic enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka Sührer
- Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstr. 15, 85748, Garching, Germany.
| | - Timo Langemann
- BIRD-C GmbH & Co KG, Erne-Seder-Gasse 4/2, 1030, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Werner Lubitz
- BIRD-C GmbH & Co KG, Erne-Seder-Gasse 4/2, 1030, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Dirk Weuster-Botz
- Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstr. 15, 85748, Garching, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Castiglione
- Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstr. 15, 85748, Garching, Germany.
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135
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Hinks J, Wang Y, Matysik A, Kraut R, Kjelleberg S, Mu Y, Bazan GC, Wuertz S, Seviour T. Increased Microbial Butanol Tolerance by Exogenous Membrane Insertion Molecules. CHEMSUSCHEM 2015; 8:3718-3726. [PMID: 26404512 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201500194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Butanol is an ideal biofuel, although poor titers lead to high recovery costs by distillation. Fluidization of microbial membranes by butanol is one of the major factors limiting titers in butanol-producing bioprocesses. Starting with the hypothesis that certain membrane insertion molecules would stabilize the lipid bilayer in the presence of butanol, we applied a combination of in vivo and in vitro techniques within an in silico framework to describe a new approach to achieve solvent tolerance in bacteria. Single-molecule tracking of a model supported bilayer showed that COE1-5C, a five-ringed oligo-polyphenylenevinylene conjugated oligoelectrolyte (COE), reduced the diffusion rate of phospholipids in a microbially derived lipid bilayer to a greater extent than three-ringed and four-ringed COEs. Furthermore, COE1-5C treatment increased the specific growth rate of E. coli K12 relative to a control at inhibitory butanol concentrations. Consequently, to confer butanol tolerance to microbes by exogenous means is complementary to genetic modification of strains in industrial bioprocesses, extends the physiological range of microbes to match favorable bioprocess conditions, and is amenable with complex and undefined microbial consortia for biobutanol production. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the π-conjugated aromatic backbone of COE1-5C likely acts as a hydrophobic tether for glycerophospholipid acyl chains by enhancing bilayer integrity in the presence of high butanol concentrations, which thereby counters membrane fluidization. COE1-5C-mitigated E. coli K12 membrane depolarization by butanol is consistent with the hypothesis that improved growth rates in the presence of butanol are a consequence of improved bilayer stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Hinks
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore.
| | - Yaofeng Wang
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Artur Matysik
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Rachel Kraut
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Staffan Kjelleberg
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
- Centre for Marine BioInnovation and School of Biotechnology and Bimolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
| | - Yuguang Mu
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and Materials, Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, 93106, USA
| | - Stefan Wuertz
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Thomas Seviour
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore.
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136
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Reinen J, Vredenburg G, Klaering K, Vermeulen NP, Commandeur JN, Honing M, Vos JC. Selective whole-cell biosynthesis of the designer drug metabolites 15- or 16-betahydroxynorethisterone by engineered Cytochrome P450 BM3 mutants. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2015.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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137
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Lundemo MT, Notonier S, Striedner G, Hauer B, Woodley JM. Process limitations of a whole-cell P450 catalyzed reaction using a CYP153A-CPR fusion construct expressed in Escherichia coli. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 100:1197-1208. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6999-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 08/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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138
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Lindmeyer M, Jahn M, Vorpahl C, Müller S, Schmid A, Bühler B. Variability in subpopulation formation propagates into biocatalytic variability of engineered Pseudomonas putida strains. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1042. [PMID: 26483771 PMCID: PMC4589675 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pivotal challenges in industrial biotechnology are the identification and overcoming of cell-to-cell heterogeneity in microbial processes. While the development of subpopulations of isogenic cells in bioprocesses is well described (intra-population variability), a possible variability between genetically identical cultures growing under macroscopically identical conditions (clonal variability) is not. A high such clonal variability has been found for the recombinant expression of the styrene monooxygenase genes styAB from Pseudomonas taiwanensis VLB120 in solvent-tolerant Pseudomonas putida DOT-T1E using the alk-regulatory system from P. putida GPo1. In this study, the oxygenase subunit StyA fused to eGFP was used as readout tool to characterize the population structure in P. putida DOT-T1E regarding recombinant protein content. Flow cytometric analyses revealed that in individual cultures, at least two subpopulations with highly differing recombinant StyA-eGFP protein contents appeared (intra-population variability). Interestingly, subpopulation sizes varied from culture-to-culture correlating with the specific styrene epoxidation activity of cells derived from respective cultures (clonal variability). In addition, flow cytometric cell sorting coupled to plasmid copy number (PCN) determination revealed that detected clonal variations cannot be correlated to the PCN, but depend on the combination of the regulatory system and the host strain employed. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first work reporting that intra-population variability (with differing protein contents in the presented case study) causes clonal variability of genetically identical cultures. Respective impacts on bioprocess reliability and performance and strategies to overcome respective reliability issues are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Lindmeyer
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University Dortmund, Germany
| | - Michael Jahn
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department for Environmental Microbiology Leipzig, Germany
| | - Carsten Vorpahl
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department for Environmental Microbiology Leipzig, Germany
| | - Susann Müller
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department for Environmental Microbiology Leipzig, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University Dortmund, Germany ; Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Solar Materials Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University Dortmund, Germany ; Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Solar Materials Leipzig, Germany
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139
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Karande R, Debor L, Salamanca D, Bogdahn F, Engesser KH, Buehler K, Schmid A. Continuous cyclohexane oxidation to cyclohexanol using a novel cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Acidovorax sp. CHX100 in recombinant P. taiwanensis VLB120 biofilms. Biotechnol Bioeng 2015; 113:52-61. [PMID: 26153144 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The applications of biocatalysts in chemical industries are characterized by activity, selectivity, and stability. One key strategy to achieve high biocatalytic activity is the identification of novel enzymes with kinetics optimized for organic synthesis by Nature. The isolation of novel cytochrome P450 monooxygenase genes from Acidovorax sp. CHX100 and their functional expression in recombinant Pseudomonas taiwanensis VLB120 enabled efficient oxidation of cyclohexane to cyclohexanol. Although initial resting cell activities of 20 U gCDW (-1) were achieved, the rapid decrease in catalytic activity due to the toxicity of cyclohexane prevented synthetic applications. Cyclohexane toxicity was reduced and cellular activities stabilized over the reaction time by delivering the toxic substrate through the vapor phase and by balancing the aqueous phase mass transfer with the cellular conversion rate. The potential of this novel CYP enzyme was exploited by transferring the shake flask reaction to an aqueous-air segmented flow biofilm membrane reactor for maximizing productivity. Cyclohexane was continuously delivered via the silicone membrane. This ensured lower reactant toxicity and continuous product formation at an average volumetric productivity of 0.4 g L tube (-1) h(-1) for several days. This highlights the potential of combining a powerful catalyst with a beneficial reactor design to overcome critical issues of cyclohexane oxidation to cyclohexanol. It opens new opportunities for biocatalytic transformations of compounds which are toxic, volatile, and have low solubility in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan Karande
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Linde Debor
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Diego Salamanca
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Fabian Bogdahn
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinrich Engesser
- Department of Biological Waste Air Purification, Institute of Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Katja Buehler
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany. .,Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
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140
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Theodosiou E, Frick O, Bühler B, Schmid A. Metabolic network capacity of Escherichia coli for Krebs cycle-dependent proline hydroxylation. Microb Cell Fact 2015. [PMID: 26215086 PMCID: PMC4517350 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-015-0298-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Understanding the metabolism of the microbial host is essential for the development and optimization of whole-cell based biocatalytic processes, as it dictates production efficiency. This is especially true for redox biocatalysis where metabolically active cells are employed because of the cofactor/cosubstrate regenerative capacity endogenous in the host. Recombinant Escherichia coli was used for overproducing proline-4-hydroxylase (P4H), a dioxygenase catalyzing the hydroxylation of free l-proline into trans-4-hydroxy-l-proline with a-ketoglutarate (a-KG) as cosubstrate. In this whole-cell biocatalyst, central carbon metabolism provides the required cosubstrate a-KG, coupling P4H biocatalytic performance directly to carbon metabolism and metabolic activity. By applying both experimental and computational biology tools, such as metabolic engineering and 13C-metabolic flux analysis (13C-MFA), we investigated and quantitatively described the physiological, metabolic, and bioenergetic response of the whole-cell biocatalyst to the targeted bioconversion and identified possible metabolic bottlenecks for further rational pathway engineering. Results A proline degradation-deficient E. coli strain was constructed by deleting the putA gene encoding proline dehydrogenase. Whole-cell biotransformations with this mutant strain led not only to quantitative proline hydroxylation but also to a doubling of the specific trans-4-l-hydroxyproline (hyp) formation rate, compared to the wild type. Analysis of carbon flux through central metabolism of the mutant strain revealed that the increased a-KG demand for P4H activity did not enhance the a-KG generating flux, indicating a tightly regulated TCA cycle operation under the conditions studied. In the wild type strain, P4H synthesis and catalysis caused a reduction in biomass yield. Interestingly, the ΔputA strain additionally compensated the associated ATP and NADH loss by reducing maintenance energy demands at comparably low glucose uptake rates, instead of increasing the TCA activity. Conclusions The putA knockout in recombinant E. coli BL21(DE3)(pLysS) was found to be promising for productive P4H catalysis not only in terms of biotransformation yield, but also regarding the rates for biotransformation and proline uptake and the yield of hyp on the energy source. The results indicate that, upon a putA knockout, the coupling of the TCA-cycle to proline hydroxylation via the cosubstrate a-KG becomes a key factor constraining and a target to further improve the efficiency of a-KG-dependent biotransformations. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-015-0298-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Theodosiou
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany. .,Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Oliver Frick
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany. .,Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
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141
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Willrodt C, Hoschek A, Bühler B, Schmid A, Julsing MK. Coupling limonene formation and oxyfunctionalization by mixed-culture resting cell fermentation. Biotechnol Bioeng 2015; 112:1738-50. [PMID: 25786991 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic engineering strategies mark a milestone for the fermentative production of bulk and fine chemicals. Yet, toxic products and volatile reaction intermediates with low solubilities remain challenging. Prominent examples are artificial multistep pathways like the production of perillyl acetate (POHAc) from glucose via limonene. For POHAc, these limitations can be overcome by mixed-culture fermentations. A limonene biosynthesis pathway and cytochrome P450 153A6 (CYP153A6) as regioselective hydroxylase are used in two distinct recombinant E. coli. POHAc formation from glucose in one recombinant cell was hindered by ineffective coupling of limonene synthesis and low rates of oxyfunctionalization. The optimization of P450 gene expression led to the formation of 6.20 ± 0.06 mg gcdw (-1) POHAc in a biphasic batch cultivation with glucose as sole carbon and energy source. Increasing the spatial proximity between limonene synthase and CYP153A6 by a genetic fusion of both enzymes changed the molar limonene/POHAc ratio from 3.2 to 1.6. Spatial separation of limonene biosynthesis from its oxyfunctionalization improved POHAc concentration 3.3-fold to 21.7 mg L(-1) as compared to a biphasic fermentation. Mixed-cultures of E. coli BL21 (DE3) containing the limonene biosynthesis pathway and E. coli MG1655 harboring either CYP153A6, or alternatively a cymene monooxygenase, showed POHAc formation rates of 0.06 or 0.11 U gcdw (-1) , respectively. This concept provides a novel framework for fermentative syntheses involving toxic, volatile, or barely soluble compounds or pathway intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Willrodt
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany.,Department Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anna Hoschek
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Bruno Bühler
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Mattijs K Julsing
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
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142
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The dynamic influence of cells on the formation of stable emulsions in organic–aqueous biotransformations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 42:1011-26. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-015-1621-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Emulsion stability plays a crucial role for mass transfer and downstream processing in organic–aqueous bioprocesses based on whole microbial cells. In this study, emulsion stability dynamics and the factors determining them during two-liquid phase biotransformation were investigated for stereoselective styrene epoxidation catalyzed by recombinant Escherichia coli. Upon organic phase addition, emulsion stability rapidly increased correlating with a loss of solubilized protein from the aqueous cultivation broth and the emergence of a hydrophobic cell fraction associated with the organic–aqueous interface. A novel phase inversion-based method was developed to isolate and analyze cellular material from the interface. In cell-free experiments, a similar loss of aqueous protein did not correlate with high emulsion stability, indicating that the observed particle-based emulsions arise from a convergence of factors related to cell density, protein adsorption, and bioreactor conditions. During styrene epoxidation, emulsion destabilization occurred correlating with product-induced cell toxification. For biphasic whole-cell biotransformations, this study indicates that control of aqueous protein concentrations and selective toxification of cells enables emulsion destabilization and emphasizes that biological factors and related dynamics must be considered in the design and modeling of respective upstream and especially downstream processes.
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143
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Holtmann D, Fraaije MW, Arends IWCE, Opperman DJ, Hollmann F. The taming of oxygen: biocatalytic oxyfunctionalisations. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 50:13180-200. [PMID: 24902635 DOI: 10.1039/c3cc49747j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The scope and limitations of oxygenases as catalysts for preparative organic synthesis is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Holtmann
- DECHEMA Research Institute, Theodor-Heuss-Allee 25, 60486 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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144
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Volmer J, Schmid A, Bühler B. Guiding bioprocess design by microbial ecology. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 25:25-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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145
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Lindmeyer M, Meyer D, Kuhn D, Bühler B, Schmid A. Making variability less variable: matching expression system and host for oxygenase-based biotransformations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 42:851-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-015-1615-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Variability in whole-cell biocatalyst performance represents a critical aspect for stable and productive bioprocessing. In order to investigate whether and how oxygenase-catalyzed reactions are affected by such variability issues in solvent-tolerant Pseudomonas, different inducers, expression systems, and host strains were tested for the reproducibility of xylene and styrene monooxygenase catalyzed hydroxylation and epoxidation reactions, respectively. Significantly higher activity variations were found for biocatalysts based on solvent-tolerant Pseudomonas putida DOT-TIE and S12 compared with solvent-sensitive P. putida KT2440, Escherichia coli JM101, and solvent-tolerant Pseudomonas taiwanensis VLB120. Specific styrene epoxidation rates corresponded to cellular styrene monooxygenase contents. Detected variations in activity strictly depended on the type of regulatory system employed, being high with the alk- and low with the lac-system. These results show that the occurrence of clonal variability in recombinant gene expression in Pseudomonas depends on the combination of regulatory system and host strain, does not correlate with a general phenotype such as solvent tolerance, and must be evaluated case by case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Lindmeyer
- grid.5675.1 0000000104169637 Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering TU Dortmund University Emil-Figge-Strasse 66 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Daniel Meyer
- grid.5675.1 0000000104169637 Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering TU Dortmund University Emil-Figge-Strasse 66 44227 Dortmund Germany
- grid.5801.c 0000000121562780 Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering ETH Zürich Mattenstrasse 26 4058 Basel Switzerland
| | - Daniel Kuhn
- grid.5675.1 0000000104169637 Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering TU Dortmund University Emil-Figge-Strasse 66 44227 Dortmund Germany
- grid.419481.1 0000 0001 1515 9979 ESBATech, a Novartis company Wagistrasse 12 8952 Zürich-Schlieren Switzerland
| | - Bruno Bühler
- grid.5675.1 0000000104169637 Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering TU Dortmund University Emil-Figge-Strasse 66 44227 Dortmund Germany
- grid.7492.8 0000000404923830 Department Solar Materials Center for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH Permoser Strasse 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- grid.5675.1 0000000104169637 Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering TU Dortmund University Emil-Figge-Strasse 66 44227 Dortmund Germany
- grid.7492.8 0000000404923830 Department Solar Materials Center for Environmental Research - UFZ GmbH Permoser Strasse 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
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146
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Willrodt C, Karande R, Schmid A, Julsing MK. Guiding efficient microbial synthesis of non-natural chemicals by physicochemical properties of reactants. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2015; 35:52-62. [PMID: 25835779 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The recent progress in sustainable chemistry and in synthetic biology increased the interest of chemical and pharmaceutical industries to implement microbial processes for chemical synthesis. However, most organisms used in biotechnological applications are not evolved by Nature for the production of hydrophobic, non-charged, volatile, or toxic compounds. In order to overcome this discrepancy, bioprocess design should consist of an integrated approach addressing pathway, cellular, reaction, and process engineering. Highlighting selected examples, we show that surprisingly often Nature provides conceptual solutions to enable chemical synthesis. Complemented by established methods from (bio)chemical and metabolic engineering, these concepts offer potential strategies yet to be explored and translated into innovative technical solutions enabling sustainable microbial production of non-natural chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Willrodt
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Rohan Karande
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Mattijs K Julsing
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
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147
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Currin A, Swainston N, Day PJ, Kell DB. Synthetic biology for the directed evolution of protein biocatalysts: navigating sequence space intelligently. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44:1172-239. [PMID: 25503938 PMCID: PMC4349129 DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00351a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The amino acid sequence of a protein affects both its structure and its function. Thus, the ability to modify the sequence, and hence the structure and activity, of individual proteins in a systematic way, opens up many opportunities, both scientifically and (as we focus on here) for exploitation in biocatalysis. Modern methods of synthetic biology, whereby increasingly large sequences of DNA can be synthesised de novo, allow an unprecedented ability to engineer proteins with novel functions. However, the number of possible proteins is far too large to test individually, so we need means for navigating the 'search space' of possible protein sequences efficiently and reliably in order to find desirable activities and other properties. Enzymologists distinguish binding (Kd) and catalytic (kcat) steps. In a similar way, judicious strategies have blended design (for binding, specificity and active site modelling) with the more empirical methods of classical directed evolution (DE) for improving kcat (where natural evolution rarely seeks the highest values), especially with regard to residues distant from the active site and where the functional linkages underpinning enzyme dynamics are both unknown and hard to predict. Epistasis (where the 'best' amino acid at one site depends on that or those at others) is a notable feature of directed evolution. The aim of this review is to highlight some of the approaches that are being developed to allow us to use directed evolution to improve enzyme properties, often dramatically. We note that directed evolution differs in a number of ways from natural evolution, including in particular the available mechanisms and the likely selection pressures. Thus, we stress the opportunities afforded by techniques that enable one to map sequence to (structure and) activity in silico, as an effective means of modelling and exploring protein landscapes. Because known landscapes may be assessed and reasoned about as a whole, simultaneously, this offers opportunities for protein improvement not readily available to natural evolution on rapid timescales. Intelligent landscape navigation, informed by sequence-activity relationships and coupled to the emerging methods of synthetic biology, offers scope for the development of novel biocatalysts that are both highly active and robust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Currin
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL , UK
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
| | - Neil Swainston
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
- School of Computer Science , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL , UK
| | - Philip J. Day
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PT , UK
| | - Douglas B. Kell
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL , UK
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
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148
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Johnston R, Rogelj S, Harper JC, Tartis M. Sol-Generating Chemical Vapor into Liquid (SG-CViL) Deposition- A Facile Method for Encapsulation of Diverse Cell Types in Silica Matrices. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:1032-1041. [PMID: 25688296 DOI: 10.1039/c4tb01349b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In nature, cells perform a variety of complex functions such as sensing, catalysis, and energy conversion which hold great potential for biotechnological device construction. However, cellular sensitivity to ex-vivo environments necessitates development of bio-nano interfaces which allow integration of cells into devices and maintain their desired functionality. In order to develop such an interface, the use of a novel Sol Generating Chemical Vapor into Liquid (SG-CViL) deposition process for whole cell encapsulation in silica was explored. In SG-CViL, the high vapor pressure of tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS) is utilized to deliver silica into an aqueous medium, creating a silica sol. Cells are then mixed with the resulting silica sol, facilitating encapsulation of cells in silica while minimizing cell contact with the cytotoxic products of silica generating reactions (i.e. methanol), and reduce exposure of cells to compressive stresses induced from silica condensation reactions. Using SG-CVIL, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) engineered with an inducible beta galactosidase system were encapsulated in silica solids and remained both viable and responsive 29 days post encapsulation. By tuning SG-CViL parameters thin layer silica deposition on mammalian HeLa and U87 human cancer cells was also achieved. The ability to encapsulate various cell types in either a multi cell (S. cerevisiae) or a thin layer (HeLa and U87 cells) fashion shows the promise of SG-CViL as an encapsulation strategy for generating cell-silica constructs with diverse functions for incorporation into devices for sensing, bioelectronics, biocatalysis, and biofuel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Johnston
- Materials Engineering Department, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro NM, 87801
| | - Snezna Rogelj
- Biology Department, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro NM, 87801
| | - Jason C Harper
- Bioenergy & Biodefense Technologies Department, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque New Mexico, 87185
| | - Michaelann Tartis
- Materials Engineering Department, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro NM, 87801 ; Chemical Engineering Department, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro NM, 87801
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149
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de Miranda AS, Simon RC, Grischek B, de Paula GC, Horta BAC, de Miranda LSM, Kroutil W, Kappe CO, de Souza ROMA. Chiral Chlorohydrins from the Biocatalyzed Reduction of Chloroketones: Chiral Building Blocks for Antiretroviral Drugs. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201403023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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150
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Abstract
The enantioselective Michael addition using water as both nucleophile and solvent has to date proved beyond the ability of synthetic chemists. Herein, the direct, enantioselective Michael addition of water in water to prepare important β-hydroxy carbonyl compounds using whole cells of Rhodococcus strains is described. Good yields and excellent enantioselectivities were achieved with this method. Deuterium labeling studies demonstrate that a Michael hydratase catalyzes the water addition exclusively with anti-stereochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bi-Shuang Chen
- Technische Universiteit Delft, Gebouw voor Scheikunde, Afdeling BiotechnologieJulianalaan 136, 2628 BL Delft (Netherlands)
| | - Verena Resch
- Technische Universiteit Delft, Gebouw voor Scheikunde, Afdeling BiotechnologieJulianalaan 136, 2628 BL Delft (Netherlands)
- University of Graz, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Institute of ChemistryHeinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz (Austria)
| | - Linda G Otten
- Technische Universiteit Delft, Gebouw voor Scheikunde, Afdeling BiotechnologieJulianalaan 136, 2628 BL Delft (Netherlands)
| | - Ulf Hanefeld
- Technische Universiteit Delft, Gebouw voor Scheikunde, Afdeling BiotechnologieJulianalaan 136, 2628 BL Delft (Netherlands)
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