101
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Vogt G, Vogt B, Chuzhanova N, Julenius K, Cooper DN, Casanova JL. Gain-of-glycosylation mutations. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2007; 17:245-51. [PMID: 17467977 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2007.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2007] [Accepted: 04/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Disease-causing missense (and other in-frame) mutations can exert their deleterious effects at the cellular level through multiple mechanisms. A pathogenic mechanism involves the addition of a novel N-linked glycan. Up to 1.4% of known disease-causing missense mutations are predicted to give rise to gains-of-glycosylation. For some of these mutations, the novel glycans have been shown to be both necessary and sufficient to account for the deleterious impact of the mutation. The chemical complementation of cells from patients in vitro with various modifiers of glycosylation has been demonstrated and raises the possibility of specific chemical treatments for patients bearing gain-of-glycosylation mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Vogt
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, INSERM, U550, Paris 75015, France.
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102
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Jouanguy E, Zhang SY, Chapgier A, Sancho-Shimizu V, Puel A, Picard C, Boisson-Dupuis S, Abel L, Casanova JL. Human primary immunodeficiencies of type I interferons. Biochimie 2007; 89:878-83. [PMID: 17561326 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2007.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2007] [Accepted: 04/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFN-alpha/beta and related molecules) are essential for protective immunity to experimental infection by numerous viruses in the mouse model. In recent years, human primary immunodeficiencies affecting either the production of (UNC-93B deficiency) or the response to (STAT1 and TYK2 deficiencies) these IFNs have been reported. Affected patients are highly susceptible to certain viruses. Patients with STAT1 or TYK2 deficiency are susceptible to multiple viruses, including herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), whereas UNC-93B-deficient patients present isolated HSV-1 encephalitis. However, these immunological defects are not limited to type I IFN-mediated immunity. Impaired type II IFN (IFN-gamma)-mediated immunity plays no more than a minor role in the pathogenesis of viral diseases in these patients, but the contribution of impaired type III IFN (IFN-lambda)-mediated immunity remains to be determined. These novel inherited disorders strongly suggest that type I IFN-mediated immunity is essential for protection against natural infections caused by several viruses in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Jouanguy
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U550, 75015 Paris, France
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103
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Yan BS, Kirby A, Shebzukhov YV, Daly MJ, Kramnik I. Genetic architecture of tuberculosis resistance in a mouse model of infection. Genes Immun 2007; 7:201-10. [PMID: 16452998 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6364288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis remains a significant public health problem: one-third of the human population is infected with virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and 10% of those are at risk of developing tuberculosis during their lifetime. In both humans and experimental animal models, genetic variation among infected individuals contributes to the outcome of infection. However, in immunocompetent individuals (the majority of patients), genetic determinants of susceptibility to tuberculosis remain largely unknown. Mouse models of MTB infection, allowing control of exposure and other potential environmental contributors, have proven extremely useful for examining this genetic component. In a cross of C3HeB/FeJ (susceptible) by C57BL/6J (resistant) inbred mouse strains, we have previously identified one major genetic locus, sst1, the susceptible allele of which did not confer an overt immunodeficiency, but rather specifically affected progression of lung tuberculosis. Having generated and tested the sst1 congenic strains, we have observed that this locus only partially explained the difference in susceptibility of the parental strains to MTB. We now present further studies controlling for the effect of the sst1, identify four additional tuberculosis susceptibility loci and characterize their effects by testing an independent cross, knockout or congenic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- B-S Yan
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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104
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Abstract
Host genetic factors play a major role in determining differential susceptibility to major infectious diseases of humans, such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and invasive pneumococcal disease. Progress in identifying the relevant genetic loci has come from a variety of approaches. Most convincing associations have been identified by case-control studies assessing biologically plausible candidate genes. All six of the genes that have a major effect on infectious disease susceptibility in humans have been identified in this way. However, recently genome-wide linkage analysis of affected sibling pairs has identified susceptibility loci for chronic infections such as leprosy and chronic hepatitis B virus persistence. Other approaches used successfully have included assessment in humans of the homologues of susceptibility genes mapped and identified in murine models. However, the great majority of susceptibility loci remain to be identified and the advent of large-scale genome-wide association scans offers a new approach to defining many of these.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian V S Hill
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom.
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105
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Recio MJ, Moreno-Pelayo MA, Kiliç SS, Guardo AC, Sanal O, Allende LM, Pérez-Flores V, Mencía A, Modamio-Høybjør S, Seoane E, Regueiro JR. Differential Biological Role of CD3 Chains Revealed by Human Immunodeficiencies. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:2556-64. [PMID: 17277165 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.4.2556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The biological role in vivo of the homologous CD3gamma and delta invariant chains within the human TCR/CD3 complex is a matter of debate, as murine models do not recapitulate human immunodeficiencies. We have characterized, in a Turkish family, two new patients with complete CD3gamma deficiency and SCID symptoms and compared them with three CD3gamma-deficient individuals belonging to two families from Turkey and Spain. All tested patients shared similar immunological features such as a partial TCR/CD3 expression defect, mild alphabeta and gammadelta T lymphocytopenia, poor in vitro proliferative responses to Ags and mitogens at diagnosis, and very low TCR rearrangement excision circles and CD45RA(+) alphabeta T cells. However, intrafamilial and interfamilial clinical variability was observed in patients carrying the same CD3G mutations. Two reached the second or third decade in healthy conditions, whereas the other three showed lethal SCID features with enteropathy early in life. In contrast, all reported human complete CD3delta (or CD3epsilon) deficiencies are in infants with life-threatening SCID and very severe alphabeta and gammadelta T lymphocytopenia. Thus, the peripheral T lymphocyte pool was comparatively well preserved in human CD3gamma deficiencies despite poor thymus output or clinical outcome. We propose a CD3delta >> CD3gamma hierarchy for the relative impact of their absence on the signaling for T cell production in humans.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Animals
- CD3 Complex/genetics
- CD3 Complex/immunology
- Child
- Female
- Humans
- Infant
- Leukocyte Common Antigens/genetics
- Leukocyte Common Antigens/immunology
- Lymphopenia/genetics
- Lymphopenia/immunology
- Male
- Mice
- Mutation
- Pedigree
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/immunology
- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency/genetics
- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency/immunology
- Spain
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Thymus Gland/immunology
- Turkey
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Affiliation(s)
- María J Recio
- Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
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106
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Bustamante J, Picard C, Fieschi C, Filipe-Santos O, Feinberg J, Perronne C, Chapgier A, de Beaucoudrey L, Vogt G, Sanlaville D, Lemainque A, Emile JF, Abel L, Casanova JL. A novel X-linked recessive form of Mendelian susceptibility to mycobaterial disease. J Med Genet 2007; 44:e65. [PMID: 17293536 PMCID: PMC2598058 DOI: 10.1136/jmg.2006.043406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2006] [Revised: 06/05/2006] [Accepted: 06/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease (MSMD) is associated with infection caused by weakly virulent mycobacteria in otherwise healthy people. Causal germline mutations in five autosomal genes (IFNGR1, IFNGR2, STAT1, IL12RB1, IL12B) and one X-linked (NEMO) gene have been described. The gene products are physiologically related, as they are involved in interleukin 12/23-dependent, interferon gamma-mediated immunity. However, no genetic aetiology has yet been identified for about half the patients with MSMD. METHODS A large kindred was studied, including four male maternal relatives with recurrent mycobacterial disease, suggesting X-linked recessive inheritance. Three patients had recurrent disease caused by the bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine, and the fourth had recurrent tuberculosis. The infections showed tropism for the peripheral lymph nodes. RESULTS Known autosomal and X-linked genetic aetiologies of MSMD were excluded through genetic and immunological investigations. Genetic linkage analysis of the X-chromosome identified two candidate regions, on Xp11.4-Xp21.2 and Xq25-Xq26.3, with a maximum LOD score of 2. CONCLUSION A new X-linked recessive form of MSMD is reported, paving the way for the identification of a new MSMD-causing gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacinta Bustamante
- Laboratoire de Génétique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses INSERM Unité 550, Faculté Necker, Paris, France
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107
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Casanova JL, Abel L. Human genetics of infectious diseases: a unified theory. EMBO J 2007; 26:915-22. [PMID: 17255931 PMCID: PMC1852849 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2006] [Accepted: 12/20/2006] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the early 1950s, the dominant paradigm in the human genetics of infectious diseases postulates that rare monogenic immunodeficiencies confer vulnerability to multiple infectious diseases (one gene, multiple infections), whereas common infections are associated with the polygenic inheritance of multiple susceptibility genes (one infection, multiple genes). Recent studies, since 1996 in particular, have challenged this view. A newly recognised group of primary immunodeficiencies predisposing the individual to a principal or single type of infection is emerging. In parallel, several common infections have been shown to reflect the inheritance of one major susceptibility gene, at least in some populations. This novel causal relationship (one gene, one infection) blurs the distinction between patient-based Mendelian genetics and population-based complex genetics, and provides a unified conceptual frame for exploring the molecular genetic basis of infectious diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Laurent Casanova
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes, INSERM, U550, Necker Medical School, Paris, France.
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108
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Filipe-Santos O, Bustamante J, Chapgier A, Vogt G, de Beaucoudrey L, Feinberg J, Jouanguy E, Boisson-Dupuis S, Fieschi C, Picard C, Casanova JL. Inborn errors of IL-12/23- and IFN-γ-mediated immunity: molecular, cellular, and clinical features. Semin Immunol 2006; 18:347-61. [PMID: 16997570 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2006.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2006] [Accepted: 07/14/2006] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases confers predisposition to clinical disease caused by weakly virulent mycobacterial species in otherwise healthy individuals. Since 1996, disease-causing mutations have been found in five autosomal genes (IFNGR1, IFNGR2, STAT1, IL12B, IL12BR1) and one X-linked gene (NEMO). These genes display a high degree of allelic heterogeneity, defining at least 13 disorders. Although genetically different, these conditions are immunologically related, as all result in impaired IL-12/23-IFN-gamma-mediated immunity. These disorders were initially thought to be rare, but have now been diagnosed in over 220 patients from over 43 countries worldwide. We review here the molecular, cellular, and clinical features of patients with inborn errors of the IL-12/23-IFN-gamma circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orchidée Filipe-Santos
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes-INSERM U 550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France, EU
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109
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Colin
- Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33101-6820, USA.
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110
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Casrouge A, Zhang SY, Eidenschenk C, Jouanguy E, Puel A, Yang K, Alcais A, Picard C, Mahfoufi N, Nicolas N, Lorenzo L, Plancoulaine S, Sénéchal B, Geissmann F, Tabeta K, Hoebe K, Du X, Miller RL, Héron B, Mignot C, de Villemeur TB, Lebon P, Dulac O, Rozenberg F, Beutler B, Tardieu M, Abel L, Casanova JL. Herpes simplex virus encephalitis in human UNC-93B deficiency. Science 2006; 314:308-12. [PMID: 16973841 DOI: 10.1126/science.1128346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 540] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) encephalitis (HSE) is the most common form of sporadic viral encephalitis in western countries. Its pathogenesis remains unclear, as it affects otherwise healthy patients and only a small minority of HSV-1-infected individuals. Here, we elucidate a genetic etiology for HSE in two children with autosomal recessive deficiency in the intracellular protein UNC-93B, resulting in impaired cellular interferon-alpha/beta and -lambda antiviral responses. HSE can result from a single-gene immunodeficiency that does not compromise immunity to most pathogens, unlike most known primary immunodeficiencies. Other severe infectious diseases may also reflect monogenic disorders of immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armanda Casrouge
- Laboratoire de Génétique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses, Université de Paris René Descartes, INSERM, U550, Faculté de Médecine Necker, Paris 75015, France
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111
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Burgner D, Jamieson SE, Blackwell JM. Genetic susceptibility to infectious diseases: big is beautiful, but will bigger be even better? THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2006; 6:653-63. [PMID: 17008174 PMCID: PMC2330096 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(06)70601-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Genetic epidemiology, including twin studies, provides robust evidence that genetic variation in human populations contributes to susceptibility to infectious disease. One of the major limitations of studies that attempt to identify the genes and mechanisms that underlie this susceptibility has been lack of power caused by small sample size. With the development of novel technologies, burgeoning information on the human genome, the HapMap project, and human genetic diversity, we are at the beginning of a new era in the study of the genetics of complex diseases. This review looks afresh at the epidemiological evidence that supports a role for genetics in susceptibility to infectious disease, examines the somewhat limited achievements to date, and discusses current advances in methodology and technology that will potentially lead to translational data in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Burgner
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia, Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Sarra E Jamieson
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jenefer M Blackwell
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
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112
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Genetic susceptibility to infectious diseases: big is beautiful, but will bigger be even better? THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2006. [PMID: 17008174 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(06)70601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Genetic epidemiology, including twin studies, provides robust evidence that genetic variation in human populations contributes to susceptibility to infectious disease. One of the major limitations of studies that attempt to identify the genes and mechanisms that underlie this susceptibility has been lack of power caused by small sample size. With the development of novel technologies, burgeoning information on the human genome, the HapMap project, and human genetic diversity, we are at the beginning of a new era in the study of the genetics of complex diseases. This review looks afresh at the epidemiological evidence that supports a role for genetics in susceptibility to infectious disease, examines the somewhat limited achievements to date, and discusses current advances in methodology and technology that will potentially lead to translational data in the future.
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113
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Paltiel O, Laniado DE, Yanetz R, Deutsch L, Calderon-Margalit R, Harlap S, Friedlander Y. The Risk of Cancer following Hospitalization for Infection in Infancy: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006; 15:1964-8. [PMID: 17035406 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-06-0313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The relation between infections in infancy and subsequent cancer risk in children and young adults is controversial. Our aim was to examine this association in the Jerusalem Perinatal Study, a population-based cohort comprising all offspring from western Jerusalem and surroundings born from 1964 to 1976. METHODS Identity numbers of non-malformed singletons with recorded data about hospital admission in the 1st year of life (n = 24,554) were linked to the Population and Cancer Registries. Person-year incidence rates were calculated for the exposed (admitted for infection) and nonexposed (not admitted for infection) groups from birth to date of cancer diagnosis, death, or December 31, 2004. We used Cox proportional hazards models to adjust for covariates associated with hospitalization. RESULTS The median follow-up was 36 years. Cancer developed in 283 individuals. Hospitalization for infection was not associated with overall cancer risk [risk ratio (RR), 0.88; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 0.56-1.37]. The incidence rate for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was higher in the exposed compared with the nonexposed group (RR, 3.46; 95% CI, 1.38-8.68), remaining unchanged after controlling for birth weight, gender, and maternal education. Leukemia risk was not significantly associated (RR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.06-3.24) with hospitalization for infection. CONCLUSIONS Hospital admission in the 1st year of life due to infection is associated with an increased risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. This is consistent with observations that mild immunodeficiencies predispose to lymphoma. Survival of infants with subtle immune defects, who may have previously succumbed to their infection, may contribute to the increased incidence of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma observed over the last 50 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ora Paltiel
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Hadassah-Hebrew University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
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114
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Le Pendu J, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Kindberg E, Svensson L. Mendelian resistance to human norovirus infections. Semin Immunol 2006; 18:375-86. [PMID: 16973373 PMCID: PMC7129677 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2006.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2006] [Accepted: 07/14/2006] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses have emerged as a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans of all ages. Despite high infectivity of the virus and lack of long-term immunity, volunteer and authentic studies has suggested the existence of inherited protective factors. Recent studies have shown that histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and in particular secretor status controlled by the α1,2fucosyltransferase FUT2 gene determine susceptibility to norovirus infections, with nonsecretors (FUT2−/−), representing 20% of Europeans, being highly resistant to symptomatic infections with major strains of norovirus. Moreover, the capsid protein from distinct strains shows different HBGA specificities, suggesting a host–pathogen co-evolution driven by carbohydrate–protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Le Pendu
- Inserm U601, University of Nantes, Institute of Biology, 9 Quai Moncousu, 44093 Nantes, Cedex 01, France.
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115
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[Genetic predisposition and children infectious disease]. Arch Pediatr 2006; 13:1342-6. [PMID: 16949261 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcped.2006.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2006] [Accepted: 07/05/2006] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The classic primary immunodeficiencies confer predisposition to multiple infectious diseases. However since ten years severe pediatric infections which were idiopathic have now molecular explanation. Indeed, defects in several genes confer a predisposition to infection with specific pathogenes in otherwise healthy individuals. These children present a new kind of hereditary immunodeficiency with severe and/or recurrent infections caused by only one microorganisms family, in opposition of others patients with "classic" primary immunodeficiency.
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116
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Ku CL, Picard C, Erdös M, Jeurissen A, Bustamante J, Puel A, von Bernuth H, Filipe-Santos O, Chang HH, Lawrence T, Raes M, Maródi L, Bossuyt X, Casanova JL. IRAK4 and NEMO mutations in otherwise healthy children with recurrent invasive pneumococcal disease. J Med Genet 2006; 44:16-23. [PMID: 16950813 PMCID: PMC2597905 DOI: 10.1136/jmg.2006.044446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND About 2% of childhood episodes of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) are recurrent, and most remain unexplained. OBJECTIVE To report two cases of otherwise healthy, unrelated children with recurrent IPD as the only clinical infectious manifestation of an inherited disorder in nuclear factor-kappaB(NF-kappaB)-dependent immunity. RESULTS One child carried two germline mutations in IRAK4, and had impaired cellular responses to interleukin (IL)1 receptor and toll-like receptor (TLR) stimulation. The other child carried a hemizygous mutation in NEMO, associated with a broader impairment of NF-kappaB activation, with an impaired cellular response to IL-1R, TLR and tumour necrosis factor receptor stimulation. The two patients shared a narrow clinical phenotype, associated with two related but different genotypes. CONCLUSIONS Otherwise healthy children with recurrent IPD should be explored for underlying primary immunodeficiencies affecting the IRAK4-dependent and NEMO-dependent signalling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Lung Ku
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Medical School, University of Paris René Descartes, Paris, France
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117
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Neyrolles O, Gicquel B, Quintana-Murci L. Towards a crucial role for DC-SIGN in tuberculosis and beyond. Trends Microbiol 2006; 14:383-7. [PMID: 16876999 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2006.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2006] [Revised: 05/19/2006] [Accepted: 07/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The C-type lectin DC-SIGN has recently received considerable attention in the context of tuberculosis and other infectious diseases. Clinical investigations, together with genetic association studies, strongly support the notion that variation in the level of expression of DC-SIGN - but not changes in the structure of the protein - might have a strong impact on the susceptibility to and pathogenesis of several infectious diseases, including tuberculosis. In addition, efforts to decipher the evolutionary history of the gene encoding DC-SIGN clearly demonstrated that this gene is under strong selective constraints that have prevented the accumulation of amino acid changes over time. Altogether, these findings suggest that DC-SIGN might play a crucial part in host immunity to pathogens and possibly beyond, at an early stage of human development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Neyrolles
- Unit of Mycobacterial Genetics, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France.
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118
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Abel L, Casanova JL. Human genetics of infectious diseases: Fundamental insights from clinical studies. Semin Immunol 2006; 18:327-9. [PMID: 16920363 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2006.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2006] [Accepted: 07/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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119
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Picard C, Casanova JL, Abel L. Mendelian traits that confer predisposition or resistance to specific infections in humans. Curr Opin Immunol 2006; 18:383-90. [PMID: 16765581 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2006.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2006] [Accepted: 05/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in human genes involved in immunity are increasingly recognised. Most are associated with conventional primary immunodeficiencies, which confer Mendelian predisposition to multiple infectious diseases. Recently, there has been much study of monogenic traits that do not confer such a broad vulnerability. Defects in several genes confer predisposition to infection with specific bacteria and viruses in otherwise healthy individuals. Mutations in other genes even confer resistance to specific pathogens, with no detectable decrease in fitness. These 'experiments of nature' reveal surprising specific interactions between certain human genes and microbial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Capucine Picard
- Laboratoire de Génétique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses, Université de Paris René Descartes-INSERM U550, Faculté de Médecine Necker, France
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120
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Picard C, Mellouli F, Duprez R, Chédeville G, Neven B, Fraitag S, Delaunay J, Le Deist F, Fischer A, Blanche S, Bodemer C, Gessain A, Casanova JL, Bejaoui M. Kaposi's sarcoma in a child with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. Eur J Pediatr 2006; 165:453-7. [PMID: 16602009 DOI: 10.1007/s00431-006-0107-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2005] [Revised: 01/30/2006] [Accepted: 02/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is rare in childhood. It may be favored by acquired immune deficiencies, but the predisposing factors to KS in other children are unclear. DISCUSSION KS has been reported in only two children and one adult with primary immunodeficiency. We report here a Tunisian child with a Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome who developed KS at the age of 14 months. CONCLUSION This observation expands the spectrum of primary immunodeficiencies associated with KS in childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Capucine Picard
- Unité d'Immunologie et d'Hématologie Pédiatriques AP-HP, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, 149 rue de Sèvres, 75015, Paris, EU, France.
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121
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Baghdadi JE, Orlova M, Alter A, Ranque B, Chentoufi M, Lazrak F, Archane MI, Casanova JL, Benslimane A, Schurr E, Abel L. An autosomal dominant major gene confers predisposition to pulmonary tuberculosis in adults. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 203:1679-84. [PMID: 16801399 PMCID: PMC2118352 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20060269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The molecular basis of genetic predisposition to pulmonary tuberculosis in adults remains largely elusive. Few candidate genes have consistently been implicated in tuberculosis susceptibility, and no conclusive linkage was found in two previous genome-wide screens. We report here a genome-wide linkage study in a total sample of 96 Moroccan multiplex families, including 227 siblings with microbiologically and radiologically proven pulmonary tuberculosis. A genome-wide scan conducted in half the sample (48 families) identified five regions providing suggestive evidence (logarithm of the odds [LOD] score >1.17; P < 0.01) for linkage. These regions were then fine-mapped in the total sample of 96 families. A single region of chromosome 8q12-q13 was significantly linked to tuberculosis (LOD score = 3.49; P = 3 × 10−5), indicating the presence of a major tuberculosis susceptibility gene. Linkage was stronger (LOD score = 3.94; P = 10−5) in the subsample of 39 families in which one parent was also affected by tuberculosis, whereas it was much lower (LOD score = 0.79) in the 57 remaining families without affected parents, supporting a dominant mode of inheritance of the major susceptibility locus. These results provide direct molecular evidence that human pulmonary tuberculosis has a strong genetic basis, and indicate that the genetic component involves at least one major locus with a dominant susceptibility allele.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamila El Baghdadi
- Laboratory of Immunology, Military Hospital Mohamed V, Hay Riad Rabat, Morocco
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122
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Alcaïs A, Fieschi C, Abel L, Casanova JL. Tuberculosis in children and adults: two distinct genetic diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 202:1617-21. [PMID: 16365144 PMCID: PMC2212964 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20052302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Disseminated disease in children and pulmonary disease in adults constitute two major epidemiological and clinical forms of tuberculosis. Paradoxically, only a small fraction of infected individuals develop clinical tuberculosis, typically one form of the disease or the other. Mendelian and complex genetic predispositions to tuberculosis were reported recently in children and adults, respectively. Here, we argue that tuberculosis and its clinical expression largely reflect the underlying human genetic background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Alcaïs
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes-INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
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123
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Chapgier A, Wynn RF, Jouanguy E, Filipe-Santos O, Zhang S, Feinberg J, Hawkins K, Casanova JL, Arkwright PD. Human complete Stat-1 deficiency is associated with defective type I and II IFN responses in vitro but immunity to some low virulence viruses in vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:5078-83. [PMID: 16585605 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.8.5078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The autosomal recessive form of human complete Stat-1 deficiency is a rare disorder, thus far reported in two unrelated patients, both of whom developed disseminated bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) and subsequently died of viral illnesses before detailed studies of the condition could be performed. It is associated with impaired cellular responses to both IFN-gamma and IFN-alphabeta via Stat-1-containing complexes. We describe a third patient with complete Stat-1 deficiency and disseminated BCG infection, who died 3 mo after bone marrow transplantation. The patient's EBV-transformed B cells did not express Stat-1 protein and did not activate Stat-1-containing transcription factors. We also report the ex vivo responses of a Stat-1-deficient patient's fresh blood cells to IFN-gamma and the in vitro responses of a SV40-transformed fibroblastic cell line to IFN-gamma and IFN-alphabeta. There was no response to IFN-gamma in terms of IL-12 production and HLA class II induction, accounting for vulnerability to BCG. Moreover, IFN-alphabeta did not suppress HSV and vesicular stomatitis virus replication in fibroblasts, although in vivo the patient was able to successfully clear at least some viruses. This study broadens our understanding of complete Stat-1 deficiency, a severe form of innate immunodeficiency. Stat-1 deficiency should be suspected in children with severe infections, notably but not exclusively patients with mycobacterial or viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariane Chapgier
- Laboratoire de Génétique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses, Université de Paris René Descartes-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité Mixte de Recherche R550, Faculté de Médecine Necker-Enfants Malades, Paris, France
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124
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Vogt G, Chapgier A, Chuzhanova N, Feinberg J, Fieschi C, Boisson-Dupuis S, Alcaïs A, Abel L, Cooper DN, Casanova JL. [Gains of glycosylation mutations]. Med Sci (Paris) 2006; 22:480-2. [PMID: 16687113 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/2006225480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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125
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Eidenschenk C, Dunne J, Jouanguy E, Fourlinnie C, Gineau L, Bacq D, McMahon C, Smith O, Casanova JL, Abel L, Feighery C. A novel primary immunodeficiency with specific natural-killer cell deficiency maps to the centromeric region of chromosome 8. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 78:721-7. [PMID: 16532402 PMCID: PMC1424699 DOI: 10.1086/503269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2005] [Accepted: 02/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe four children with a novel primary immunodeficiency consisting of specific natural-killer (NK) cell deficiency and susceptibility to viral diseases. One child developed an Epstein-Barr virus-driven lymphoproliferative disorder; two others developed severe respiratory illnesses of probable viral etiology. The four patients are related and belong to a large inbred kindred of Irish nomadic descent, which suggests autosomal recessive inheritance of this defect. A genomewide scan identified a single 12-Mb region on chromosome 8p11.23-q11.21 that was linked to this immunodeficiency (maximum LOD score 4.51). The mapping of the disease-causing genomic region paves the way for the identification of a novel pathway governing NK cell differentiation in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Eidenschenk
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Jean Dunne
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Emmanuelle Jouanguy
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Claire Fourlinnie
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Laure Gineau
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Delphine Bacq
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Corrina McMahon
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Owen Smith
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Laurent Abel
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
| | - Conleth Feighery
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes–INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, and Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker Hospital, Paris; Department of Immunology, St. James’s Hospital, and Our Lady’s Hospital for Sick Children, Dublin; and National Center for Genotyping, Evry, France
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126
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Abstract
Scientists who study neutrophils often have backgrounds in cell biology, biochemistry, haematology, rheumatology or infectious disease. Paradoxically, immunologists seem to have a harder time incorporating these host-defence cells into the framework of their discipline. The recent literature discussed here indicates that it is appropriate for immunologists to take as much interest in neutrophils as in their lymphohaematopoietic cousins with smooth nuclei. Neutrophils inform and shape immune responses, contribute to the repair of tissue as well as its breakdown, use killing mechanisms that enrich our concepts of specificity, and offer exciting opportunities for the treatment of neoplastic, autoinflammatory and autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Nathan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, Box 57, 1300 York Avenue, New York 10021, USA.
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127
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Schnare M, Rollinghoff M, Qureshi S. Toll-like receptors: sentinels of host defence against bacterial infection. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 139:75-85. [PMID: 16319494 DOI: 10.1159/000090001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immunity provides a first line of host defence against infection through microbial recognition and killing while simultaneously activating a definitive adaptive immune response. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are principal mediators of rapid microbial recognition and function mainly by detection of structural patterns that do not exist in the host. TLR2 and TLR4 were the first members of this innate immune receptor family to be strongly implicated in antibacterial host defence. Following the initial description of the mammalian TLR family, susceptibility to infection with numerous human microbial pathogens has been intensively studied using mice with engineered deletions of each of these molecules. While it has become quite clear that TLR activation is necessary for optimal host defence, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which this family of pattern recognition receptors engages protective immunity, particularly the adaptive response, is still evolving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Schnare
- Institute for Clinical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany.
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128
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Yang K, Puel A, Zhang S, Eidenschenk C, Ku CL, Casrouge A, Picard C, von Bernuth H, Senechal B, Plancoulaine S, Al-Hajjar S, Al-Ghonaium A, Maródi L, Davidson D, Speert D, Roifman C, Garty BZ, Ozinsky A, Barrat FJ, Coffman RL, Miller RL, Li X, Lebon P, Rodriguez-Gallego C, Chapel H, Geissmann F, Jouanguy E, Casanova JL. Human TLR-7-, -8-, and -9-mediated induction of IFN-alpha/beta and -lambda Is IRAK-4 dependent and redundant for protective immunity to viruses. Immunity 2005; 23:465-78. [PMID: 16286015 PMCID: PMC7111074 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2005.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Revised: 09/16/2005] [Accepted: 09/22/2005] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Five TLRs are thought to play an important role in antiviral immunity, sensing viral products and inducing IFN-alpha/beta and -lambda. Surprisingly, patients with a defect of IRAK-4, a critical kinase downstream from TLRs, are resistant to common viruses. We show here that IFN-alpha/beta and -lambda induction via TLR-7, TLR-8, and TLR-9 was abolished in IRAK-4-deficient blood cells. In contrast, IFN-alpha/beta and -lambda were induced normally by TLR-3 and TLR-4 agonists. Moreover, IFN-beta and -lambda were normally induced by TLR-3 agonists and viruses in IRAK-4-deficient fibroblasts. We further show that IFN-alpha/beta and -lambda production in response to 9 of 11 viruses tested was normal or weakly affected in IRAK-4-deficient blood cells. Thus, IRAK-4-deficient patients may control viral infections by TLR-3- and TLR-4-dependent and/or TLR-independent production of IFNs. The TLR-7-, TLR-8-, and TLR-9-dependent induction of IFN-alpha/beta and -lambda is strictly IRAK-4 dependent and paradoxically redundant for protective immunity to most viruses in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Yang
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
- French-Chinese Laboratory of Genetics and Life Sciences, Rui Jin Hospital, Medical School of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200025 Shanghai, China
| | - Anne Puel
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Shenying Zhang
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
- French-Chinese Laboratory of Genetics and Life Sciences, Rui Jin Hospital, Medical School of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200025 Shanghai, China
| | - Céline Eidenschenk
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Cheng-Lung Ku
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Armanda Casrouge
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Capucine Picard
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
- Pediatric Immunology-Hematology, Necker Enfants Malades Hospital, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Horst von Bernuth
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Brigitte Senechal
- Laboratory of Mononuclear Cell Biology, INSERM Avenir, IFR Necker, Necker Hospital, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Sabine Plancoulaine
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Sami Al-Hajjar
- Department of Pediatrics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh 11211, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulaziz Al-Ghonaium
- Department of Pediatrics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh 11211, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - László Maródi
- Department of Infectiology and Pediatric Immunology, Medical and Health Science Center, University of Debrecen, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Donald Davidson
- Division of Infectious and Immunological Diseases, British Columbia Research Institute for Child and Family Health, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - David Speert
- Division of Infectious and Immunological Diseases, British Columbia Research Institute for Child and Family Health, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Chaim Roifman
- Divison of Immunology/Allergy, Department of Paediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Ben-Zion Garty
- Department of Pediatrics, Schneider Children's Medical Center of Israel, 49202 Petah Tiqva, Israel
| | - Adrian Ozinsky
- Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, Washington 98103
| | | | | | | | - Xiaoxia Li
- Department of Immunology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44195
| | - Pierre Lebon
- Department of Virology, Saint Vincent de Paul Hospital, University of Paris René Descartes, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Carlos Rodriguez-Gallego
- Department of Immunology, Gran Canaria Dr Negrin Hospital, 35020 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Helen Chapel
- Department of Immunology, Oxford Radcliffe Hospital, John Radcliffe Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Frédéric Geissmann
- Laboratory of Mononuclear Cell Biology, INSERM Avenir, IFR Necker, Necker Hospital, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Emmanuelle Jouanguy
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
- French-Chinese Laboratory of Genetics and Life Sciences, Rui Jin Hospital, Medical School of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200025 Shanghai, China
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Paris René Descartes INSERM U550, Necker Medical School, 75015 Paris, France
- French-Chinese Laboratory of Genetics and Life Sciences, Rui Jin Hospital, Medical School of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200025 Shanghai, China
- Pediatric Immunology-Hematology, Necker Enfants Malades Hospital, 75015 Paris, France
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