Dietary protein intake and human health

Animal-source foods as a suitable complementary food for improved physical growth in 6 to 24-month-old children in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

Although animal-source foods are suitable complementary food for child growth in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), their efficacy is still under discussion. This systematic review and meta-analysis was done to investigate the suitability of animal-source foods intake on child physical growth in LMICs. A systematic literature search was done using electronic databases and scanning the reference list of included studies, previous meta-analysis and systematic reviews. Paper selection was based on the PICO (ST) criteria. Papers were selected if based on 6 to 24-month-old children, if they were randomised controlled trials evaluating the effect of complementary animal-based food supplementation of any natural origin, if reporting at least a measure of body size and published after 2000. The PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic review was followed in the paper selection. Fourteen papers were included in the systematic review and eight were considered for the meta-analysis. Animal-based food supplementation resulted in a higher length-for-age LAZ and weight-for-age (WAZ) Z-scores compared with the control group with random effect size of 0·15 (95 % CI 0·02, 0·27) and 0·20 (95 % CI 0·03, 0·36), respectively. Results were confirmed after influence analyses, and publication bias resulted as negligible. An increased effect on LAZ and WAZ was observed when the food supplementation was based on egg with effect size of 0·31 (95 % CI = -0·03, 0·64) and 0·36 (95 % CI = -0·03, 0·75), respectively. Animal-source foods are a suitable complementary food to improve growth in 6 to 24-month-old children in LMICs.

The Potential Role of Iceland in Northern Europe's Protein Self-Sufficiency: Feasibility Study of Large-Scale Production of Spirulina in a Novel Energy-Food System

Europe is dependent on protein-rich crop imports to meet domestic food demand. This has moved the topic of sustainable protein self-sufficiency up the policy agenda. The current study assesses the feasibility of protein self-sufficiency in Iceland, and its capacity to meet Northern Europe's demand, based on industrial-scale cultivation of Spirulina in novel production units. Production units currently operating in Iceland, and laboratory-derived nutritional profile for the Spirulina cultivated, provide the basis for a theoretical protein self-sufficiency model. Integrating installed and potentially installed energy generation data, the model elaborates six production scale-up scenarios. Annual biomass produced is compared with recommended dietary allowance figures for protein and essential amino acids to determine whether Northern Europe's population demands can be met in 2030. Results show that Iceland could be protein self-sufficient under the most conservative scenario, with 20,925 tonnes of Spirulina produced using 15% of currently installed capacity. In a greater allocation of energy capacity used by heavy industry, Iceland could additionally meet the needs of Lithuania, or Latvia, Estonia, Jersey, Isle of Man, Guernsey, and Faroe Islands. Under the most ambitious scenario utilizing planned energy projects, Iceland could support itself plus Denmark, or Finland, or Norway, or Ireland with up to 242,366 tonnes of biomass. On a protein-per-protein basis, each kilogram of Spirulina consumed instead of beef could save 0.315 tonnes CO2-eq. Under the most ambitious scenario, this yields annual savings of 75.1 million tonnes CO2-eq or 7.3% of quarterly European greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, practicalities of production scale-up are discussed.

Protein-to-carbohydrate ratio is informative of diet quality and associates with all-cause mortality: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2007-2014)

Background

Dietary protein and carbohydrate intake and health outcomes have received extensive attention in recent years. However, the nutritional context in which these associations occur is less studied.

Objectives

We aimed to examine the dietary context associating protein-to-carbohydrate ratio and all-cause mortality in US adults.

Methods

Data from 17,814 adults enrolled in the 2007-2014 NHANES was analyzed. Information on mortality was obtained from the US mortality registry updated in December 2015. Diet quality was assessed using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) and Total Nutrients Index (TNI). ANCOVA was used to test the mean differences in HEI and TNI scores across %E P:C quintiles. Linear regression examined the association of HEI and TNI with %E P:C. Cox proportional hazards regression evaluated the association between %E P:C and all-cause mortality. A restricted cubic spline examined the non-linear relationship between %E P:C and death.

Results

Low %E P:C was associated with lower HEI and TNI scores while higher %E P:C was associated with healthier HEI and TNI scores. HEI and TNI were positively associated with %E P:C (β = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.19-0.25, and β = 0.16, 95% CI: 0.14-0.18), respectively. Low %E P:C was associated with an increased risk of death from all-cause. The higher HRs (95% CIs) of all-cause mortality were 1.97(1.46-2.65), and 7.35 (2.57-21.03) in the second quintile for the age-sex-ethnicity model, and the fully adjusted model, respectively. There was a significant reverse U-shape relationship between %E P:C and all-cause mortality with P, non-linearity < 0.001.

Conclusion

This study indicates that a low %E P:C that gives emphasis to unhealthy foods increases the risk of death. Hence, it would be useful to consider the complete diet associated with protein intake when making dietary recommendations for populations.

Association between Changes in Protein Intake and Risk of Cognitive Impairment: A Prospective Cohort Study

Little is known about the role of change in protein intake in affecting cognitive function among older adults. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the associations between the change in protein intake from various food groups and cognitive impairment among older adults in a prospective cohort study. A total of 6951 participants without cognitive impairment or dementia were included in this study. The frequency of protein intake from various food groups was measured by a food frequency questionnaire at baseline and follow-up. Multivariable Cox hazard models with time as the underlying time metric applied to calculate the hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). During the 37,535 person-years of follow-up, 1202 (17.3%) participants developed cognitive impairment. The improvement in overall protein intake was negatively associated with cognitive impairment with multivariable-adjusted HR of 0.98 (95% CI = 0.97-0.99). Compared with participants with stable change, those with an extreme decline in animal-based protein intake had a 48% higher risk of cognitive impairment. The associations of changes in protein from six food groups with cognitive impairment were in a similar direction to the main result. Protective associations between improving protein intake and a reduced risk of cognitive impairment were observed.

Simulated In Vitro Digestive Characteristics of Raw Yam Tubers in Japanese Diet: Changes in Protein Profile, Starch Digestibility, Antioxidant Capacity and Microstructure

The consumption of raw yam tuber through grated yam "tororo" is a major and popular diet in Japan. However, few studies have been undertaken to evaluate the digestive characteristics of raw yam tubers. This study aimed to fill this gap by investigating the changes in the protein profile, protein and starch digestibility, antioxidant capacity and microstructure of two typical yam tubers (Nagaimo N-10 and Nebaristar) in the Japanese diet, applying a simulated in vitro digestion method. Results showed that both samples contained a considerable protein content of about 11% (dry basis) and a protein digestibility of 43-49%. The electrophoretic patterns confirmed that dioscorin was the main protein of the yam tuber, and it could be digested into peptides and free amino acids with low molecular weight during in vitro digestion. The starch hydrolysis results suggested that eating raw yam tuber cannot induce a fast glycemic increase for consumers due to a low starch digestibility of 4.4-6.1%. In addition, Nebaristar showed a higher bioaccessibility in some key amino acids and total phenolic content than the Nagaimo N-10. This study provides some essential nutritional information and simulated digestion behaviours of the raw yam tubers, which could be useful for consumers and industries when buying and processing yam tubers from the perspective of changes in the nutritional profile during digestion.

An overview on effects of micronutrients and macronutrients interventions in management of polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the common endocrinopathies among women. Changing dietary behaviors for PCOS management has been an important research focus during the last decades. This review has discussed current evidence and clinical trial studies relating to the impact of macronutrients and micronutrients in the management of different clinical feature of PCOS. The possible relationship between the quality and quantity of micronutrients and macronutrients and PCOS as well as the necessity to manage PCOS as a complex condition highlights the importance of diet-related interventions. The growing number of clinical trials related to the effect of micronutrients (zinc, chromium, selenium, vitamin D, inositol, and vitamin E) and macronutrients interventions (manipulation of fat, carbohydrate, protein, and MedDiet, Calorie restriction, Low Glycemic Diet) have been demonstrated to be practical approaches for managing clinical and biochemical features of PCOS, however the potential benefit of micronutrient and macronutrient approaches could be different from one by one, particularly in different phenotypes of PCOS. To achieve optimum outcomes, providing information regarding safety and the best dose selection of micronutrients and macronutrients is necessary. Hence, to better understand the approaches' risk/benefit in women with PCOS, future trials with a large sample size are recommended.

The Role of Nutrition on Meta-inflammation: Insights and Potential Targets in Communicable and Chronic Disease Management

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic low-grade inflammation may contribute to the onset and progression of communicable and chronic diseases. This review examined the effects and eventual mediation roles of different nutritional factors on inflammation.

RECENT FINDINGS

Potential nutritional compounds influencing inflammation processes include macro and micronutrients, bioactive molecules (polyphenols), specific food components, and culinary ingredients as well as standardized dietary patterns, eating habits, and chrononutrition features. Therefore, research in this field is still required, taking into account critical aspects of heterogeneity including type of population, minimum and maximum intakes and adverse effects, cooking methods, physiopathological status, and times of intervention. Moreover, the integrative analysis of traditional variables (age, sex, metabolic profile, clinical history, body phenotype, habitual dietary intake, physical activity levels, and lifestyle) together with individualized issues (genetic background, epigenetic signatures, microbiota composition, gene expression profiles, and metabolomic fingerprints) may contribute to the knowledge and prescription of more personalized treatments aimed to improving the precision medical management of inflammation as well as the design of anti-inflammatory diets in chronic and communicable diseases.

Impact of ultrasound processing on alternative protein systems: Protein extraction, nutritional effects and associated challenges

Proteins from alternative sources including terrestrial and aquatic plants, microbes and insects are being increasingly explored to combat the dietary, environmental and ethical challenges linked primarily to conventional sources of protein, mainly meat and dairy proteins. Ultrasound (US) technologies have emerged as a clean, green and efficient methods for the extraction of proteins from alternative sources compared to conventional methods. However, the application of US can also lead to modifications of the proteins extracted from alternative sources, including changes in their nutritional quality (protein content, amino acid composition, protein digestibility, anti-nutritional factors) and allergenicity, as well as damage of the compounds associated with an increased degradation resulting from extreme US processing conditions. This work aims to summarise the main advances in US equipment currently available to date, including the main US parameters and their effects on the extraction of protein from alternative sources, as well as the studies available on the effects of US processing on the nutritional value, allergenicity and degradation damage of these alternative protein ingredients. The main research gaps identified in this work and future challenges associated to the widespread application of US and their scale-up to industry operations are also covered in detail.

Plasma Amino Acids and Acylcarnitines Are Associated with the Female but Not Male Adolescent Swimmer's Performance: An Integration between Mass Spectrometry and Complex Network Approaches

The main aim of this study was to compare the performance over different distances, the critical velocity (CV), and plasma acylcarnitines/amino acids of male and female adolescent swimmers. Moreover, we applied the complex network approach to identify which molecules are associated with athletes' performances. On the first day under a controlled environment, blood samples were collected after 12 h of overnight fasting. Performance trials (100, 200, 400, and 800-m) were randomly performed in the subsequent four days in a swimming pool, and CV was determined by linear distance versus time mathematical function. Metabolomic analyses were carried out on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer performing electrospray ionization in the positive ionization mode. No difference was observed between the performance of male and female swimmers. Except for 200-m distance (p = 0.08), plasma tyrosine was positively and significantly associated with the female times during the trials (100-m, p = 0.04; 400-m, p = 0.04; 800-m, p = 0.02), and inversely associated with the CV (p = 0.02). The complex network approach showed that glycine (0.406), glutamine (0.400), arginine (0.335), free carnitine (0.355), tryptophan (0.289), and histidine (0.271) were the most influential nodes to reach tyrosine. These results revealed a thread that must be explored in further randomized/controlled designs, improving the knowledge surrounding nutrition and the performance of adolescent swimmers.

Canary Seed (Phalaris canariensis L.) Peptides Prevent Obesity and Glucose Intolerance in Mice Fed a Western Diet

Previous research showed that canary seed (Phalaris canariensis L.) peptides (CSP) possess robust in vitro antiobesity properties via inhibition of pancreatic lipase (PL). Nevertheless, no studies have yet explored their antiobesity properties in vivo. Consequently, we investigated the effects of CSP in C57BL/6J mice under a Western diet (WD). Mice were assigned into groups and fed a normal diet (ND) or a WD accompanied by an oral dose of CSP (250 or 500 mg/kg/day), orlistat (40 mg/kg/day), or distilled water. The results showed that consuming CSP can provide metabolic benefits, including preventing weight gain by up to 20%, increasing glucose tolerance, and reducing insulin, leptin, and LDL/VLDL levels in plasma. Conversely, total ghrelin was unaffected by CSP-500, but decreased by CSP-250, and amplified by orlistat. Surprisingly, CSP-250 was more effective in preventing weight gain and promoting satiety than CSP-500. Parallel to this, protein absorption in CSP-500 was decreased, supported by a rise in fecal crude protein (+3.5%). Similarly, fecal fat was increased by orlistat (38%) and was unaffected by CSP-250 (3.0%) and CSP (3.0%), comparatively to WD (2.5%). Despite this, both CSP treatments were equally effective in decreasing hepatic steatosis and avoiding hyperlipidemia. Furthermore, the enzymatic analysis showed that CSP-PL complexes dissociated faster (15 min) than orlistat-PL complexes (41 min). Lastly, CSP did not affect expression of hepatic lipid oxidation genes ACO and PPAR-α, but reduced the expression of the hydrolase gene LPL, and lipogenesis related genes FAS and ACC. Taken together, these results suggest that CSP antiobesity mechanism relies on lipid metabolism retardation to increase fat transit time and subsequently suppress hunger.

Naringenin Promotes Myotube Formation and Maturation for Cultured Meat Production

Cultured meat is an emerging technology for manufacturing meat through cell culture rather than animal rearing. Under most existing culture systems, the content and maturity of in vitro generated myotubes are insufficient, limiting the application and public acceptance of cultured meat. Here we demonstrated that a natural compound, naringenin (NAR), promoted myogenic differentiation of porcine satellite cells (PSCs) in vitro and increased the content and maturity of generated myotubes, especially for PSCs that had undergone extensive expansion. Mechanistically, NAR upregulated the IGF-1/AKT/mTOR anabolic pathway during the myogenesis of PSCs by activating the estrogen receptor β. Moreover, PSCs were mixed with hydrogels and cultured in a mold with parallel micro-channels to manufacture cultured pork samples. More mature myosin was detected, and obvious sarcomere was observed when the differentiation medium was supplemented with NAR. Taken together, these findings suggested that NAR induced the differentiation of PSCs and generation of mature myotubes through upregulation of the IGF-1 signaling, contributing to the development of efficient and innovative cultured meat production systems.

Potential of Natural Honey in Controlling Obesity and its Related Complications

Honey has a long history of therapeutic properties for multiple diseases, including inflammation and oxidative stress. This review aimed to provide a better understanding and renewed interest in the potential role of honey in obesity control, obesity-related diseases treatment and weight management, with specific reference to its components and the effect of honey overall. There is compelling evidence that honey possesses the desired properties for this purpose, as seen in the in vitro, in silico, in vivo and clinical analyses discussed in this review. This review also highlights the components potentially responsible for the health benefits of honey. Honey and its components reduce blood sugar levels, improve insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism by reducing triglycerides, and reduce total cholesterol and LDL levels while increasing HDL levels that prevent excessive weight gain and reduce the risk of obesity and its complications. Further controlled studies are necessary to validate the role of honey in the management of obesity, both as a preventive and as a therapeutic agent.

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa: An Underutilized Fruit with High Nutraceutical Values: A Review

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Bael) fruit, a member of the Rutaceae family, is a major cultivated fruit plant in tropical and subtropical regions in countries of southeast Asia. Bael fruit has been a major topic for studies in recent years mainly due to its high nutritional (carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins) value and presence of various phytochemicals, which attributed to its high medicinal value. These phytochemicals include various compounds, e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids (protocatechuic acid, gallic, and ellagic acid). The fruit extract of bael has been also an important study area for its pharmacological activities, including antidiarrheal, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, radioprotective, anticancer, antiulcer properties. The current review mainly highlighted the nutritional and pharmacological activities of bael fruit. The nutritional profile and phytochemical profile were discussed in the review, along with their concentration in the fruit. Moreover, the experiments carried out in vivo and in vitro of bael fruit extracts with respect to their pharmacological activities were also discussed in the article. The recent literature based on nutritional and pharmacological values of bael fruit showed its high potential as a food and pharmaceutical product. Despite having high nutritional and pharmacological value, research related to molecular mechanisms of bael fruit is still limited, and clinical trials are needed to ensure its safety as a product in the food and pharma industries.

The Use of Metabolomics as a Tool to Compare the Regulatory Mechanisms in the Cecum, Ileum, and Jejunum in Healthy Rabbits and with Diarrhea

Simple Summary

The problems caused by antibiotic abuse have swept the world, and the Chinese government has responded to calls for a comprehensive ban on antibiotics. However, not using antibiotics also challenges China’s existing livestock industry. Based on this, we carried out a nontargeted metabolomics analysis of the jejunum, ileum, and cecum of diarrhea rabbits and normal rabbits fed with antibiotic-free diets, respectively, to find out the mechanism of action of each intestinal segment group and between different intestinal segments. The screened differential metabolites were mostly related to intestinal barrier, intestinal inflammation, and autophagy after a KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) analysis. In this paper, we analyzed the metabolic pathways that were significantly different between different intestinal segments and illustrated the mechanism and potential connections of the screened differential metabolites in different intestinal segments in the form of charts.

Abstract

For many years, antibiotics in feed have been an effective and economical means to promote growth and disease resistance in livestock production. However, the rampant abuse of antibiotics has also brought very serious harm to human health and the environment. Therefore, the Chinese government promulgated laws and regulations on 1 July 2020, to prohibit the use of antibiotics in feed. To improve the effect of antibiotic-free feeding on China’s existing rabbit industry, we used the nontargeted metabolomics method to detect the differences between diarrhea rabbits (Dia) and normal rabbits (Con) on an antibiotic-free diet. A total of 1902 different metabolites were identified. A KEGG analysis showed that in the cecum, metabolites were mainly concentrated in bile secretion, antifolate resistance, aldosterone synthesis, and secretion pathways. The ileal metabolites were mainly concentrated in tyrosine metabolism, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis, steroid hormone biosynthesis, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism. The metabolites in the jejunum were mainly rich in panquinone and other terpenoid compound quinone biosynthesis, AMPK (adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase) signal, inositol phosphate metabolism, and pentose phosphate pathway. After a deep excavation of the discovered differential metabolites and metabolic pathways with large differences between groups, it was found that these metabolic pathways mainly involved intestinal inflammation, intestinal barrier, and autophagy. The results showed that panquinone and other terpenoids could increase AMPK activity to promote cell metabolism and autophagy, thus trying to prevent inflammation and alleviate intestinal disease symptoms. In addition, we discussed the possible reasons for the changes in the levels of seven intestinal endogenous metabolites in rabbits in the diarrhea group. The possibility of improving diarrhea by adding amino acids to feed was discussed. In addition, the intermediate products produced by the pentose phosphate pathway and coenzyme Q had a positive effect on steroid hormone biosynthesis to combat intestinal inflammation.

Nutritional Habits of Professional Cyclists during Pre-Season

The first aim of the present study was to assess the dietary intake of professional cyclists during pre-season. The second aim was to assess the dietary habits of this population during a complete season. Fifteen elite male (age: 23.2 ± 5.4 years) and twenty-three elite female (age: 20.1 ± 7.0 years) cyclists volunteered to participate in the study. Dietary nutrient intake during pre-season was assessed using a 72 h dietary recall interview, and a 136-item food frequency questionnaire was used to assess dietary habits during the year. Protein intake exceeded the PRI’s recommendation of 0.83 g/kg/day for all cycling groups. Fat exceeded RI recommendations in females in both road (43.3%) and CXO (39.8%) cycling groups, whilst males were found to follow recommendations for fat intake. CHO intake was below recommendations in all groups. Intake of all vitamins exceeded recommendations, with the exception of B9 in female road cyclists (77.8% RDA) and vitamin D in all groups. With regards to mineral intake, consumption exceeded RDA/AI recommendations in all groups except for iodine in male XCO cyclists (61.6%), female road cyclists (61.6%), and female XCO cyclists (58%) and potassium in female road cyclists (74.6%). Males consumed greater amounts of eggs and non-processed foods than females. Road cyclists consumed greater amounts of fish and seafood and had a lower intake of coffee and tea than XCO cyclists. Better knowledge of food guidelines in terms of serving and food variety is important for professional cyclists at may impact health and performance.

Dietary Essential Amino Acid Intake Is Associated with High Muscle Strength in Korean Older Adults

The relationship between daily dietary intake of an individual or all essential amino acids (EAAs) and muscle strength in older adults is still inadequately characterized. This population-based cross-sectional study included 5971 participants aged ≥65 years from the 2014–2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Dietary information was derived from the 24 h recall data. Total essential amino acid score (EAAS) was calculated with an intake that satisfied the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) in each essential amino acid (EAA). The mean handgrip strength was estimated from triplicate measurements obtained using the dominant hand, and high muscle strength was defined as handgrip strength ≥28 kg for men and ≥18 kg for women. Multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using logistic regression models. After multivariable adjustment, we found that a high total EAAS was associated with high muscle strength in Korean older adults (OR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.07–1.79). High muscle strength was significantly enhanced with increased total EAA intake from animal sources (OR: 1.27, 95% CI: 1.02–1.58), but there was no significant association with total EAA intake from non-animal sources. EAA intake and high muscle strength are associated based on a positive dose-response relationship in which high muscle strength is further increased when the overall EAA intake meets the RNI. Thus, Korean older adults should ensure an adequate intake of all EAAs from various food sources (especially animal sources) to meet the RNI as a prerequisite for achieving high muscle strength.

Ensuring Global Food Security by Improving Protein Content in Major Grain Legumes Using Breeding and 'Omics' Tools

Grain legumes are a rich source of dietary protein for millions of people globally and thus a key driver for securing global food security. Legume plant-based 'dietary protein' biofortification is an economic strategy for alleviating the menace of rising malnutrition-related problems and hidden hunger. Malnutrition from protein deficiency is predominant in human populations with an insufficient daily intake of animal protein/dietary protein due to economic limitations, especially in developing countries. Therefore, enhancing grain legume protein content will help eradicate protein-related malnutrition problems in low-income and underprivileged countries. Here, we review the exploitable genetic variability for grain protein content in various major grain legumes for improving the protein content of high-yielding, low-protein genotypes. We highlight classical genetics-based inheritance of protein content in various legumes and discuss advances in molecular marker technology that have enabled us to underpin various quantitative trait loci controlling seed protein content (SPC) in biparental-based mapping populations and genome-wide association studies. We also review the progress of functional genomics in deciphering the underlying candidate gene(s) controlling SPC in various grain legumes and the role of proteomics and metabolomics in shedding light on the accumulation of various novel proteins and metabolites in high-protein legume genotypes. Lastly, we detail the scope of genomic selection, high-throughput phenotyping, emerging genome editing tools, and speed breeding protocols for enhancing SPC in grain legumes to achieve legume-based dietary protein security and thus reduce the global hunger risk.

Reactive nitrogen compounds and their influence on human health: an overview

Nitrogen (N) is a critical component of food security, economy and planetary health. Human production of reactive nitrogen (Nr) via Haber-Bosch process and cultivation-induced biological N₂ fixation (BNF) has doubled global N cycling over the last century. The most important beneficial effect of Nr is augmenting global food supplies due to increased crop yields. However, increased circulation of Nr in the environment is responsible for serious human health effects such as methemoglobinemia ("blue baby syndrome") and eutrophication of coastal and inland waters. Furthermore, ammonia (NH₃) emission mainly from farming and animal husbandary impacts not only human health causing chronic lung disease, inflammation of human airways and irritation of eyes, sinuses and skin but is also involved in the formation of secondary particulate matter (PM) that plays a critical role in environment and human health. Nr also affects human health via global warming, depletion of stratospheric ozone layer resulting in greater intensity of ultra violet B rays (UVB) on the Earth's surface, and creation of ground-level ozone (through reaction of NO₂ with O₂). The consequential indirect human health effects of Nr include the spread of vector-borne pathogens, increased incidence of skin cancer, development of cataracts, and serious respiratory diseases, besides land degradation. Evidently, the strategies to reduce Nr and mitigate adverse environmental and human health impacts include plugging pathways of nitrogen transport and loss through runoff, leaching and emissions of NH₃, nitrogen oxides (NO _x ), and other N compounds; improving fertilizer N use efficiency; reducing regional disparity in access to N fertilizers; enhancing BNF to decrease dependence on chemical fertilizers; replacing animal-based proteins with plant-based proteins; adopting improved methods of livestock raising and manure management; reducing air pollution and secondary PM formation; and subjecting industrial and vehicular NO _x emission to pollution control laws. Strategic implementation of all these presents a major challenge across the fields of agriculture, ecology and public health. Recent observations on the reduction of air pollution in the COVID-19 lockdown period in several world regions provide an insight into the achievability of long-term air quality improvement. In this review, we focus on complex relationships between Nr and human health, highlighting a wide range of beneficial and detrimental effects.

Nutritional deficiency in an intestine-on-a-chip recapitulates injury hallmarks associated with environmental enteric dysfunction

Environmental enteric dysfunction (EED)-a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine-is characterized by villus blunting, compromised intestinal barrier function and reduced nutrient absorption. Here we show that essential genotypic and phenotypic features of EED-associated intestinal injury can be reconstituted in a human intestine-on-a-chip lined by organoid-derived intestinal epithelial cells from patients with EED and cultured in nutrient-deficient medium lacking niacinamide and tryptophan. Exposure of the organ chip to such nutritional deficiencies resulted in congruent changes in six of the top ten upregulated genes that were comparable to changes seen in samples from patients with EED. Chips lined with healthy epithelium or with EED epithelium exposed to nutritional deficiencies resulted in severe villus blunting and barrier dysfunction, and in the impairment of fatty acid uptake and amino acid transport; and the chips with EED epithelium exhibited heightened secretion of inflammatory cytokines. The organ-chip model of EED-associated intestinal injury may facilitate the analysis of the molecular, genetic and nutritional bases of the disease and the testing of candidate therapeutics for it.

An integrative approach to dietary balance across the life course

Animals require specific blends of nutrients that vary across the life course and with circumstances, e.g., health and activity levels. Underpinning and complicating these requirements is that individual traits may be optimized on different dietary compositions leading to nutrition-mediated trade-offs among outcomes. Additionally, the food environment may constrain which nutrient mixtures are achievable. Natural selection has equipped animals for solving such multi-dimensional, dynamic challenges of nutrition, but little is understood about the details and their theoretical and practical implications. We present an integrative framework, nutritional geometry, which models complex nutritional interactions in the context of multiple nutrients and across levels of biological organization (e.g., cellular, individual, and population) and levels of analysis (e.g., mechanistic, developmental, ecological, and evolutionary). The framework is generalizable across different situations and taxa. We illustrate this using examples spanning insects to primates and settings (laboratory, and the wild), and demonstrate its relevance for human health.

Intake of a Chicken Protein-Based or Soy Protein-Based Diet Differentially Affects Growth Performance, Absorptive Capacity, and Gut Microbiota in Young Rats

SCOPE

Both plant and animal products provide protein for human demands. However, the effect of protein sources on the physiological responses and the composition and functions of the gut microbiota during the early stage of life have received little attention.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In the present study, chicken protein and soy protein are fed to young weaning rats for 14 days based on the AIN-93G diet formulation. The growth performance is recorded, and the morphology of the small intestine is analyzed to estimate the absorptive capacity. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing is applied to analyze the cecal microbiota. The chicken protein-based diet (CHPD) enhances growth performance and absorptive capacity in young rats compared to the soy protein-based diet (SPD). The CHPD maintains higher levels of Lactobacillus species, associated with glutathione synthesis.

CONCLUSION

The CHPD seems favorable for young growing rats in relation to growth performance and absorptive capacity, correlated with changes in the composition and functional potential of the gut microbiota.

Prevalence and Attitudes Towards Using Protein Supplements Among Female Gym Users: An Online Survey

Background:

Protein supplements have become a widespread practice amongst athletes and gym users worldwide. However, studies on the use of protein supplements among female gym users in Saudi Arabia are lacking.

Objective:

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of protein supplement usage among female gym users and their attitudes towards protein supplementation in Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia.

Methods:

In this cross-sectional study, 502 female gym users aged ≥18 years completed a structured, self-administered online questionnaire on the usage of protein supplementation. Socio- demographic information, anthropometry, health status, exercise frequency, attitudes and knowledge regarding protein supplements were obtained.

Results:

The overall prevalence rate of protein supplement use among the study respondents was 36.3%. There were significant associations between the use of protein supplements and educational level (p< 0.05), the duration of being a gym member (p< 0.05) and frequency of gym visits per week (p< 0.05). Whey protein was the predominantly used supplement (57.8%), and the reason attributed to the use of protein supplement was muscle building (53.9%). The main sources of information regarding protein supplement use included the internet (30.2%) followed by gym coaches (25.3%).

Conclusion:

Our findings demonstrated that a considerable number of females exercising in gyms use protein supplements, and most rely on unreliable sources for decision-making of protein supplements use. Nutritional education and consultations regarding protein supplement use are warranted.

Assessing the Nutrient Status of Low Carbohydrate, High-Fat (LCHF) Meal Plans in Children: A Hypothetical Case Study Design

There is well-established evidence for low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diets in the management of chronic health conditions in adults. The natural next step is to understand the potential risks and benefits of LCHF diets for children, where they may have useful applications for general health and a variety of chronic health conditions. It is vital that any diet delivers sufficient micronutrients and energy to ensure health, wellbeing, and growth. This descriptive study assesses the nutrient and energy status of LCHF sample meal plans for children. We designed four meal plans for hypothetical weight-stable male and female children (11 years) and adolescents (16 years). Carbohydrates were limited to ≤80 g, protein was set at 15–25% of the total energy, and fat supplied the remaining calories. Using FoodWorks dietary analysis software, data were assessed against the national Australian/New Zealand nutrient reference value (NRV) thresholds for children and adolescents. All meal plans exceeded the minimum NRV thresholds for all micronutrients; protein slightly exceeded the AMDR recommendations by up to three percentage points. This study demonstrates that LCHF meal plans can be energy-, protein-, and micronutrient-replete for children and adolescents. As with any dietary approach, well-formulated meals and careful planning are key to achieving the optimal nutrient status.

Rice protein suppresses 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-induced inflammation owing to methionine availability

4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) is one of the most important products of lipid peroxidation which induces inflammation. In order to investigate the effect of rice protein (RP) on suppressing HNE-induced inflammation and the role of methionine in regulating the anti-inflammatory function of RP, Wistar rats (male, weighing180-200 g) were ad libitum fed either a pellet diet with oral administration of methionine or ad libitum fed RP for two weeks. RP and methionine significantly reduced HNE levels and effectively suppressed the expressions of cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and inducible nitric oxide synthase. The anti-inflammatory action of RP was evident from the upregulation of IL-10 and glutathione S-transferase, which played a role in the detoxification of HNE. The results show that the molecular mechanism responsible for the anti-inflammatory function of RP is the inhibition of nuclear factor-κB activation by the downregulation of protein kinase B/phosphoinositide 3 kinase. Further, this study demonstrates that methionine availability contributes to the suppression of HNE-induced inflammation through up-regulating IL-10 and GST in rats fed RP. Novelty: RP suppresses HNE-induced inflammation. Met plays a role in up-regulating IL-10 and GST. Met availability regulates the inhibition of NF-κB by RP.

Nutraceutical Concepts and Dextrin-Based Delivery Systems

Nutraceuticals are bioactive or chemical compounds acclaimed for their valuable biological activities and health-promoting effects. The global community is faced with many health concerns such as cancers, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, arthritis, osteoporosis, etc. The effect of nutraceuticals is similar to pharmaceuticals, even though the term nutraceutical has no regulatory definition. The usage of nutraceuticals, to prevent and treat the aforementioned diseases, is limited by several features such as poor water solubility, low bioavailability, low stability, low permeability, low efficacy, etc. These downsides can be overcome by the application of the field of nanotechnology manipulating the properties and structures of materials at the nanometer scale. In this review, the linear and cyclic dextrin, formed during the enzymatic degradation of starch, are highlighted as highly promising nanomaterials- based drug delivery systems. The modified cyclic dextrin, cyclodextrin (CD)-based nanosponges (NSs), are well-known delivery systems of several nutraceuticals such as quercetin, curcumin, resveratrol, thyme essential oil, melatonin, and appear as a more advanced drug delivery system than modified linear dextrin. CD-based NSs prolong and control the nutraceuticals release, and display higher biocompatibility, stability, and solubility of poorly water-soluble nutraceuticals than the CD-inclusion complexes, or uncomplexed nutraceuticals. In addition, the well-explored CD-based NSs pathways, as drug delivery systems, are described. Although important progress is made in drug delivery, all the findings will serve as a source for the use of CD-based nanosystems for nutraceutical delivery. To sum up, our review introduces the extensive literature about the nutraceutical concepts, synthesis, characterization, and applications of the CD-based nano delivery systems that will further contribute to the nutraceutical delivery with more potent nanosystems based on linear dextrins.

Glycated α-lactalbumin based micelles for quercetin delivery: Physicochemical stability and fate of simulated digestion

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ALA-dextran conjugates were fabricated by Maillard reaction.

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The conjugates had the high encapsulation efficiency on loading quercetin.

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The micelles showed excellent pH, ionic strength and photothermal stability.

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The micelles exhibited sustained release of quercetin by the resistance to enzymes.

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The excellent stability made the conjugates promising materials for oral delivery.

Glycated protein is a kind of promising material that can improve the bioavailability of bioactive compounds and achieve sustained release under digestion. In this study, the α-lactalbumin (ALA)-dextran conjugates synthesized by Maillard reaction were fabricated to load and protect quercetin. Quercetin-loaded micelles stabilized by the ALA-dextran conjugates 1:4 showed the smallest size (428.57 ± 5.64 nm) with highest encapsulation efficiency (94.38% ± 0.50%) of quercetin. Compared to ALA/dextran mixture complex, the conjugates-based micelles had better pH, ionic strength and photothermal stability. Furthermore, the micelles composed of the conjugates 1:2 and 1:4 showed the best controlled release effect during the simulated digestion, releasing 62.41% and 66.15% of quercetin from the total encapsulated contents, respectively, which was mainly related to the resistance of glycated ALA to the enzymes. The findings indicated that ALA-dextran conjugates could be effectively designed for the ideal delivery system of hydrophobic bioactive compounds in food industry.

Application of emerging technologies to obtain legume protein isolates with improved techno-functional properties and health effects

Current demand of consumers for healthy and sustainable food products has led the industry to search for different sources of plant protein isolates and concentrates. Legumes represent an excellent nonanimal protein source with high-protein content. Legume species are distributed in a wide range of ecological conditions, including regions with drought conditions, making them a sustainable crop in a context of global warming. However, their use as human food is limited by the presence of antinutritional factors, such as protease inhibitors, lectins, phytates, and alkaloids, which have adverse nutritional effects. Antitechnological factors, such as fiber, tannins, and lipids, can affect the purity and protein extraction yield. Although most are removed or reduced during alkaline solubilization and isoelectric precipitation processes, some remain in the resulting protein isolates. Selection of appropriate legume genotypes and different emerging and sustainable facilitating technologies, such as high-power ultrasound, pulsed electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, microwave, and supercritical fluids, can be applied to increase the removal of unwanted compounds. Some technologies can be used to increase protein yield. The technologies can also modify protein structure to improve digestibility, reduce allergenicity, and tune technological properties. This review summarizes recent findings regarding the use of emerging technologies to obtain high-purity protein isolates and the effects on techno-functional properties and health.

Pea protein composition, functionality, modification, and food applications: A review

The demand for proteins continues to increase due to their nutritional benefits, the growing world population, and rising protein deficiency. Plant-based proteins represent a sustainable source to supplement costly animal proteins. Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is one of the most produced plant legume crops in the world and contributes to 26% of the total pulse production. The average protein content of pea is about 20%-25%. The commercial utilization of pea proteins is limited, partially due to its less desirable functionalities and beany off-flavor. Protein modification may change these properties and broaden the application of pea proteins in the food industry. Functional properties such as protein solubility, water and oil holding capacity, emulsifying/foaming capacity and stability, and gelation can be altered and improved by enzymatic, chemical, and physical modifications. These modifications work by affecting protein chemical structures, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity balance, and interactions with other food constituents. Modifiers, reaction conditions, and degree of modifications are critical variables for protein modifications and can be controlled to achieve desirable functional attributes that may meet applications in meat analogs, baking products, dressings, beverages, dairy mimics, encapsulation, and emulsions. Understanding pea protein characteristics will allow us to design better functional ingredients for food applications.

The Problem of Malnutrition Associated with Major Depressive Disorder from a Sex-Gender Perspective

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is an incapacitating condition characterized by loss of interest, anhedonia and low mood, which affects almost 4% of people worldwide. With rising prevalence, it is considered a public health issue that affects economic productivity and heavily increases health costs alone or as a comorbidity for other pandemic non-communicable diseases (such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, etc.). What is even more noteworthy is the double number of women suffering from MDD compared to men. In fact, this sex-related ratio has been contemplated since men and women have different sexual hormone oscillations, where women meet significant changes depending on the age range and moment of life (menstruation, premenstruation, pregnancy, postpartum, menopause…), which seem to be associated with susceptibility to depressive symptoms. For instance, a decreased estrogen level promotes decreased activation of serotonin transporters. Nevertheless, sexual hormones are not the only triggers that alter neurotransmission of monoamines and other neuropeptides. Actually, different dietary habits and/or nutritional requirements for specific moments of life severely affect MDD pathophysiology in women. In this context, the present review aims to descriptively collect information regarding the role of malnutrition in MDD onset and course, focusing on female patient and especially macro- and micronutrient deficiencies (amino acids, ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3 PUFAs), folate, vitamin B12, vitamin D, minerals…), besides providing evidence for future nutritional intervention programs with a sex-gender perspective that hopefully improves mental health and quality of life in women.

Understanding the mechanism underlying the anti-diabetic effect of dietary component: a focus on gut microbiota

Diabetes has become one of the biggest non-communicable diseases and threatens human health worldwide. The management of diabetes is a complex and multifaceted process including drug therapy and lifestyle interventions. Dietary components are essential for both diabetes management and health and survival of trillions of the gut microbiota (GM). Herein, we will discuss the relationship between diets and GM, the mechanism linking diabetes and gut dysbiosis, and the effects of dietary components (nutrients, phytochemicals, probiotics, food additives, etc.) on diabetes from the perspective of modulating GM. The GM of diabetic patients differs from that of health individuals and GM disorder contributes to the onset and maintenance of diabetes. Studies in humans and animal models consolidate that dietary component is a key regulator of diabetes and increasing evidence suggests that the alteration of GM plays a salient role in dietary interventions for diabetes. Given that diabetes is a major public health issue, especially that diabetes is linked with a high risk of mortality from COVID-19, this review provides compelling evidence for that targeting GM by dietary components is a promising strategy, and offers new insights into potential preventive or therapeutic approaches (dietary and pharmacological intervention) for the clinical management of diabetes.

Personalized Nutrition in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease: The Two-Edged Sword of Dietary Protein Intake

In type 2 diabetes (T2D), there is a general and strong focus on carbohydrate restriction. However, this may have unwarranted consequences for those with concomitant chronic kidney disease (CKD) since decreasing intake of carbohydrates implies a higher proportion of dietary protein, which is of critical debate in patients with CKD due to its ambiguous implications in maintaining either kidney function or nutritional status. We evaluated adherence to the protein recommendations, taking into account the nutritional status of patients with T2D with or without CKD. Patients were divided in three groups according to their estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR): mild to no CKD (eGFR > 60 mL/min/1.73 m2), moderate CKD (eGFR 30-60 mL/min/1.73 m2), or advanced CKD (eGFR < 30 mL/min/1.73 m2). Regarding adherence to the protein recommendations, 17% of the patients without advanced CKD consumed < 0.8 g/kg/day, 29% of the patients with moderate CKD consumed > 1.3 g/kg/day, and 60% of the patients with advanced CKD consumed > 1.0 g/kg/day. In addition, patients with moderate- or advanced CKD tend to have a lower muscle mass, normalized by height, compared to patients with mild to no CKD (p < 0.001), while body mass index was not significantly different between patients with or without CKD (p = 0.44). We found that although dietary protein restriction has not been indicated in either of the CKD stages, approximately 10% had a dietary protein intake < 0.8 g/kg/day, with accompanying risks of malnourishment and sarcopenia. Our main advice is to maintain a dietary protein intake of at least 0.8 g/kg/day in order to prevent patients from becoming malnourished and sarcopenic.

Glycomacropeptide in PKU-Does It Live Up to Its Potential?

The use of casein glycomacropeptide (CGMP) as a protein substitute in phenylketonuria (PKU) has grown in popularity. CGMP is derived from κ casein and is a sialic-rich glycophosphopeptide, formed by the action of chymosin during the production of cheese. It comprises 20–25% of total protein in whey products and has key biomodulatory properties. In PKU, the amino acid sequence of CGMP has been adapted by adding the amino acids histidine, leucine, methionine, tyrosine and tryptophan naturally low in CGMP. The use of CGMP compared to mono amino acids (L-AAs) as a protein substitute in the treatment of PKU promises several potential clinical benefits, although any advantage is supported only by evidence from non-PKU conditions or PKU animal models. This review examines if there is sufficient evidence to support the bioactive properties of CGMP leading to physiological benefits when compared to L-AAs in PKU, with a focus on blood phenylalanine control and stability, body composition, growth, bone density, breath odour and palatability.

Protein quality and the food matrix: defining optimal versus maximal meal-based protein intakes for stimulating muscle protein synthesis

This paper examines the opinion that we should aim to optimize, rather than maximize, protein intakes to avoid over-emphasizing muscle-centric protein requirements. An optimal eating approach strives to minimize amino acid oxidative waste and more efficiently stimulate postprandial muscle protein accretion. To do this, practitioners should acknowledge higher quality protein foods as better in delivering target amounts of amino acids into circulation, and the food matrix (e.g., nutrient-nutrient interactions) can be leveraged to potentiate essential amino acid incorporation into skeletal muscle protein.

Growth performance, biochemical and haematological parameters of BALB/c mice fed on staple grains and bee larvae (Apis Mellifera) blended complementary foods

In Sub-Saharan Africa, inadequate complementary feeding practices and being nutritionally inadequate are primary factors in infant and young child malnutrition, growth failure, and high morbidity and mortality. Therefore, novel complementary foods need to be developed to alleviate malnutrition problems in IYC. Therefore, this experimental study aimed to assess the effects of newly developed grain-bee larvae blended complementary foods on the growth performance, haematological, and biochemical parameters of BALB/c mice. A complete randomized design was used and a total of 75 BALB/c mice were assigned to each of the five treatments. The treatments were: T1 = Casein diet; T2 = 57 % Maize, 29 % Teff, 14 % Soybean; T3 = 58 % Maize, 29 % Teff, 13 % Bee larvae; T4 = Commercial wean mix; and T5 = Basal diet alone. The in vivo experiment trial was done for 28 days along with seven days of adaptation. Dietary intake was not significantly different (P = 0.96) between treatments, but it was noted that T3 had gained the highest final body weight (38.52 g). The examined biochemical parameters showed T4 had the lowest serum protein (6.27 mg/dl) and globulin (3.61 mg/dl). Compared to others, T3 significantly (P < 0.001) increased WBC (4 × 10⁶ mm³), RBC (11.37 × 10³ mm³), Haemoglobin (16.42 g/dl), and Hematocrit (63.04 %). The highest serum levels of zinc (0.55 mg/dl) and iron (2.08 mg/dl) were reported on T2, while the highest serum calcium content (10.64 mg/dl) was reported on T1. The results indicated that T3 can aid body growth, health, and prevent malnutrition in infants and young children.

Physically inactive adults are the main users of sports dietary supplements in the capital of Brazil

Purpose

This cross-sectional study aimed to provide estimates of dietary supplements (DS) use and to examine the relationship between sports dietary supplements (SDS) use and sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristic, body mass index and total daily physical activity (PA) in the adult population of Brasília, Brazil.

Methods

DS use was collected from 506 adults via a Food Frequency Questionnaire. DS were divided into multivitamin-minerals, electrolyte drinks, energy, protein, partial meal replacements, creatine, caffeine, and others. Electrolyte drinks, energy, and protein supplements were considered as SDS. PA was estimated from a 24-h PA recall, and total MET (metabolic equivalents)/day and MET-h/day were calculated. Participants were categorized as physically inactive or active according to MET-h/day.

Results

DS were used by 68% of adults; multivitamin-minerals (38%) and protein supplements (29%) were the most commonly used products. SDS use was associated with the highest socioeconomic level, younger age, and male gender, but not with PA. Also, most SDS users were physically inactive.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that SDS may be used unnecessarily by adults in Brasília. Specific recommendations and control procedures for the use of SDS are warranted.

Drivers of Animal Source Food Consumption: A Biophysical Approach

The contributions to energy and protein consumption of animal-source food (ASF) and its commodities bovine, pig, sheep and goat and poultry meat, fish and seafood, dairy products, and eggs were studied by multiple log-log-inverse regression of 1961–2017 consumption (MJ of energy, grams of protein) on income and year within country. The “year” variable implicitly captures time-dependent non-income factors such as prices, climate, agricultural area, urbanization, globalization, gender equality, religion. Fitting the latter six factors explicitly produced unrealistic results, likely due to insufficient within-country variation over time. All consumption patterns differed between countries, and changed over time; these differences and changes were related to income, but considerably more related to time-dependent non-income factors. Within-country estimates of the income elasticity (β) of total energy and protein consumption ranged from −1 to +1: when income increased by 1%, consumption changed by −1 to +1%. The corresponding estimates of the non-income time elasticity (γ) ranged from −0.05 to +0.05% per year: every year, adjusted for income, consumption changed by −0.05 to +0.05%. The β and γ estimates for the contribution of ASF to energy and protein consumption ranged twice as wide as these; those for the contributions of the individual commodities ranged at least three times as wide. The β and γ estimates for those commodities change considerably over time in many countries; their association to each other is very variable too, both between and within countries. Much of this variation takes place at the lower consumption levels. Considering all this, any attempt to forecast the consumption of animal source food (and particularly of its individual commodities) on a more detailed level than globally and on a longer term than a decade should include an income-independent time factor and be very careful with regard to the elasticity coefficients used.

Effect of Dietary Protein and Processing on Gut Microbiota-A Systematic Review

The effect of diet on the composition of gut microbiota and the consequent impact on disease risk have been of expanding interest. The present review focuses on current insights of changes associated with dietary protein-induced gut microbial populations and examines their potential roles in the metabolism, health, and disease of animals. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) protocol was used, and 29 highly relevant articles were obtained, which included 6 mouse studies, 7 pig studies, 15 rat studies, and 1 in vitro study. Analysis of these studies indicated that several factors, such as protein source, protein content, dietary composition (such as carbohydrate content), glycation of protein, processing factors, and protein oxidation, affect the digestibility and bioavailability of dietary proteins. These factors can influence protein fermentation, absorption, and functional properties in the gut and, consequently, impact the composition of gut microbiota and affect human health. While gut microbiota can release metabolites that can affect host physiology either positively or negatively, the selection of quality of protein and suitable food processing conditions are important to have a positive effect of dietary protein on gut microbiota and human health.

Intake of Animal Protein and Dietary Sources in the Colombian Population: Results of the National Nutrition Survey (ENSIN-2015)

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of knowledge in Colombia about dietary intake and sources of animal protein.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional, nationally representative surveys. Setting. Colombia. Participants. n = 32,457 participants aged from 1 to 64 years. The sample analyzed included 21,036 boys and nonpregnant girls, 10,099 adults, and 1,322 pregnant women, 118 of whom were below 18 years of age.

RESULTS

Protein intake was 32.9 g/d (95% CI: 32.4, 33.4) per 1,000 kilocalories. The relative contribution (%) of total protein to the total energy intake/day (acceptable macronutrient distribution) was 13.2% (95% CI: 13.0, 13.3). The acceptable macronutrient distribution (AMDR) for animal protein for those aged 1 to 64 years was 7.8% (95% CI: 7.6, 8.0), with a minimum of 7.1% (95% CI: 6.7, 7.5), which was for children aged from 13 to 17 years, and a maximum of 8.3% (95% CI: 8.1, 8.5), for children aged from 1 to 4 years (P=0.018). For all groups, animal protein made up the majority of total proteins, with 62.6% (95% CI: 61.7, 63.6) for preschoolers, 55.8% (95% CI: 53.2, 58.4) for school-aged children, 54.6% (95% CI: 53.0, 56.1) for adolescents, 58.1% (95% CI: 57.5, 58.7) for adults, and 57.5% (95% CI: 55.2, 59.7) for pregnant women (P=0.027). The three main dietary sources of animal protein were red meat (17.8%), chicken (16.3%), and eggs (10.5%). The sources of vegetal protein were bread-arepa-pasta (20.0%), cereals (19.8%), and legumes (8.2%).

CONCLUSIONS

Protein intake is excessive according to the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), while it is not excessive from the perspective of the AMDR.

The importance of protein sources to support muscle anabolism in cancer: An expert group opinion

This opinion paper presents a short review of the potential impact of protein on muscle anabolism in cancer, which is associated with better patient outcomes. Protein source is a topic of interest for patients and clinicians, partly due to recent emphasis on the supposed non-beneficial effect of proteins; therefore, misconceptions involving animal-based (e.g., meat, fish, dairy) and plant-based (e.g., legumes) proteins in cancer are acknowledged and addressed. Although the optimal dietary amino acid composition to support muscle health in cancer is yet to be established, animal-based proteins have a composition that offers superior anabolic potential, compared to plant-derived proteins. Thus, animal-based foods should represent the majority (i.e., ≥65%) of protein intake during active cancer treatment. A diet rich in plant-derived proteins may support muscle anabolism in cancer, albeit requiring a larger quantity of protein to fulfill the optimal amino acid intake. We caution that translating dietary recommendations for cancer prevention to cancer treatment may be inadequate to support the pro-inflammatory and catabolic nature of the disease. We further caution against initiating an exclusively plant-based (i.e., vegan) diet upon a diagnosis of cancer, given the presence of elevated protein requirements and risk of inadequate protein intake to support muscle anabolism. Amino acid combination and the long-term sustainability of a dietary pattern void of animal-based foods requires careful and laborious management of protein intake for patients with cancer. Ultimately, a dietary amino acid composition that promotes muscle anabolism is optimally obtained through combination of animal- and plant-based protein sources.