Regulation of the MST1 kinase by autophosphorylation, by the growth inhibitory proteins, RASSF1 and NORE1, and by Ras

MST1/MST2 Protein Kinases: Regulation and Physiologic Roles

The MST1 and MST2 protein kinases comprise the GCK-II subfamily of protein kinases. In addition to their amino-terminal kinase catalytic domain, related to that of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein kinase Ste20, their most characteristic feature is the presence near the carboxy terminus of a unique helical structure called a SARAH domain; this segment allows MST1/MST2 to homodimerize and to heterodimerize with the other polypeptides that contain SARAH domains, the noncatalytic polypeptides RASSF1-6 and Sav1/WW45. Early studies emphasized the potent ability of MST1/MST2 to induce apoptosis upon being overexpressed, as well as the conversion of the endogenous MST1/MST2 polypeptides to constitutively active, caspase-cleaved catalytic fragments during apoptosis initiated by any stimulus. Later, the cleaved, constitutively active form of MST1 was identified in nonapoptotic, quiescent adult hepatocytes as well as in cells undergoing terminal differentiation, where its presence is necessary to maintain those cellular states. The physiologic regulation of full length MST1/MST2 is controlled by the availability of its noncatalytic SARAH domain partners. Interaction with Sav1/WW45 recruits MST1/MST2 into a tumor suppressor pathway, wherein it phosphorylates and activates the Sav1-bound protein kinases Lats1/Lats2, potent inhibitors of the Yap1 and TAZ oncogenic transcriptional regulators. A constitutive interaction with the Rap1-GTP binding protein RASSF5B (Nore1B/RAPL) in T cells recruits MST1 (especially) and MST2 as an effector of Rap1's control of T cell adhesion and migration, a program crucial to immune surveillance and response; loss of function mutation in human MST1 results in profound immunodeficiency. MST1 and MST2 are also regulated by other protein kinases, positively by TAO1 and negatively by Par1, SIK2/3, Akt, and cRaf1. The growing list of candidate MST1/MST2 substrates suggests that the full range of MST1/MST2's physiologic programs and contributions to pathophysiology remains to be elucidated.

WW domain binding protein 5 induces multidrug resistance of small cell lung cancer under the regulation of miR-335 through the Hippo pathway

BACKGROUND

Our previous study indicated that WW domain binding protein 5 (WBP5) expression was elevated significantly in a drug-resistant cell compared with its parental cell. Nevertheless, its functional role and underlying mechanisms remain unknown.

METHODS

In this study, WBP5 was examined in 62 small cell lung cancer (SCLC) patient samples by immunohistochemical technique. Stable WBP5-overexpressed and WBP5-underexpressed cells were further established to assess the role of WBP5 in drug resistance, apoptosis and tumour growth. We also conducted western blot to detect the expression of MST2 and YAP1 and their phosphorylated protein.

RESULTS

The results revealed that WBP5 expression was significantly associated with the shorter survival time in SCLC patients. Upregulation of WBP5 induced multidrug resistance (MDR) and decreased apoptosis, whereas downregulation of WBP5 enhanced drug sensitivity and increased apoptosis. We also found that miR-335 negatively regulated the MDR of WBP5 by targeting its 3'UTR. Furthermore, WBP5 can lower YAP1 phosphorylation at Serine 127 and induce nuclear accumulation of YAP1. Inhibition of YAP1 by Verteporfin could blunt the MDR phenotype of WBP5.

CONCLUSIONS

WW domain binding protein 5 can modulate MDR through the Hippo pathway under the regulation of miR-335. WW domain binding protein 5 may be a prognostic predictor and a potential target for interfering with MDR in SCLC.

NF2 Activates Hippo Signaling and Promotes Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in the Heart

RATIONALE

NF2 (neurofibromin 2) is an established tumor suppressor that promotes apoptosis and inhibits growth in a variety of cell types, yet its function in cardiomyocytes remains largely unknown.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine the role of NF2 in cardiomyocyte apoptosis and ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in the heart.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We investigated the function of NF2 in isolated cardiomyocytes and mouse myocardium at baseline and in response to oxidative stress. NF2 was activated in cardiomyocytes subjected to H2O2 and in murine hearts subjected to I/R. Increased NF2 expression promoted the activation of Mst1 (mammalian sterile 20-like kinase 1) and the inhibition of Yap (Yes-associated protein), whereas knockdown of NF2 attenuated these responses after oxidative stress. NF2 increased the apoptosis of cardiomyocytes that appeared dependent on Mst1 activity. Mice deficient for NF2 in cardiomyocytes, NF2 cardiomyocyte-specific knockout (CKO), were protected against global I/R ex vivo and showed improved cardiac functional recovery. Moreover, NF2 cardiomyocyte-specific knockout mice were protected against I/R injury in vivo and showed the upregulation of Yap target gene expression. Mechanistically, we observed nuclear association between NF2 and its activator MYPT-1 (myosin phosphatase target subunit 1) in cardiomyocytes, and a subpopulation of stress-induced nuclear Mst1 was diminished in NF2 CKO hearts. Finally, mice deficient for both NF2 and Yap failed to show protection against I/R indicating that Yap is an important target of NF2 in the adult heart.

CONCLUSIONS

NF2 is activated by oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes and mouse myocardium and facilitates apoptosis. NF2 promotes I/R injury through the activation of Mst1 and inhibition of Yap, thereby regulating Hippo signaling in the adult heart.

Screening for protein-protein interactions using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)

We present a high content multiwell plate cell-based assay approach to quantify protein interactions directly in cells using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) read out by automated fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM). Automated FLIM is implemented using wide-field time-gated detection, typically requiring only 10 s per field of view (FOV). Averaging over biological, thermal and shot noise with 100's to 1000's of FOV enables unbiased quantitative analysis with high statistical power. Plotting average donor lifetime vs. acceptor/donor intensity ratio clearly identifies protein interactions and fitting to double exponential donor decay models provides estimates of interacting population fractions that, with calibrated donor and acceptor fluorescence intensities, can yield dissociation constants. We demonstrate the application to identify binding partners of MST1 kinase and estimate interaction strength among the members of the RASSF protein family, which have important roles in apoptosis via the Hippo signalling pathway. KD values broadly agree with published biochemical measurements.

The MST/Hippo Pathway and Cell Death: A Non-Canonical Affair

The MST/Hippo signalling pathway was first described over a decade ago in Drosophila melanogaster and the core of the pathway is evolutionary conserved in mammals. The mammalian MST/Hippo pathway regulates organ size, cell proliferation and cell death. In addition, it has been shown to play a central role in the regulation of cellular homeostasis and it is commonly deregulated in human tumours. The delineation of the canonical pathway resembles the behaviour of the Hippo pathway in the fly where the activation of the core kinases of the pathway prevents the proliferative signal mediated by the key effector of the pathway YAP. Nevertheless, several lines of evidence support the idea that the mammalian MST/Hippo pathway has acquired new features during evolution, including different regulators and effectors, crosstalk with other essential signalling pathways involved in cellular homeostasis and the ability to actively trigger cell death. Here we describe the current knowledge of the mechanisms that mediate MST/Hippo dependent cell death, especially apoptosis. We include evidence for the existence of complex signalling networks where the core proteins of the pathway play a central role in controlling the balance between survival and cell death. Finally, we discuss the possible involvement of these signalling networks in several human diseases such as cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders.

Ras signaling through RASSF proteins

There are six core RASSF family proteins that contain conserved Ras Association domains and may serve as Ras effectors. They lack intrinsic enzymatic activity and appear to function as scaffolding and localization molecules. While initially being associated with pro-apoptotic signaling pathways such as Bax and Hippo, it is now clear that they can also connect Ras to a surprisingly broad range of signaling pathways that control senescence, inflammation, autophagy, DNA repair, ubiquitination and protein acetylation. Moreover, they may be able to impact the activation status of pro-mitogenic Ras effector pathways, such as the Raf pathway. The frequent epigenetic inactivation of RASSF genes in human tumors disconnects Ras from pro-death signaling systems, enhancing Ras driven transformation and metastasis. The best characterized members are RASSF1A and RASSF5 (NORE1A).

Hippo Signaling in the Heart - Non-Canonical Pathways Impact Growth, Survival and Function

Initially identified inDrosophila melanogaster, the Hippo signaling pathway regulates organ size through modulation of cell proliferation, survival and differentiation. This pathway is evolutionarily conserved and canonical signaling involves a kinase cascade that phosphorylates and inhibits the downstream effector Yes-associated protein (YAP). Recent research has demonstrated a fundamental role of Hippo signaling in cardiac development, homeostasis, injury and regeneration, and remains the subject of intense investigation. However, 2 prominent members of this pathway, RASSF1A and Mst1, have been shown to influence heart function and stress responses through YAP-independent mechanisms. This review summarizes non-canonical targets of RASSF1A and Mst1 and discusses their role in the context of cardiac hypertrophy, autophagy, apoptosis and function. (Circ J 2016; 80: 1504-1510).

RhBMP-2 Activates Hippo Signaling through RASSF1 in Esophageal Cancer Cells

Despite that recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) has been reported as a stimulatory effecter of cancer cell growth because of its characteristic like morphogen, the biological functions of rhBMP-2 in human esophageal cancer cells are unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether rhBMP-2 has an inhibitory effect on the growth of human esophageal squamous carcinoma cells (ESCC). RhBMP-2 significantly inhibited proliferation of ESCC cells in a dose-dependent manner in the MTT assay. Cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase was induced 24 h after rhBMP2 treatment. RhBMP-2 also reduced cyclin D₁, cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4 and CDK 6 activities, and stimulated p-Smad1/5/8, p53, and p21 levels at 12 h. In contrast, rhBMP-2 diminished poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) protein expression levels and activated cleaved PARP, cleaved caspase-7, and cleaved-caspase 9 levels in ESCC cells. In addition, rhBMP-2 increased MST1, MOB1, and p-YAP protein levels and the RASSF1 binds Mst1 more upon treatment with rhBMP2. The induced p-YAP expression in TE-8 and TE-12 cells by rhBMP-2 was reversed by the RASSF1 knockdown. In vivo study, rhBMP-2 decreased tumor volume following subcutaneous implantation and showed higher radiologic score (less bony destruction) after femoral implantation compared to those in a control group. These results suggest that rhBMP-2 inhibits rather than activates proliferation of human esophageal cancer cells which is mediated through activating the hippo signaling pathway.

H-ras Inhibits the Hippo Pathway by Promoting Mst1/Mst2 Heterodimerization

The protein kinases Mst1 and Mst2 have tumor suppressor activity, but their mode of regulation is not well established. Mst1 and Mst2 are broadly expressed and may have certain overlapping functions in mammals, as deletions of both Mst1 and Mst2 together are required for tumorigenesis in mouse models [1-3]. These kinases act via a three-component signaling cascade comprising Mst1 and Mst2, the protein kinases Lats1 and Lats2, and the transcriptional coactivators Yap and Taz [4-6]. Mst1 and Mst2 contain C-terminal SARAH domains that mediate their homodimerization as well as heterodimerization with other SARAH domain-containing proteins, which may regulate Mst1/Mst2 activity. Here we show that, in addition to forming homodimers, Mst1 and Mst2 heterodimerize in cells, this interaction is mediated by their SARAH domains and is favored over homodimers, and these heterodimers have much-reduced protein kinase activity compared to Mst1 or Mst2 homodimers. Mst1/Mst2 heterodimerization is strongly promoted by oncogenic H-ras, and this effect requires activation of the Erk pathway. Cells lacking Mst1, in which Mst1/Mst2 heterodimers are not possible, are resistant to H-ras-mediated transformation and maintain active hippo pathway signaling compared to wild-type cells or cells lacking both Mst1 and Mst2. Our results suggest that H-ras, via an Erk-dependent mechanism, downregulates Mst1/Mst2 activity by inducing the formation of inactive Mst1/Mst2 heterodimers.

The Roles of NDR Protein Kinases in Hippo Signalling

The Hippo tumour suppressor pathway has emerged as a critical regulator of tissue growth through controlling cellular processes such as cell proliferation, death, differentiation and stemness. Traditionally, the core cassette of the Hippo pathway includes the MST1/2 protein kinases, the LATS1/2 protein kinases, and the MOB1 scaffold signal transducer, which together regulate the transcriptional co-activator functions of the proto-oncoproteins YAP and TAZ through LATS1/2-mediated phosphorylation of YAP/TAZ. Recent research has identified additional kinases, such as NDR1/2 (also known as STK38/STK38L) and MAP4Ks, which should be considered as novel members of the Hippo core cassette. While these efforts helped to expand our understanding of Hippo core signalling, they also began to provide insights into the complexity and redundancy of the Hippo signalling network. Here, we focus on summarising our current knowledge of the regulation and functions of mammalian NDR kinases, discussing parallels between the NDR pathways in Drosophila and mammals. Initially, we provide a general overview of the cellular functions of NDR kinases in cell cycle progression, centrosome biology, apoptosis, autophagy, DNA damage signalling, immunology and neurobiology. Finally, we put particular emphasis on discussing NDR1/2 as YAP kinases downstream of MST1/2 and MOB1 signalling in Hippo signalling.

Mechanisms of Hippo pathway regulation

In this review, Meng et al. focus on recent developments in our understanding of the molecular actions of the core Hippo kinase cascade and discuss key open questions in Hippo pathway regulation and function.

The Hippo pathway was initially identified in Drosophila melanogaster screens for tissue growth two decades ago and has been a subject extensively studied in both Drosophila and mammals in the last several years. The core of the Hippo pathway consists of a kinase cascade, transcription coactivators, and DNA-binding partners. Recent studies have expanded the Hippo pathway as a complex signaling network with >30 components. This pathway is regulated by intrinsic cell machineries, such as cell–cell contact, cell polarity, and actin cytoskeleton, as well as a wide range of signals, including cellular energy status, mechanical cues, and hormonal signals that act through G-protein-coupled receptors. The major functions of the Hippo pathway have been defined to restrict tissue growth in adults and modulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration in developing organs. Furthermore, dysregulation of the Hippo pathway leads to aberrant cell growth and neoplasia. In this review, we focus on recent developments in our understanding of the molecular actions of the core Hippo kinase cascade and discuss key open questions in the regulation and function of the Hippo pathway.

RASSF1A Directly Antagonizes RhoA Activity through the Assembly of a Smurf1-Mediated Destruction Complex to Suppress Tumorigenesis

RASSF1A is a tumor suppressor implicated in many tumorigenic processes; however, the basis for its tumor suppressor functions are not fully understood. Here we show that RASSF1A is a novel antagonist of protumorigenic RhoA activity. Direct interaction between the C-terminal amino acids (256–277) of RASSF1A and active GTP-RhoA was critical for this antagonism. In addition, interaction between the N-terminal amino acids (69-82) of RASSF1A and the ubiquitin E3 ligase Smad ubiquitination regulatory factor 1 (Smurf1) disrupted GTPase activity by facilitating Smurf1-mediated ubiquitination of GTP-RhoA. We noted that the RhoA-binding domain of RASSF1A displayed high sequence homology with Rho-binding motifs in other RhoA effectors, such as Rhotekin. As predicted on this basis, RASSF1A competed with Rhotekin to bind RhoA and to block its activation. RASSF1A mutants unable to bind RhoA or Smurf1 failed to suppress RhoA-induced tumor cell proliferation, drug resistance, epithelial–mesenchymal transition, migration, invasion, and metastasis. Clinically, expression levels of RASSF1A and RhoA were inversely correlated in many types of primary and metastatic tumors and tumor cell lines. Collectively, our findings showed how RASSF1A may suppress tumorigenesis by intrinsically inhibiting the tumor-promoting activity of RhoA, thereby illuminating the potential mechanistic consequences of RASSF1A inactivation in many cancers. Cancer Res; 76(7); 1847–59. ©2016 AACR.

Unique epigenetic influence of H2AX phosphorylation and H3K56 acetylation on normal stem cell radioresponses

Normal stem cells from tissues often exhibiting radiation injury are highly radiosensitive and exhibit a muted DNA damage response, in contrast to differentiated progeny. These radioresponses can be attributed to unique epigenetic regulation in stem cells, identifying potential therapeutic targets for radioprotection.

Normal tissue injury resulting from cancer radiotherapy is often associated with diminished regenerative capacity. We examined the relative radiosensitivity of normal stem cell populations compared with non–stem cells within several radiosensitive tissue niches and culture models. We found that these stem cells are highly radiosensitive, in contrast to their isogenic differentiated progeny. Of interest, they also exhibited a uniquely attenuated DNA damage response (DDR) and muted DNA repair. Whereas stem cells exhibit reduced ATM activation and ionizing radiation–induced foci, they display apoptotic pannuclear H2AX-S139 phosphorylation (γH2AX), indicating unique radioresponses. We also observed persistent phosphorylation of H2AX-Y142 along the DNA breaks in stem cells, which promotes apoptosis while inhibiting DDR signaling. In addition, down-regulation of constitutively elevated histone-3 lysine-56 acetylation (H3K56ac) in stem cells significantly decreased their radiosensitivity, restored DDR function, and increased survival, signifying its role as a key contributor to stem cell radiosensitivity. These results establish that unique epigenetic landscapes affect cellular heterogeneity in radiosensitivity and demonstrate the nonubiquitous nature of radiation responses. We thus elucidate novel epigenetic rheostats that promote ionizing radiation hypersensitivity in various normal stem cell populations, identifying potential molecular targets for pharmacological radioprotection of stem cells and hopefully improving the efficacy of future cancer treatment.

Hippo Pathway in Organ Size Control, Tissue Homeostasis, and Cancer

Two decades of studies in multiple model organisms have established the Hippo pathway as a key regulator of organ size and tissue homeostasis. By inhibiting YAP and TAZ transcription co-activators, the Hippo pathway regulates cell proliferation, apoptosis, and stemness in response to a wide range of extracellular and intracellular signals, including cell-cell contact, cell polarity, mechanical cues, ligands of G-protein-coupled receptors, and cellular energy status. Dysregulation of the Hippo pathway exerts a significant impact on cancer development. Further investigation of the functions and regulatory mechanisms of this pathway will help uncovering the mystery of organ size control and identify new targets for cancer treatment.

STRIPAK complexes in cell signaling and cancer

Striatin-interacting phosphatase and kinase (STRIPAK) complexes are striatin-centered multicomponent supramolecular structures containing both kinases and phosphatases. STRIPAK complexes are evolutionarily conserved and have critical roles in protein (de)phosphorylation. Recent studies indicate that STRIPAK complexes are emerging mediators and regulators of multiple vital signaling pathways including Hippo, MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), nuclear receptor and cytoskeleton remodeling. Different types of STRIPAK complexes are extensively involved in a variety of fundamental biological processes ranging from cell growth, differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis to metabolism, immune regulation and tumorigenesis. Growing evidence correlates dysregulation of STRIPAK complexes with human diseases including cancer. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the assembly and functions of STRIPAK complexes, with a special focus on cell signaling and cancer.

Ras Conformational Ensembles, Allostery, and Signaling

Ras proteins are classical members of small GTPases that function as molecular switches by alternating between inactive GDP-bound and active GTP-bound states. Ras activation is regulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors that catalyze the exchange of GDP by GTP, and inactivation is terminated by GTPase-activating proteins that accelerate the intrinsic GTP hydrolysis rate by orders of magnitude. In this review, we focus on data that have accumulated over the past few years pertaining to the conformational ensembles and the allosteric regulation of Ras proteins and their interpretation from our conformational landscape standpoint. The Ras ensemble embodies all states, including the ligand-bound conformations, the activated (or inactivated) allosteric modulated states, post-translationally modified states, mutational states, transition states, and nonfunctional states serving as a reservoir for emerging functions. The ensemble is shifted by distinct mutational events, cofactors, post-translational modifications, and different membrane compositions. A better understanding of Ras biology can contribute to therapeutic strategies.

MST kinases in development and disease

The mammalian MST kinase family, which is related to the Hippo kinase in Drosophila melanogaster, includes five related proteins: MST1 (also called STK4), MST2 (also called STK3), MST3 (also called STK24), MST4, and YSK1 (also called STK25 or SOK1). MST kinases are emerging as key signaling molecules that influence cell proliferation, organ size, cell migration, and cell polarity. Here we review the regulation and function of these kinases in normal physiology and pathologies, including cancer, endothelial malformations, and autoimmune disease.

Ras Regulates Rb via NORE1A

Mutations in the Ras oncogene are one of the most frequent events in human cancer. Although Ras regulates numerous growth-promoting pathways to drive transformation, it can paradoxically promote an irreversible cell cycle arrest known as oncogene-induced senescence. Although senescence has clearly been implicated as a major defense mechanism against tumorigenesis, the mechanisms by which Ras can promote such a senescent phenotype remain poorly defined. We have shown recently that the Ras death effector NORE1A plays a critical role in promoting Ras-induced senescence and connects Ras to the regulation of the p53 tumor suppressor. We now show that NORE1A also connects Ras to the regulation of a second major prosenescent tumor suppressor, the retinoblastoma (Rb) protein. We show that Ras induces the formation of a complex between NORE1A and the phosphatase PP1A, promoting the activation of the Rb tumor suppressor by dephosphorylation. Furthermore, suppression of Rb reduces NORE1A senescence activity. These results, together with our previous findings, suggest that NORE1A acts as a critical tumor suppressor node, linking Ras to both the p53 and the Rb pathways to drive senescence.

RASSF6; the Putative Tumor Suppressor of the RASSF Family

Humans have 10 genes that belong to the Ras association (RA) domain family (RASSF). Among them, RASSF7 to RASSF10 have the RA domain in the N-terminal region and are called the N-RASSF proteins. In contradistinction to them, RASSF1 to RASSF6 are referred to as the C-RASSF proteins. The C-RASSF proteins have the RA domain in the middle region and the Salvador/RASSF/Hippo domain in the C-terminal region. RASSF6 additionally harbors the PSD-95/Discs large/ZO-1 (PDZ)-binding motif. Expression of RASSF6 is epigenetically suppressed in human cancers and is generally regarded as a tumor suppressor. RASSF6 induces caspase-dependent and -independent apoptosis. RASSF6 interacts with mammalian Ste20-like kinases (homologs of Drosophila Hippo) and cross-talks with the Hippo pathway. RASSF6 binds MDM2 and regulates p53 expression. The interactions with Ras and Modulator of apoptosis 1 (MOAP1) are also suggested by heterologous protein-protein interaction experiments. RASSF6 regulates apoptosis and cell cycle through these protein-protein interactions, and is implicated in the NF-κB and JNK signaling pathways. We summarize our current knowledge about RASSF6 and discuss what common and different properties RASSF6 and the other C-RASSF proteins have.

Hippo circuitry and the redox modulation of hippo components in cancer cell fate decisions

Meticulous and precise control of organ size is undoubtedly one of the most pivotal processes in mammalian development and regeneration along with cell differentiation, morphogenesis and programmed cell death. These processes are strictly regulated by complex and highly coordinated mechanisms to maintain a steady growth state. There are a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors that dictate the total number and/or size of cells by influencing growth, proliferation, differentiation and cell death. Multiple pathways, such as those involved in promoting organ size and others that restrict disproportionate tissue growth act simultaneously to maintain cellular and tissue homeostasis. Aberrations at any level in these organ size-regulating processes can lead to various pathological states with cancers being the most formidable one (Yin and Zhang, 2011). Extensive research in the realm of growth control has led to the identification of the Hippo-signaling pathway as a critical network in modulating tissue growth via its effect on multiple signaling pathways and through intricate crosstalk with proteins that regulate cell polarity, adhesion and cell-cell interactions (Zhao et al., 2011b). The Hippo pathway controls cell number and organ size by transducing signals from the plasma membrane to the nucleus to regulate the expression of genes involved in cell fate determination (Shi et al., 2015). In this review, we summarize the recent discoveries concerning Hippo pathway, its diversiform regulation in mammals as well as its implications in cancers, and highlight the possible role of oxidative stress in Hippo pathway regulation.

MST2-RASSF protein-protein interactions through SARAH domains

The detailed, atomistic-level understanding of molecular signaling along the tumor-suppressive Hippo signaling pathway that controls tissue homeostasis by balancing cell proliferation and death through apoptosis is a promising avenue for the discovery of novel anticancer drug targets. The activation of kinases such as Mammalian STE20-Like Protein Kinases 1 and 2 (MST1 and MST2)-modulated through both homo- and heterodimerization (e.g. interactions with Ras association domain family, RASSF, enzymes)-is a key upstream event in this pathway and remains poorly understood. On the other hand, RASSFs (such as RASSF1A or RASSF5) act as important apoptosis activators and tumor suppressors, although their exact regulatory roles are also unclear. We present recent molecular studies of signaling along the Ras-RASSF-MST pathway, which controls growth and apoptosis in eukaryotic cells, including a variety of modern molecular modeling and simulation techniques. Using recently available structural information, we discuss the complex regulatory scenario according to which RASSFs perform dual signaling functions, either preventing or promoting MST2 activation, and thus control cell apoptosis. Here, we focus on recent studies highlighting the special role being played by the specific interactions between the helical Salvador/RASSF/Hippo (SARAH) domains of MST2 and RASSF1a or RASSF5 enzymes. These studies are crucial for integrating atomistic-level mechanistic information about the structures and conformational dynamics of interacting proteins, with information available on their system-level functions in cellular signaling.

Regulation of Catalytic and Non-catalytic Functions of the Drosophila Ste20 Kinase Slik by Activation Segment Phosphorylation

Protein kinases carry out important functions in cells both by phosphorylating substrates and by means of regulated non-catalytic activities. Such non-catalytic functions have been ascribed to many kinases, including some members of the Ste20 family. The Drosophila Ste20 kinase Slik phosphorylates and activates Moesin in developing epithelial tissues to promote epithelial tissue integrity. It also functions non-catalytically to promote epithelial cell proliferation and tissue growth. We carried out a structure-function analysis to determine how these two distinct activities of Slik are controlled. We find that the conserved C-terminal coiled-coil domain of Slik, which is necessary and sufficient for apical localization of the kinase in epithelial cells, is not required for Moesin phosphorylation but is critical for the growth-promoting function of Slik. Slik is auto- and trans-phosphorylated in vivo. Phosphorylation of at least two of three conserved sites in the activation segment is required for both efficient catalytic activity and non-catalytic signaling. Slik function is thus dependent upon proper localization of the kinase via the C-terminal coiled-coil domain and activation via activation segment phosphorylation, which enhances both phosphorylation of substrates like Moesin and engagement of effectors of its non-catalytic growth-promoting activity.

Hippo Stabilises Its Adaptor Salvador by Antagonising the HECT Ubiquitin Ligase Herc4

Signalling through the Hippo (Hpo) pathway involves a kinase cascade, which leads to the phosphorylation and inactivation of the pro-growth transcriptional co-activator Yorkie (Yki). Despite the identification of a large number of pathway members and modulators, our understanding of the molecular events that lead to activation of Hpo and the downstream kinase Warts (Wts) remain incomplete. Recently, targeted degradation of several Hpo pathway components has been demonstrated as a means of regulating pathway activity. In particular, the stability of scaffold protein Salvador (Sav), which is believed to promote Hpo/Wts association, is crucially dependent on its binding partner Hpo. In a cell-based RNAi screen for ubiquitin regulators involved in Sav stability, we identify the HECT domain protein Herc4 (HECT and RLD domain containing E3 ligase) as a Sav E3 ligase. Herc4 expression promotes Sav ubiquitylation and degradation, while Herc4 depletion stabilises Sav. Interestingly, Hpo reduces Sav/Herc4 interaction in a kinase-dependent manner. This suggests the existence of a positive feedback loop, where Hpo stabilises its own positive regulator by antagonising Herc4-mediated degradation of Sav.

The hippo pathway in heart development, regeneration, and diseases

The heart is the first organ formed during mammalian development. A properly sized and functional heart is vital throughout the entire lifespan. Loss of cardiomyocytes because of injury or diseases leads to heart failure, which is a major cause of human morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, regenerative potential of the adult heart is limited. The Hippo pathway is a recently identified signaling cascade that plays an evolutionarily conserved role in organ size control by inhibiting cell proliferation, promoting apoptosis, regulating fates of stem/progenitor cells, and in some circumstances, limiting cell size. Interestingly, research indicates a key role of this pathway in regulation of cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart size. Inactivation of the Hippo pathway or activation of its downstream effector, the Yes-associated protein transcription coactivator, improves cardiac regeneration. Several known upstream signals of the Hippo pathway such as mechanical stress, G-protein-coupled receptor signaling, and oxidative stress are known to play critical roles in cardiac physiology. In addition, Yes-associated protein has been shown to regulate cardiomyocyte fate through multiple transcriptional mechanisms. In this review, we summarize and discuss current findings on the roles and mechanisms of the Hippo pathway in heart development, injury, and regeneration.

YAP and TAZ: a nexus for Hippo signaling and beyond

The Hippo pathway is a potent regulator of cellular proliferation, differentiation, and tissue homeostasis. Here we review the regulatory mechanisms of the Hippo pathway and discuss the function of Yes-associated protein (YAP)/transcriptional coactivator with a PDZ-binding domain (TAZ), the prime mediators of the Hippo pathway, in stem cell biology and tissue regeneration. We highlight their activities in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm and discuss their role as a signaling nexus and integrator of several other prominent signaling pathways such as the Wnt, G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), epidermal growth factor (EGF), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)/transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), and Notch pathways.

One Hippo and many masters: differential regulation of the Hippo pathway in cancer

The Hippo/MST2 (mammalian sterile 20-like kinase 2) pathway is a signalling cascade evolutionarily conserved in its structure. Originally described in Drosophila melanogaster as a regulator of organ size, this pathway has greater functions in mammals. Disturbance of mammalian MST2 pathway is associated with tumorigenesis by affecting apoptosis, cell cycle and polarity. In addition, this pathway has been shown to cross-talk with mitogenic pathways at multiple levels. In the present mini-review, we discuss our contribution highlighting the regulation of MST2 signalling by frequently observed oncogenic perturbations affecting mitogenic pathways. In particular, we review the role of RAS isoforms and PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase)/Akt in the regulation of MST2 activity by phosphorylation. We also put the emphasis on RAF-induced control of MST2 signalling by protein-protein interactions. Finally, we recapitulate some of the direct mechanisms, such as ubiquitin-dependent degradation or gene silencing by promoter hypermethylation, involved in MST2 pathway component down-regulation in cancers.

mTORC2 regulates cardiac response to stress by inhibiting MST1

The mTOR and Hippo pathways have recently emerged as the major signaling transduction cascades regulating organ size and cellular homeostasis. However, direct crosstalk between two pathways is yet to be determined. Here, we demonstrate that mTORC2 is a direct negative regulator of the MST1 kinase, a key component of the Hippo pathway. mTORC2 phosphorylates MST1 at serine 438 in the SARAH domain, thereby reducing its homodimerization and activity. We found that Rictor/mTORC2 preserves cardiac structure and function by restraining the activity of MST1 kinase. Cardiac-specific mTORC2 disruption through Rictor deletion leads to a marked activation of MST1 that, in turn, promotes cardiac dysfunction and dilation, impairing cardiac growth and adaptation in response to pressure overload. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the existence of a direct crosstalk between mTORC2 and MST1 that is critical for cardiac cell survival and growth.

The Hippo Pathway and YAP/TAZ-TEAD Protein-Protein Interaction as Targets for Regenerative Medicine and Cancer Treatment

The Hippo pathway is an important organ size control signaling network and the major regulatory mechanism of cell-contact inhibition. Yes associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) are its targets and terminal effectors: inhibition of the pathway promotes YAP/TAZ translocation to the nucleus, where they interact with transcriptional enhancer associate domain (TEAD) transcription factors and coactivate the expression of target genes, promoting cell proliferation. Defects in the pathway can result in overgrowth phenotypes due to deregulation of stem-cell proliferation and apoptosis; members of the pathway are directly involved in cancer development. The pharmacological regulation of the pathway might be useful in cancer prevention, treatment, and regenerative medicine applications; currently, a few compounds can selectively modulate the pathway. In this review, we present an overview of the Hippo pathway, the sequence and structural analysis of YAP/TAZ, the known pharmacological modulators of the pathway, especially those targeting YAP/TAZ-TEAD interaction.

Regulation of mammalian Ste20 (Mst) kinases

Initially identified as mammalian homologs to yeast Ste20 kinases, the mammalian sterile twenty-like (Mst) 1/2 kinases have been widely investigated subsequent to their rediscovery as key components of the Hippo tumor suppressor pathway in flies. To date, our understanding of Mst substrates and downstream signaling outstrips our knowledge of how these enzymes are controlled by upstream signals. While much remains to be discovered regarding the mechanisms of Mst regulation, it is clear that Mst1 kinase activity is governed at least in part by its state of dimerization, including self-association and also heterodimerization with various other signaling partners. Here we review the basic architecture of Mst signaling and function and discuss recent advances in our understanding of how these important kinases are regulated.

The mammalian Hippo pathway: regulation and function of YAP1 and TAZ

The Hippo pathway was originally identified as the signaling that controls organ size in Drosophila, with the core architecture conserved in mammals. In the mammalian Hippo pathway, mammalian Ste20-like kinases (MST1/2) and large tumor suppressor kinases (LATS1/2) regulate transcriptional co-activators, Yes-associated protein (YAP1) and Transcriptional co-activator with a PDZ-binding motif (TAZ). The Hippo pathway was initially thought to be quite straightforward; however, the identification of additional components has revealed its inherent complexity. Regulation of YAP1 and TAZ is not always dependent on MST1/2 and LATS1/2. MST1/2 and LATS1/2 play various YAP1/TAZ-independent roles, while YAP1 and TAZ cross-talk with other signaling pathways. In this review we focus on YAP1 and TAZ and discuss their regulation, function, and the consequences of their dysregulation.

Structural dissection of Hippo signaling

The Hippo pathway controls cell number and organ size by restricting cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis, and thus is a key regulator in development and homeostasis. Dysfunction of the Hippo pathway correlates with many pathological conditions, especially cancer. Hippo signaling also plays important roles in tissue regeneration and stem cell biology. Therefore, the Hippo pathway is recognized as a crucial target for cancer therapy and regeneration medicine. To date, structures of several key components in Hippo signaling have been determined. In this review, we summarize current available structural studies of the Hippo pathway, which may help to improve our understanding of its regulatory mechanisms, as well as to facilitate further functional studies and potential therapeutic interventions.

The biology of YAP/TAZ: hippo signaling and beyond

The transcriptional regulators YAP and TAZ are the focus of intense interest given their remarkable biological properties in development, tissue homeostasis and cancer. YAP and TAZ activity is key for the growth of whole organs, for amplification of tissue-specific progenitor cells during tissue renewal and regeneration, and for cell proliferation. In tumors, YAP/TAZ can reprogram cancer cells into cancer stem cells and incite tumor initiation, progression and metastasis. As such, YAP/TAZ are appealing therapeutic targets in cancer and regenerative medicine. Just like the function of YAP/TAZ offers a molecular entry point into the mysteries of tissue biology, their regulation by upstream cues is equally captivating. YAP/TAZ are well known for being the effectors of the Hippo signaling cascade, and mouse mutants in Hippo pathway components display remarkable phenotypes of organ overgrowth, enhanced stem cell content and reduced cellular differentiation. YAP/TAZ are primary sensors of the cell's physical nature, as defined by cell structure, shape and polarity. YAP/TAZ activation also reflects the cell "social" behavior, including cell adhesion and the mechanical signals that the cell receives from tissue architecture and surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). At the same time, YAP/TAZ entertain relationships with morphogenetic signals, such as Wnt growth factors, and are also regulated by Rho, GPCRs and mevalonate metabolism. YAP/TAZ thus appear at the centerpiece of a signaling nexus by which cells take control of their behavior according to their own shape, spatial location and growth factor context.

The hippo signaling pathway: implications for heart regeneration and disease

Control of cell number and organ size is critical for appropriate development and tissue homeostasis. Studies in both Drosophila and mammals have established the Hippo signaling pathway as an important modulator of organ size and tumorigenesis. Upon activation, this kinase cascade modulates gene expression through the phosphorylation and inhibition of transcription co-activators that are involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, growth and apoptosis. Hippo signaling serves to limit organ size and suppress malignancies, and has been implicated in tissue regeneration following injury. These outcomes highlight the important role that Hippo signaling plays in regulating both physiologic and pathologic processes. In this review, an overview of the signaling pathway will be discussed as well as recent work that has investigated its role in cardiac development, regeneration and disease.

RASSF1A: Not a prototypical Ras effector

The Ras association domain family (RASSF) of genes are commonly silenced by promoter specific methylation in human cancers. After the cloning of the first two family members in early 2000 (RASSF1 and RASSF5), eight other related genes have been identified (RASSF2, 3, 4 and 6-10). The unifying motif amongst all RASSF family members is the presence of the Ras association (RA) domain that could potentially associate with the Ras family of GTPases. Detailed analyses have determined that RASSF family members are tumor suppressor proteins, activators of cell death, cell cycle modulators, microtubule stabilizers and possibly inflammatory mediators linked to NFκB. As such, exploring the biological function of this gene family is needed and if indeed RASSF proteins could be the missing link between Ras signaling and apoptosis. Several RASSF family members have been demonstrated to associate with Ras. However, there is still controversy regarding the ability of RASSF1A to utilize Ras to promote cell death and of the importance of the RASSF1A RA domain. The focus of this review is to highlight the importance of Ras binding to the RASSF family of proteins and discuss what we currently know about the biology of RASSF1A.

Activation of pro-survival CaMK4β/CREB and pro-death MST1 signaling at early and late times during a mouse model of prion disease

Background

The signaling pathways most critical to prion disease pathogenesis are as yet incompletely characterized. We have developed a kinomics approach to identify signaling pathways that are dysregulated during prion pathogenesis. The approach is sensitive and specific enough to detect signaling pathways dysregulated in a simple in vitro model of prion pathogenesis. Here, we used this approach to identify signaling pathways dysregulated during prion pathogenesis in vivo.

Methods

Mice intraperitoneally infected with scrapie (strain RML) were euthanized at 70, 90, 110, 130 days post-infection (dpi) or at terminal stages of disease (155–190 dpi). The levels of 139 protein kinases in brainstem-cerebellum homogenates were analyzed by multiplex Western blots, followed by hierarchical clustering and analyses of activation states.

Results

Hierarchical and functional clustering identified CaMK4β and MST1 signaling pathways as potentially dysregulated. Targeted analyses revealed that CaMK4β and its downstream substrate CREB, which promotes neuronal survival, were activated at 70 and 90 dpi in cortical, subcortical and brainstem-cerebellum homogenates from scrapie-infected mice. The activation levels of CaMK4β/CREB signaling returned to those in mock-infected mice at 110 dpi, whereas MST1, which promotes neuronal death, became activated at 130 dpi.

Conclusion

Pro-survival CaMK4β/CREB signaling is activated in mouse scrapie at earlier times and later inhibited, whereas pro-death MST1 signaling is activated at these later times.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1743-422X-11-160) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Structural basis of the heterodimerization of the MST and RASSF SARAH domains in the Hippo signalling pathway

Despite recent progress in research on the Hippo signalling pathway, the structural information available in this area is extremely limited. Intriguingly, the homodimeric and heterodimeric interactions of mammalian sterile 20-like (MST) kinases through the so-called `SARAH' (SAV/RASSF/HPO) domains play a critical role in cellular homeostasis, dictating the fate of the cell regarding cell proliferation or apoptosis. To understand the mechanism of the heterodimerization of SARAH domains, the three-dimensional structures of an MST1-RASSF5 SARAH heterodimer and an MST2 SARAH homodimer were determined by X-ray crystallography and were analysed together with that previously determined for the MST1 SARAH homodimer. While the structure of the MST2 homodimer resembled that of the MST1 homodimer, the MST1-RASSF5 heterodimer showed distinct structural features. Firstly, the six N-terminal residues (Asp432-Lys437), which correspond to the short N-terminal 3₁₀-helix h1 kinked from the h2 helix in the MST1 homodimer, were disordered. Furthermore, the MST1 SARAH domain in the MST1-RASSF5 complex showed a longer helical structure (Ser438-Lys480) than that in the MST1 homodimer (Val441-Lys480). Moreover, extensive polar and nonpolar contacts in the MST1-RASSF5 SARAH domain were identified which strengthen the interactions in the heterodimer in comparison to the interactions in the homodimer. Denaturation experiments performed using urea also indicated that the MST-RASSF heterodimers are substantially more stable than the MST homodimers. These findings provide structural insights into the role of the MST1-RASSF5 SARAH domain in apoptosis signalling.

Rassf5 and Ndr kinases regulate neuronal polarity through Par3 phosphorylation in a novel pathway

The morphology and polarized growth of cells depend on pathways that control the asymmetric distribution of regulatory factors. The evolutionarily conserved Ndr kinases play important roles in cell polarity and morphogenesis in yeast and invertebrates but it is unclear whether they perform a similar function in mammalian cells. Here, we analyze the function of mammalian Ndr1 and Ndr2 (also known as STK38 or STK38L, respectively) in the establishment of polarity in neurons. We show that they act downstream of the tumor suppressor Rassf5 and upstream of the polarity protein Par3 (also known as PARD3). Rassf5 and Ndr1 or Ndr2 are required during the polarization of hippocampal neurons to prevent the formation of supernumerary axons. Mechanistically, the Ndr kinases act by phosphorylating Par3 at Ser383 to inhibit its interaction with dynein, thereby polarizing the distribution of Par3 and reinforcing axon specification. Our results identify a novel Rassf5-Ndr-Par3 signaling cascade that regulates the transport of Par3 during the establishment of neuronal polarity. Their role in neuronal polarity suggests that Ndr kinases perform a conserved function as regulators of cell polarity.

Mammalian STE20-like kinase 2, not kinase 1, mediates photoreceptor cell death during retinal detachment

Photoreceptor cell death is the definitive cause of vision loss in retinal detachment (RD). Mammalian STE20-like kinase (MST) is a master regulator of both cell death and proliferation and a critical factor in development and tumorigenesis. However, to date the role of MST in neurodegeneration has not been fully explored. Utilizing MST1^−/− and MST2^−/− mice we identified MST2, but not MST1, as a regulator of photoreceptor cell death in a mouse model of RD. MST2^−/− mice demonstrated significantly decreased photoreceptor cell death and outer nuclear layer (ONL) thinning after RD. Additionally, caspase-3 activation was attenuated in MST2^−/− mice compared to control mice after RD. The transcription of p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA) and Fas was also reduced in MST2^−/− mice post-RD. Retinas of MST2^−/− mice displayed suppressed nuclear relocalization of phosphorylated YAP after RD. Consistent with the reduction of photoreceptor cell death, MST2^−/− mice showed decreased levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and interleukin 6 as well as attenuated inflammatory CD11b cell infiltration during the early phase of RD. These results identify MST2, not MST1, as a critical regulator of caspase-mediated photoreceptor cell death in the detached retina and indicate its potential as a future neuroprotection target.

The Hippo pathway controls a switch between retinal progenitor cell proliferation and photoreceptor cell differentiation in zebrafish

The precise regulation of numbers and types of neurons through control of cell cycle exit and terminal differentiation is an essential aspect of neurogenesis. The Hippo signaling pathway has recently been identified as playing a crucial role in promoting cell cycle exit and terminal differentiation in multiple types of stem cells, including in retinal progenitor cells. When Hippo signaling is activated, the core Mst1/2 kinases activate the Lats1/2 kinases, which in turn phosphorylate and inhibit the transcriptional cofactor Yap. During mouse retinogenesis, overexpression of Yap prolongs progenitor cell proliferation, whereas inhibition of Yap decreases this proliferation and promotes retinal cell differentiation. However, to date, it remains unknown how the Hippo pathway affects the differentiation of distinct neuronal cell types such as photoreceptor cells. In this study, we investigated whether Hippo signaling regulates retinogenesis during early zebrafish development. Knockdown of zebrafish mst2 induced early embryonic defects, including altered retinal pigmentation and morphogenesis. Similar abnormal retinal phenotypes were observed in zebrafish embryos injected with a constitutively active form of yap [(yap (5SA)]. Loss of Yap's TEAD-binding domain, two WW domains, or transcription activation domain attenuated the retinal abnormalities induced by yap (5SA), indicating that all of these domains contribute to normal retinal development. Remarkably, yap (5SA)-expressing zebrafish embryos displayed decreased expression of transcription factors such as otx5 and crx, which orchestrate photoreceptor cell differentiation by activating the expression of rhodopsin and other photoreceptor cell genes. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that Rx1 is a novel interacting partner of Yap that regulates photoreceptor cell differentiation. Our results suggest that Yap suppresses the differentiation of photoreceptor cells from retinal progenitor cells by repressing Rx1-mediated transactivation of photoreceptor cell genes during zebrafish retinogenesis.

The Hippo signaling pathway in stem cell biology and cancer

The Hippo signaling pathway, consisting of a highly conserved kinase cascade (MST and Lats) and downstream transcription coactivators (YAP and TAZ), plays a key role in tissue homeostasis and organ size control by regulating tissue-specific stem cells. Moreover, this pathway plays a prominent role in tissue repair and regeneration. Dysregulation of the Hippo pathway is associated with cancer development. Recent studies have revealed a complex network of upstream inputs, including cell density, mechanical sensation, and G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, that modulate Hippo pathway activity. This review focuses on the role of the Hippo pathway in stem cell biology and its potential implications in tissue homeostasis and cancer.

Microtubule segment stabilization by RASSF1A is required for proper microtubule dynamics and Golgi integrity

RASSF1A is a microtubule-associated protein. This study provides evidence for RASSF1A regulating MT dynamics via segmental binding to provide local stabilization of the MT network, thus facilitating MT rescue. RASSF1A reconfigures the MT network through bundling of nearby MTs and provides a stable platform to maintain Golgi integrity.

The tumor suppressor and microtubule-associated protein Ras association domain family 1A (RASSF1A) has a major effect on many cellular processes, such as cell cycle progression and apoptosis. RASSF1A expression is frequently silenced in cancer and is associated with increased metastasis. Therefore we tested the hypothesis that RASSF1A regulates microtubule organization and dynamics in interphase cells, as well as its effect on Golgi integrity and cell polarity. Our results show that RASSF1A uses a unique microtubule-binding pattern to promote site-specific microtubule rescues, and loss of RASSF1A leads to decreased microtubule stability. Furthermore, RASSF1A-associated stable microtubule segments are necessary to prevent Golgi fragmentation and dispersal in cancer cells and maintain a polarized cell front. These results indicate that RASSF1A is a key regulator in the fine tuning of microtubule dynamics in interphase cells and proper Golgi organization and cell polarity.

Combined immunodeficiencies with nonfunctional T lymphocytes

Immunodeficiencies with nonfunctional T cells comprise a heterogeneous group of conditions characterized by altered function of T lymphocytes in spite of largely preserved T cell development. Some of these forms are due to hypomorphic mutations in genes causing severe combined immunodeficiency. More recently, advances in human genome sequencing have facilitated the identification of novel genetic defects that do not affect T cell development, but alter T cell function and homeostasis. Along with increased susceptibility to infections, these conditions are characterized by autoimmunity and higher risk of malignancies. The study of these diseases, and of corresponding animal models, has provided fundamental insights on the mechanisms that govern immune homeostasis.

Interaction proteome of human Hippo signaling: modular control of the co-activator YAP1

Tissue homeostasis is controlled by signaling systems that coordinate cell proliferation, cell growth and cell shape upon changes in the cellular environment. Deregulation of these processes is associated with human cancer and can occur at multiple levels of the underlying signaling systems. To gain an integrated view on signaling modules controlling tissue growth, we analyzed the interaction proteome of the human Hippo pathway, an established growth regulatory signaling system. The resulting high-resolution network model of 480 protein-protein interactions among 270 network components suggests participation of Hippo pathway components in three distinct modules that all converge on the transcriptional co-activator YAP1. One of the modules corresponds to the canonical Hippo kinase cassette whereas the other two both contain Hippo components in complexes with cell polarity proteins. Quantitative proteomic data suggests that complex formation with cell polarity proteins is dynamic and depends on the integrity of cell-cell contacts. Collectively, our systematic analysis greatly enhances our insights into the biochemical landscape underlying human Hippo signaling and emphasizes multifaceted roles of cell polarity complexes in Hippo-mediated tissue growth control.

Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma-associated PAX3-FOXO1 promotes tumorigenesis via Hippo pathway suppression

Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma (aRMS) is an aggressive sarcoma of skeletal muscle characterized by expression of the paired box 3-forkhead box protein O1 (PAX3-FOXO1) fusion oncogene. Despite its discovery nearly two decades ago, the mechanisms by which PAX3-FOXO1 drives tumor development are not well characterized. Previously, we reported that PAX3-FOXO1 supports aRMS initiation by enabling bypass of cellular senescence checkpoints. We have now found that this bypass occurs in part through PAX3-FOXO1-mediated upregulation of RASSF4, a Ras-association domain family (RASSF) member. RASSF4 expression was upregulated in PAX3-FOXO1-positive aRMS cell lines and tumors. Enhanced RASSF4 expression promoted cell cycle progression, senescence evasion, and tumorigenesis through inhibition of the Hippo pathway tumor suppressor MST1. We also found that the downstream Hippo pathway target Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP), which is ordinarily restrained by Hippo signaling, was upregulated in RMS tumors. These data suggest that Hippo pathway dysfunction promotes RMS. This work provides evidence for Hippo pathway suppression in aRMS and demonstrates a progrowth role for RASSF4. Additionally, we identify a mechanism used by PAX3-FOXO1 to inhibit MST1 signaling and promote tumorigenesis in aRMS.

The two faces of Hippo: targeting the Hippo pathway for regenerative medicine and cancer treatment

The Hippo signalling pathway is an emerging growth control and tumour suppressor pathway that regulates cell proliferation and stem cell functions. Defects in Hippo signalling and hyperactivation of its downstream effectors Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) contribute to the development of cancer, which suggests that pharmacological inhibition of YAP and TAZ activity may be an effective anticancer strategy. Conversely, YAP and TAZ can also have beneficial roles in stimulating tissue repair and regeneration following injury, so their activation may be therapeutically useful in these contexts. A complex network of intracellular and extracellular signalling pathways that modulate YAP and TAZ activities have recently been identified. Here, we review the regulation of the Hippo signalling pathway, its functions in normal homeostasis and disease, and recent progress in the identification of small-molecule pathway modulators.

Protein interaction network of the mammalian Hippo pathway reveals mechanisms of kinase-phosphatase interactions

The Hippo pathway regulates organ size and tissue homeostasis in response to multiple stimuli, including cell density and mechanotransduction. Pharmacological inhibition of phosphatases can also stimulate Hippo signaling in cell culture. We defined the Hippo protein-protein interaction network with and without inhibition of serine and threonine phosphatases by okadaic acid. We identified 749 protein interactions, including 599 previously unrecognized interactions, and demonstrated that several interactions with serine and threonine phosphatases were phosphorylation-dependent. Mutation of the T-loop of MST2 (mammalian STE20-like protein kinase 2), which prevented autophosphorylation, disrupted its association with STRIPAK (striatin-interacting phosphatase and kinase complex). Deletion of the amino-terminal forkhead-associated domain of SLMAP (sarcolemmal membrane-associated protein), a component of the STRIPAK complex, prevented its association with MST1 and MST2. Phosphatase inhibition produced temporally distinct changes in proteins that interacted with MOB1A and MOB1B (Mps one binder kinase activator-like 1A and 1B) and promoted interactions with upstream Hippo pathway proteins, such as MST1 and MST2, and with the trimeric protein phosphatase 6 complex (PP6). Mutation of three basic amino acids that are part of a phospho-serine- and phospho-threonine-binding domain in human MOB1B prevented its interaction with MST1 and PP6 in cells treated with okadaic acid. Collectively, our results indicated that changes in phosphorylation orchestrate interactions between kinases and phosphatases in Hippo signaling, providing a putative mechanism for pathway regulation.

The RASSF6 tumor suppressor protein regulates apoptosis and the cell cycle via MDM2 protein and p53 protein

Ras association domain family (RASSF) 6 is a member of the C-terminal RASSF proteins such as RASSF1A and RASSF3. RASSF6 is involved in apoptosis in various cells under miscellaneous conditions, but it remains to be clarified how RASSF6 exerts tumor-suppressive roles. We reported previously that RASSF3 facilitates the degradation of MDM2, a major E3 ligase of p53, and stabilizes p53 to function as a tumor suppressor. In this study, we demonstrate that RASSF6 overexpression induces G1/S arrest in p53-positive cells. Its depletion prevents UV- and VP-16-induced apoptosis and G1/S arrest in HCT116 and U2OS cells. RASSF6-induced apoptosis partially depends on p53. RASSF6 binds MDM2 and facilitates its ubiquitination. RASSF6 depletion blocks the increase of p53 in response to UV exposure and up-regulation of p53 target genes. RASSF6 depletion delays DNA repair in UV- and VP-16-treated cells and increases polyploid cells after VP-16 treatment. These findings indicate that RASSF6 stabilizes p53, regulates apoptosis and the cell cycle, and functions as a tumor suppressor. Together with the previous reports regarding RASSF1A and RASSF3, the stabilization of p53 may be the common function of the C-terminal RASSF proteins.