101
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Koh S, Shimasaki N, Suwanarusk R, Ho ZZ, Chia A, Banu N, Howland SW, Ong ASM, Gehring AJ, Stauss H, Renia L, Sällberg M, Campana D, Bertoletti A. A practical approach to immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma using T cells redirected against hepatitis B virus. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2013; 2:e114. [PMID: 23941866 PMCID: PMC3759740 DOI: 10.1038/mtna.2013.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells often have hepatitis B virus (HBV)-DNA integration and can be targeted by HBV-specific T cells. The use of viral vectors to introduce exogenous HBV-specific T-cell receptors (TCR) on T cells to redirect their specificity is complex and expensive to implement in clinical trials. Moreover, it raises safety concerns related to insertional mutagenesis and potential toxicity of long-lived HBV-specific T cells in patients with persistent infection. To develop a more practical and safer approach to cell therapy of HCC, we used electroporation of mRNA encoding anti-HBV TCR. Approximately 80% of CD8+ T cells expressed functional HBV TCR 24 hours postelectroporation, an expression efficiency much higher than that obtained by retroviral transduction (~18%). Antigen-specific cytokine production of electroporated T cells was efficient within 72-hour period, after which the redirected T cells lost their HBV-specific function. Despite this transient functionality, the TCR-electroporated T cells efficiently prevented tumor seeding and suppressed the growth of established tumors in a xenograft model of HCC. Finally, we established a method for large-scale TCR mRNA electroporation that yielded large numbers of highly functional clinical-grade anti-HBV T cells. This method represents a practical approach to cell therapy of HCC and its inherently self-limiting toxicity suggests potential for application in other HBV-related pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarene Koh
- 1] Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, (A*STAR), Singapore [2] Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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102
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Umeshappa CS, Xie Y, Xu S, Nanjundappa RH, Freywald A, Deng Y, Ma H, Xiang J. Th cells promote CTL survival and memory via acquired pMHC-I and endogenous IL-2 and CD40L signaling and by modulating apoptosis-controlling pathways. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64787. [PMID: 23785406 PMCID: PMC3681805 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Involvement of CD4+ helper T (Th) cells is crucial for CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated immunity. However, CD4+ Th’s signals that govern CTL survival and functional memory are still not completely understood. In this study, we assessed the role of CD4+ Th cells with acquired antigen-presenting machineries in determining CTL fates. We utilized an adoptive co-transfer into CD4+ T cell-sufficient or -deficient mice of OTI CTLs and OTII Th cells or Th cells with various gene deficiencies pre-stimulated in vitro by ovalbumin (OVA)-pulsed dendritic cell (DCova). CTL survival was kinetically assessed in these mice using FITC-anti-CD8 and PE-H-2Kb/OVA257-264 tetramer staining by flow cytometry. We show that by acting via endogenous CD40L and IL-2, and acquired peptide-MHC-I (pMHC-I) complex signaling, CD4+ Th cells enhance survival of transferred effector CTLs and their differentiation into the functional memory CTLs capable of protecting against highly-metastasizing tumor challenge. Moreover, RT-PCR, flow cytometry and Western blot analysis demonstrate that increased survival of CD4+ Th cell-helped CTLs is matched with enhanced Akt1/NF-κB activation, down-regulation of TRAIL, and altered expression profiles with up-regulation of prosurvival (Bcl-2) and down-regulation of proapoptotic (Bcl-10, Casp-3, Casp-4, Casp-7) molecules. Taken together, our results reveal a previously unexplored mechanistic role for CD4+ Th cells in programming CTL survival and memory recall responses. This knowledge could also aid in the development of efficient adoptive CTL cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yufeng Xie
- Cancer Research Unit, Saskatchewan Cancer Agency, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Shulin Xu
- Cancer Research Unit, Saskatchewan Cancer Agency, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | | | - Andrew Freywald
- Department of Pathology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Yulin Deng
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Ma
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Jim Xiang
- Cancer Research Unit, Saskatchewan Cancer Agency, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- * E-mail:
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103
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Biomarkers in T-cell therapy clinical trials. Cytotherapy 2013; 15:632-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2013.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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104
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Robbins PF, Lu YC, El-Gamil M, Li YF, Gross C, Gartner J, Lin JC, Teer JK, Cliften P, Tycksen E, Samuels Y, Rosenberg SA. Mining exomic sequencing data to identify mutated antigens recognized by adoptively transferred tumor-reactive T cells. Nat Med 2013; 19:747-52. [PMID: 23644516 PMCID: PMC3757932 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 841] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Substantial regressions of metastatic lesions have been observed in up to 70% of patients with melanoma who received adoptively transferred autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in phase 2 clinical trials. In addition, 40% of patients treated in a recent trial experienced complete regressions of all measurable lesions for at least 5 years following TIL treatment. To evaluate the potential association between the ability of TILs to mediate durable regressions and their ability to recognize potent antigens that presumably include mutated gene products, we developed a new screening approach involving mining whole-exome sequence data to identify mutated proteins expressed in patient tumors. We then synthesized and evaluated candidate mutated T cell epitopes that were identified using a major histocompatibility complex-binding algorithm for recognition by TILs. Using this approach, we identified mutated antigens expressed on autologous tumor cells that were recognized by three bulk TIL lines from three individuals with melanoma that were associated with objective tumor regressions following adoptive transfer. This simplified approach for identifying mutated antigens recognized by T cells avoids the need to generate and laboriously screen cDNA libraries from tumors and may represent a generally applicable method for identifying mutated antigens expressed in a variety of tumor types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F Robbins
- Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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105
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Chacon JA, Wu RC, Sukhumalchandra P, Molldrem JJ, Sarnaik A, Pilon-Thomas S, Weber J, Hwu P, Radvanyi L. Co-stimulation through 4-1BB/CD137 improves the expansion and function of CD8(+) melanoma tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes for adoptive T-cell therapy. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60031. [PMID: 23560068 PMCID: PMC3613355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adoptive T-cell therapy (ACT) using tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) can induce tumor regression in up to 50% or more of patients with unresectable metastatic melanoma. However, current methods to expand melanoma TIL, especially the “rapid expansion protocol” (REP) were not designed to enhance the generation of optimal effector-memory CD8+ T cells for infusion. One approach to this problem is to manipulate specific co-stimulatory signaling pathways to enhance CD8+ effector-memory T-cell expansion. In this study, we determined the effects of activating the TNF-R family member 4-1BB/CD137, specifically induced in activated CD8+ T cells, on the yield, phenotype, and functional activity of expanded CD8+ T cells during the REP. We found that CD8+ TIL up-regulate 4-1BB expression early during the REP after initial TCR stimulation, but neither the PBMC feeder cells in the REP or the activated TIL expressed 4-1BB ligand. However, addition of an exogenous agonistic anti-4-1BB IgG4 (BMS 663513) to the REP significantly enhanced the frequency and total yield of CD8+ T cells as well as their maintenance of CD28 and increased their anti-tumor CTL activity. Gene expression analysis found an increase in bcl-2 and survivin expression induced by 4-1BB that was associated with an enhanced survival capability of CD8+ post-REP TIL when re-cultured in the absence or presence of cytokines. Our findings suggest that adding an agonistic anti-4-1BB antibody during the time of TIL REP initiation produces a CD8+ T cell population capable of improved effector function and survival. This may greatly improve TIL persistence and anti-tumor activity in vivo after adoptive transfer into patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Ann Chacon
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- The Immunology Program of the University of Texas Health Science Center, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Richard C. Wu
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- The Immunology Program of the University of Texas Health Science Center, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Pariya Sukhumalchandra
- Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey J. Molldrem
- The Immunology Program of the University of Texas Health Science Center, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Amod Sarnaik
- Donald A. Adam Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Shari Pilon-Thomas
- Donald A. Adam Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey Weber
- Donald A. Adam Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Patrick Hwu
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- The Immunology Program of the University of Texas Health Science Center, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Laszlo Radvanyi
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- The Immunology Program of the University of Texas Health Science Center, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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106
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Abstract
The advent of immunotherapies for cancer has resulted in robust clinical responses and confirmed that the immune system can significantly inhibit tumor progression. The recent success of adoptive cell therapy against melanoma suggests that endogenous T-cell responses have the potential to control cancer. However, the lack of responses in some patients receiving such therapy indicates a need for a better understanding of the host immune response to solid tumors. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the characteristics of adoptively transferred T cells associated with successful anti-melanoma immune responses in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnes Fermin Lee
- Dirks/Dougherty Laboratory for Cancer Research; Department of Translational Immunology; John Wayne Cancer Institute at Saint John’s Health Center; Santa Monica, CA USA
| | - Peter A. Sieling
- Dirks/Dougherty Laboratory for Cancer Research; Department of Translational Immunology; John Wayne Cancer Institute at Saint John’s Health Center; Santa Monica, CA USA
| | - Delphine J. Lee
- Dirks/Dougherty Laboratory for Cancer Research; Department of Translational Immunology; John Wayne Cancer Institute at Saint John’s Health Center; Santa Monica, CA USA
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107
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Wang A, Chandran S, Shah SA, Chiu Y, Paria BC, Aghamolla T, Alvarez-Downing MM, Lee CCR, Singh S, Li T, Dudley ME, Restifo NP, Rosenberg SA, Kammula US. The stoichiometric production of IL-2 and IFN-γ mRNA defines memory T cells that can self-renew after adoptive transfer in humans. Sci Transl Med 2013; 4:149ra120. [PMID: 22932225 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3004306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive immunotherapy using ex vivo-expanded tumor-reactive lymphocytes can mediate durable cancer regression in selected melanoma patients. Analyses of these trials have associated the in vivo engraftment ability of the transferred cells with their antitumor efficacy. Thus, there is intensive clinical interest in the prospective isolation of tumor-specific T cells that can reliably persist after transfer. Animal studies have suggested that central memory CD8(+) T cells (T(CM)) have divergent capabilities including effector differentiation to target antigen and stem cell-like self-renewal that enable long-term survival after adoptive transfer. We sought to isolate human melanoma-specific T(CM) to define their in vivo fate and function after autologous therapeutic transfer to metastatic patients. To facilitate the high-throughput identification of these rare cells from patients, we report that T(CM) have a defined stoichiometric production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) mRNA after antigen stimulation. Melanoma-specific T cells screened for high relative IL-2 production had a T(CM) phenotype and superior in vitro proliferative capacity compared to cells with low IL-2 production. To investigate in vivo effector function and self-renewal capability, we allowed melanoma-specific T(CM) to undergo in vitro expansion and differentiation into lytic effector clones and then adoptively transferred them back into their hosts. These clones targeted skin melanocytes in all five patients and persisted long term and reacquired parental T(CM) attributes in four patients after transfer. These findings demonstrate the favorable engraftment fitness for human T(CM)-derived clones, but further efforts to improve their antitumor efficacy are still necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anran Wang
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20817, USA
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108
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Frumento G, Zheng Y, Aubert G, Raeiszadeh M, Lansdorp PM, Moss P, Lee SP, Chen FE. Cord blood T cells retain early differentiation phenotype suitable for immunotherapy after TCR gene transfer to confer EBV specificity. Am J Transplant 2013; 13:45-55. [PMID: 23016879 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2012.04286.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive T cell therapy can be effective for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease and melanoma. Transducing high-affinity TCR genes into T lymphocytes is an emerging method to improve potency and specificity of tumor-specific T cells. However, both methods necessitate in vitro lymphocyte proliferation, generating highly differentiated effector cells that display reduced survival and antitumor efficacy postinfusion. TCR-transduction of naive lymphocytes isolated from peripheral blood is reported to provide superior in vivo survival and function. We utilized cord blood (CB) lymphocytes, which comprise mainly naive cells, for transducing EBV-specific TCR. Comparable TCR expression was achieved in adult and CB cells, but the latter expressed an earlier differentiation profile. Further antigen-driven stimulation skewed adult lymphocytes to a late differentiation phenotype associated with immune exhaustion. In contrast, CB T cells retained a less differentiated phenotype after antigen stimulation, remaining CD57-negative but were still capable of antigen-specific polyfunctional cytokine expression and cytotoxicity in response to EBV antigen. CB T cells also retained longer telomeres and in general possessed higher telomerase activity indicative of greater proliferative potential. CB lymphocytes therefore have qualities indicating prolonged survival and effector function favorable to immunotherapy, especially in settings where donor lymphocytes are unavailable such as in solid organ and CB transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Frumento
- NHS Blood and Transplant, Birmingham, UK
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109
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Hadrup S, Donia M, Thor Straten P. Effector CD4 and CD8 T cells and their role in the tumor microenvironment. CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT 2012; 6:123-33. [PMID: 23242673 PMCID: PMC3717059 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-012-0127-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 226] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 11/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
T cells in tumors—the so-called tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) have been studied intensively over the past years. Compelling evidence point to a clinical relevance for high numbers of T cells at the tumor site with CD8 memory T cells as a key denominator for overall survival (OS) in patients with colo-rectal cancer (CRC), and also for others solid cancers. These data goes hand in hand with studies of clonality of TIL showing the T cells among TIL are expanded clonally, and also that tumor specific T cells of CD4 as well as CD8 type are enriched at the tumor site. The tumor microenvironment is hostile to T cell function e.g., due to expression of enzymes that depletes the amino acids tryptophan and arginine, high concentration of tumor secreted lactate, and presence innate cells or regulatory T cells both with suppressive activity. Analyses of the specificity of TILs in melanoma demonstrate that quite few known antigens are in fact recognized by these cultures underscoring patient unique and/or mutated antigens may represent important target for recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sine Hadrup
- Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT), Department of Hematology, Herlev University Hospital, 2730, Herlev, Denmark
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110
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Sapoznik S, Ortenberg R, Galore-Haskel G, Kozlovski S, Levy D, Avivi C, Barshack I, Cohen CJ, Besser MJ, Schachter J, Markel G. CXCR1 as a novel target for directing reactive T cells toward melanoma: implications for adoptive cell transfer immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2012; 61:1833-47. [PMID: 22441657 PMCID: PMC11028868 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-012-1245-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive cell transfer therapy with reactive T cells is one of the most promising immunotherapeutic modalities for metastatic melanoma patients. Homing of the transferred T cells to all tumor sites in sufficient numbers is of great importance. Here, we seek to exploit endogenous chemotactic signals in order to manipulate and enhance the directional trafficking of transferred T cells toward melanoma. Chemokine profiling of 15 melanoma cultures shows that CXCL1 and CXCL8 are abundantly expressed and secreted from melanoma cultures. However, the complimentary analysis on 40 melanoma patient-derived tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) proves that the corresponding chemokine receptors are either not expressed (CXCR2) or expressed at low levels (CXCR1). Using the in vitro transwell system, we demonstrate that TIL cells preferentially migrate toward melanoma and that endogenously expressing CXCR1 TIL cells are significantly enriched among the migrating lymphocytes. The role of the chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL8 is demonstrated by partial abrogation of this enrichment with anti-CXCL1 and anti-CXCL8 neutralizing antibodies. The role of the chemokine receptor CXCR1 is validated by the enhanced migration of CXCR1-engineered TIL cells toward melanoma or recombinant CXCL8. Cytotoxicity and IFNγ secretion activity are unaltered by CXCR1 expression profile. Taken together, these results mark CXCR1 as a candidate for genetic manipulations to enhance trafficking of adoptively transferred T cells. This approach is complimentary and potentially synergistic with other genetic strategies designed to enhance anti-tumor potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivan Sapoznik
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Rona Ortenberg
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
- Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Gilli Galore-Haskel
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
- Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Stav Kozlovski
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
- Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Daphna Levy
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Camila Avivi
- Institute of Pathology, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Iris Barshack
- Institute of Pathology, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
- Pathology Department, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Cyrille J. Cohen
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Michal J. Besser
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
- Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Jacob Schachter
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Gal Markel
- The Ella Institute for Melanoma Research and Treatment, Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, 52621 Ramat Gan, Tel Hashomer, Israel
- Talpiot Medical Leadership Program, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
- Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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111
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Adoptive T-cell therapy using autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes for metastatic melanoma: current status and future outlook. Cancer J 2012; 18:160-75. [PMID: 22453018 DOI: 10.1097/ppo.0b013e31824d4465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy using autologous T cells has emerged to be a powerful treatment option for patients with metastatic melanoma. These include the adoptive transfer of autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), T cells transduced with high-affinity T cell receptors against major tumor antigens, and T cells transduced with chimeric antigen receptors composed of hybrid immunoglobulin light chains with endodomains of T-cell signaling molecules. Among these and other options for T-cell therapy, TILs together with high-dose interleukin 2 have had the longest clinical history with multiple clinical trials in centers across the world consistently demonstrating durable clinical response rates near 50% or more. A distinct advantage of TIL therapy making it still the T-cell therapy of choice is the broad nature of the T-cell recognition against both defined and undefined tumors antigens against all possible major histocompatibility complex, rather than the single specificity and limited major histocompatibility complex coverage of the newer T cell receptors and chimeric antigen receptor transduction technologies. In the past decade, significant inroads have been made in defining the phenotypes of T cells in TIL-mediating tumor regression. CD8+ T cells are emerging to be critical, although the exact subset of CD8+ T cells exhibiting the highest clinical activity in terms of memory and effector markers is still controversial. We present a model in which both effector-memory and more differentiated effector T cells ultimately may need to cooperate to mediate long-term tumor control in responding patients. Although TIL therapy has shown great potential to treat metastatic melanoma, a number of issues have emerged that need to be addressed to bring it more into the mainstream of melanoma care. First, we have a reached the point where a pivotal phase II or phase III trial is needed in an attempt to gain regulatory approval of TILs as standard of care. Second, improvements in how we expand TILs for therapy are needed that minimize the time the T cells are in culture and improve the memory and effector characteristics of the T cells for longer persistence and enhanced anti-tumor activity in vivo. Third, there is a critical need to identify surrogate and predictive biomarkers to better select suitable patients for TIL therapy to improve response rate and duration. Overall, the outlook for TIL therapy for melanoma is very bright. We predict that TILs will indeed emerge to become an approved treatment in the upcoming years through pivotal clinical trials. Moreover, new approaches combining TILs with targeted signaling pathway drugs, such as mutant B-RAF inhibitors, and synergistic immunomodulatory interventions enhancing T-cell costimulation and preventing negative regulation should further increase therapeutic efficacy and durable complete response rates.
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112
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Simplified method of the growth of human tumor infiltrating lymphocytes in gas-permeable flasks to numbers needed for patient treatment. J Immunother 2012; 35:283-92. [PMID: 22421946 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e31824e801f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive cell therapy of metastatic melanoma with autologous tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) is clinically effective, but TIL production can be challenging. Here we describe a simplified method for initial TIL culture and rapid expansion in gas-permeable flasks. TIL were initially cultured from tumor digests and fragments in 40 mL capacity flasks with a 10 cm² gas-permeable silicone bottom, G-Rex10. A TIL rapid expansion protocol (REP) was developed using 500 mL capacity flasks with a 100 cm² gas-permeable silicone bottom, G-Rex100. TIL growth was successfully initiated in G-Rex10 flasks from tumor digests from 13 of 14 patients and from tumor fragments in all 11 tumor samples tested. TIL could then be expanded to 8-10×10⁹ cells in a 2-step REP that began by seeding 5×10⁶ TIL into a G-Rex100 flask, followed by expansion at day 7 into 3 G-Rex100 flasks. To obtain the 30-60×10⁹ cells used for patient treatment, we seeded 6 G-Rex100 flasks with 5×10⁶ cells and expanded into 18 G-Rex100 flasks. Large-scale TIL REP in gas-permeable flasks requires approximately 9-10 L of media, about 3-4 times less than other methods. In conclusion, TIL initiation and REP in gas-permeable G-Rex flasks require fewer total vessels, less media, less incubator space, and less labor than initiation and REP in 24-well plates, tissue culture flasks, and bags. TIL culture in G-Rex flasks will facilitate the production of TIL at the numbers required for patient treatment at most cell processing laboratories.
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113
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Zhang M, Maiti S, Bernatchez C, Huls H, Rabinovich B, Champlin RE, Vence LM, Hwu P, Radvanyi L, Cooper LJN. A new approach to simultaneously quantify both TCR α- and β-chain diversity after adoptive immunotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18:4733-42. [PMID: 22761473 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-3234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE T-cell receptor (TCR) variable Vα and Vβ gene diversity is a surrogate biomarker for the therapeutic potential of adoptive immunotherapy and cellular immunity. Therefore, creating a straightforward, rapid, sensitive, and reliable method to view the global changes of both TCRVα and Vβ transcripts in heterogeneous populations of T cells is appealing. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We designed a "direct TCR expression assay" (DTEA) using a panel of customized bar-coded probes that simultaneously detects and quantifies 45 Vα and 46 Vβ transcripts in a nonenzymatic digital multiplexed assay from a small number of cells (10(4) cells) or as little as 100 ng of total RNA. RESULTS We evaluated DTEA on total RNA samples of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and peripheral blood obtained from patients with melanoma after adoptive T-cell therapy. DTEA detected a similar spectrum of the dominant patterns of TCRVβ gene usage as sequencing cloned TCRVβ CDR3 regions. However, DTEA was rapid, achieved a level of sensitivity to identify rare T-cell populations, and simultaneously tracked the full array of Vα and Vβ transcripts. CONCLUSIONS DTEA can rapidly and sensitively track changes in TCRVα and Vβ gene usages in T-cell pools following immune interventions, such as adoptive T-cell transfer, and may also be used to assess impact of vaccination or reconstitution of T-cell compartment after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minying Zhang
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, Unit 904, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Andersen RS, Thrue CA, Junker N, Lyngaa R, Donia M, Ellebæk E, Svane IM, Schumacher TN, Thor Straten P, Hadrup SR. Dissection of T-cell antigen specificity in human melanoma. Cancer Res 2012; 72:1642-50. [PMID: 22311675 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-11-2614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) isolated from melanoma patients and expanded in vitro by interleukin (IL)-2 treatment can elicit therapeutic response after adoptive transfer, but the antigen specificities of the T cells transferred have not been determined. By compiling all known melanoma-associated antigens and applying a novel technology for high-throughput analysis of T-cell responses, we dissected the composition of melanoma-restricted T-cell responses in 63 TIL cultures. T-cell reactivity screens against 175 melanoma-associated epitopes detected 90 responses against 18 different epitopes predominantly from differentiation and cancer-testis antigens. Notably, the majority of these responses were of low frequency and tumor-specific T-cell frequencies decreased during rapid expansion. A further notable observation was a large variation in the T-cell specificities detected in cultures established from different fragments of resected melanoma lesions. In summary, our findings provide an initial definition of T-cell populations contributing to tumor recognition in TILs although the specificity of many tumor-reactive TILs remains undefined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rikke Sick Andersen
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy and Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Herlev, Denmark
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115
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Butler MO, Imataki O, Yamashita Y, Tanaka M, Ansén S, Berezovskaya A, Metzler G, Milstein MI, Mooney MM, Murray AP, Mano H, Nadler LM, Hirano N. Ex vivo expansion of human CD8+ T cells using autologous CD4+ T cell help. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30229. [PMID: 22279573 PMCID: PMC3257268 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Using in vivo mouse models, the mechanisms of CD4+ T cell help have been intensively investigated. However, a mechanistic analysis of human CD4+ T cell help is largely lacking. Our goal was to elucidate the mechanisms of human CD4+ T cell help of CD8+ T cell proliferation using a novel in vitro model. Methods/Principal Findings We developed a genetically engineered novel human cell-based artificial APC, aAPC/mOKT3, which expresses a membranous form of the anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody OKT3 as well as other immune accessory molecules. Without requiring the addition of allogeneic feeder cells, aAPC/mOKT3 enabled the expansion of both peripheral and tumor-infiltrating T cells, regardless of HLA-restriction. Stimulation with aAPC/mOKT3 did not expand Foxp3+ regulatory T cells, and expanded tumor infiltrating lymphocytes predominantly secreted Th1-type cytokines, interferon-γ and IL-2. In this aAPC-based system, the presence of autologous CD4+ T cells was associated with significantly improved CD8+ T cell expansion in vitro. The CD4+ T cell derived cytokines IL-2 and IL-21 were necessary but not sufficient for this effect. However, CD4+ T cell help of CD8+ T cell proliferation was partially recapitulated by both adding IL-2/IL-21 and by upregulation of IL-21 receptor on CD8+ T cells. Conclusions We have developed an in vitro model that advances our understanding of the immunobiology of human CD4+ T cell help of CD8+ T cells. Our data suggests that human CD4+ T cell help can be leveraged to expand CD8+ T cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus O. Butler
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Osamu Imataki
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Makito Tanaka
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sascha Ansén
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alla Berezovskaya
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Genita Metzler
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Matthew I. Milstein
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mary M. Mooney
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrew P. Murray
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Hiroyuki Mano
- Division of Functional Genomics, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
- Department of Medical Genomics, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Lee M. Nadler
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Naoto Hirano
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Immune Therapy Program, Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, Campbell Family Cancer Research, Ontario Cancer Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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116
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Zhou J, Nagarkatti P, Zhong Y, Nagarkatti M. Characterization of T-cell memory phenotype after in vitro expansion of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from melanoma patients. Anticancer Res 2011; 31:4099-4109. [PMID: 22199267 PMCID: PMC4796947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Memory T-cell populations in human antitumor tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) for adoptive cell transfer have not been fully characterized. Our studies demonstrated that CD62L, CD27 and CD28 positive effector memory T-cells were present in the TIL samples from the tumor tissues of melanoma patients and T-cell expansion led to the significant loss of memory T-cells. CD27- and CD28-positive T-cells had high levels of CD44 expression. T-Cell expansion resulted in significant down-regulation of CD44 expression. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) and anti-CD3 antibody stimulation may be responsible for CD44 down-regulation on CD8(+) T-cells during expansion. Furthermore, CD44 down-regulation using small interfering RNA (siRNA) on TILs dramatically reduced interferon-gamma and IL-2 release upon tumor stimulation. These results suggest that the regulation of CD44 expression in TILs may play an important role in memory T-cell maintenance and antitumor immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhua Zhou
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC 29209, USA.
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117
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Butler MO, Friedlander P, Milstein MI, Mooney MM, Metzler G, Murray AP, Tanaka M, Berezovskaya A, Imataki O, Drury L, Brennan L, Flavin M, Neuberg D, Stevenson K, Lawrence D, Hodi FS, Velazquez EF, Jaklitsch MT, Russell SE, Mihm M, Nadler LM, Hirano N. Establishment of antitumor memory in humans using in vitro-educated CD8+ T cells. Sci Transl Med 2011; 3:80ra34. [PMID: 21525398 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3002207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Although advanced-stage melanoma patients have a median survival of less than a year, adoptive T cell therapy can induce durable clinical responses in some patients. Successful adoptive T cell therapy to treat cancer requires engraftment of antitumor T lymphocytes that not only retain specificity and function in vivo but also display an intrinsic capacity to survive. To date, adoptively transferred antitumor CD8(+) T lymphocytes (CTLs) have had limited life spans unless the host has been manipulated. To generate CTLs that have an intrinsic capacity to persist in vivo, we developed a human artificial antigen-presenting cell system that can educate antitumor CTLs to acquire both a central memory and an effector memory phenotype as well as the capacity to survive in culture for prolonged periods of time. We examined whether antitumor CTLs generated using this system could function and persist in patients. We showed that MART1-specific CTLs, educated and expanded using our artificial antigen-presenting cell system, could survive for prolonged periods in advanced-stage melanoma patients without previous conditioning or cytokine treatment. Moreover, these CTLs trafficked to the tumor, mediated biological and clinical responses, and established antitumor immunologic memory. Therefore, this approach may broaden the availability of adoptive cell therapy to patients both alone and in combination with other therapeutic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus O Butler
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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118
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Kalos M. Biomarkers in T cell therapy clinical trials. J Transl Med 2011; 9:138. [PMID: 21851646 PMCID: PMC3170602 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-9-138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell therapy represents an emerging and promising modality for the treatment of both infectious disease and cancer. Data from recent clinical trials have highlighted the potential for this therapeutic modality to effect potent anti-tumor activity. Biomarkers, operationally defined as biological parameters measured from patients that provide information about treatment impact, play a central role in the development of novel therapeutic agents. In the absence of information about primary clinical endpoints, biomarkers can provide critical insights that allow investigators to guide the clinical development of the candidate product. In the context of cell therapy trials, the definition of biomarkers can be extended to include a description of parameters of the cell product that are important for product bioactivity. This review will focus on biomarker studies as they relate to T cell therapy trials, and more specifically: i. An overview and description of categories and classes of biomarkers that are specifically relevant to T cell therapy trials, and ii. Insights into future directions and challenges for the appropriate development of biomarkers to evaluate both product bioactivity and treatment efficacy of T cell therapy trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Kalos
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicines, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, 422 Curie Boulevard, Stellar-Chance Laboratories, Philadelphia, PA 19104-4283, USA.
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119
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Abrahamsen IW, Kjellevoll S, Greve-Isdahl M, Mensali N, Wälchli S, Kumari S, Loland BF, Egeland T, Kolstad A, Olweus J. T cells raised against allogeneic HLA-A2/CD20 kill primary follicular lymphoma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Int J Cancer 2011; 130:1821-32. [PMID: 21630262 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.26209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
T cells mediating a graft-versus-leukemia/lymphoma effects without causing graft-versus-host disease would greatly improve the safety and applicability of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. We recently demonstrated that highly peptide- and HLA-specific T cells can readily be generated against allogeneic HLA-A*02:01 in complex with a peptide from the B cell-restricted protein CD20. Here, we show that such CD20-specific T cells can easily be induced from naïve precursors in cord blood, demonstrating that they do not represent cross-reactive memory cells. The cells displayed high avidity and mediated potent cytotoxic effects on cells from patients with the CD20(pos) B cell malignancies follicular lymphoma (FL) and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). However, the cytotoxicity was consistently lower for cells from two of the ALL patients. The ALL cells that were less efficiently killed did not display lower surface expression of CD20 or HLA-A*02:01, or mutations in the CD20 sequence. Peptide pulsing fully restored the levels of cytotoxicity, indicating that they are indeed susceptible to T cell-mediated killing. Adoptive transfer of CD20-specific T cells to an HLA-A*02:01(pos) patient requires an HLA-A*02:01(neg) , but otherwise HLA identical, donor. A search clarified that donors meeting these criteria can be readily identified even for patients with rare haplotypes. The results bear further promise for the clinical utility of CD20-specific T cells in B cell malignancies.
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120
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Joseph RW, Peddareddigari VR, Liu P, Miller PW, Overwijk WW, Bekele NB, Ross MI, Lee JE, Gershenwald JE, Lucci A, Prieto VG, McMannis JD, Papadopoulos N, Kim K, Homsi J, Bedikian A, Hwu WJ, Hwu P, Radvanyi LG. Impact of clinical and pathologic features on tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte expansion from surgically excised melanoma metastases for adoptive T-cell therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:4882-91. [PMID: 21632855 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-10-2769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Clinical trials on adoptive T-cell therapy (ACT) using expanded tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) have shown response rates of over 50% in refractory melanoma. However, little is known how clinical and pathologic features impact TIL outgrowth isolated from metastatic melanoma tumors. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We analyzed the impact of clinical and pathologic features on initial TIL outgrowth in 226 consecutive patients undergoing tumor resection. Successful initial TIL outgrowth was defined as ≥40 million viable lymphocytes harvested from all tumor fragments in a 5-week culture. To normalize for the different size of resected tumors and thus available tumor fragments, we divided the number of expanded TIL by the starting number of tumor fragments (TIL/fragment). RESULTS Overall, initial TIL outgrowth was successful in 62% of patients, with patients ≤30 years of age (94%; P = 0.01) and female patients (71% vs. 57% for males; P = 0.04) having the highest rate of success. Systemic therapy 30 days before tumor harvest negatively impacted initial TIL outgrowth compared to patients who never received systemic therapy (47% vs. 71%, P = 0.02). Biochemotherapy within 0 to 60 days of tumor harvest negatively impacted the initial TIL outgrowth with a success rate of only 16% (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION Parameters such as age, sex, and the type and timing of prior systemic therapy significantly affect the success rate of the initial TIL outgrowth from tumor fragments for ACT; these parameters may be helpful in selecting patients for melanoma ACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W Joseph
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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121
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Kitchen SG, Shimizu S, An DS. Stem cell-based anti-HIV gene therapy. Virology 2011; 411:260-72. [PMID: 21247612 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human stem cell-based therapeutic intervention strategies for treating HIV infection have recently undergone a renaissance as a major focus of investigation. Unlike most conventional antiviral therapies, genetically engineered hematopoietic stem cells possess the capacity for prolonged self-renewal that would continuously produce protected immune cells to fight against HIV. A successful strategy therefore has the potential to stably control and ultimately eradicate HIV from patients by a single or minimal treatment. Recent progress in the development of new technologies and clinical trials sets the stage for the current generation of gene therapy approaches to combat HIV infection. In this review, we will discuss two major approaches that are currently underway in the development of stem cell-based gene therapy to target HIV: one that focuses on the protection of cells from productive infection with HIV, and the other that focuses on targeting immune cells to directly combat HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott G Kitchen
- The David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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122
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Pegram HJ, Haynes NM, Smyth MJ, Kershaw MH, Darcy PK. Characterizing the anti-tumor function of adoptively transferred NK cells in vivo. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2010; 59:1235-46. [PMID: 20376439 PMCID: PMC11030891 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-010-0848-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Accepted: 03/10/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells represent a promising cell type to utilize for effective adoptive immunotherapy. However, little is known about the important cytolytic molecules and signaling pathways used by NK cells in the adoptive transfer setting. To address this issue, we developed a novel mouse model to investigate the trafficking and mechanism of action of these cells. We demonstrate that methylcholanthrene-induced RKIK sarcoma cells were susceptible to NK cell-mediated lysis in vitro and in vivo following adoptive transfer of NK cells in C57BL/6 RAG-2(-/-)gammac(-/-) mice. Cytotoxic molecules perforin, granzymes B and M as well as the death ligand TRAIL and pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-gamma were found to be important in the anti-tumor effect mediated by adoptively transferred NK cells. Importantly, we demonstrate that adoptively transferred NK cells could traffic to the tumor site and persisted in vivo which correlated with the anti-tumor effect observed. Overall, the results of this study have important implications for enhancing NK cell-based immunotherapies.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive
- Interleukin-2/immunology
- Interleukin-2/metabolism
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Killer Cells, Natural/pathology
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Methylcholanthrene
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Sarcoma, Experimental/immunology
- Sarcoma, Experimental/pathology
- Sarcoma, Experimental/therapy
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Affiliation(s)
- Hollie J. Pegram
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
| | - Nicole M. Haynes
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
| | - Mark J. Smyth
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michael H. Kershaw
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Phillip K. Darcy
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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123
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Bluemel C, Hausmann S, Fluhr P, Sriskandarajah M, Stallcup WB, Baeuerle PA, Kufer P. Epitope distance to the target cell membrane and antigen size determine the potency of T cell-mediated lysis by BiTE antibodies specific for a large melanoma surface antigen. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2010; 59:1197-209. [PMID: 20309546 PMCID: PMC11030089 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-010-0844-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (MCSP; also called CSPG4, NG2, HMW-MAA, MSK16, MCSPG, MEL-CSPG, or gp240) is a surface antigen frequently expressed on human melanoma cells, which is involved in cell adhesion, invasion and spreading, angiogenesis, complement inhibition, and signaling. MCSP has therefore been frequently selected as target antigen for development of antibody- and vaccine-based therapeutic approaches. We have here used a large panel of monoclonal antibodies against human MCSP for generation of single-chain MCSP/CD3-bispecific antibodies of the BiTE (for bispecific T cell engager) class. Despite similar binding affinity to MCSP, respective BiTE antibodies greatly differed in their potency of redirected lysis of CHO cells stably transfected with full-length human MCSP, or with various MCSP deletion mutants and fusion proteins. BiTE antibodies binding to the membrane proximal domain D3 of MCSP were more potent than those binding to more distal domains. This epitope distance effect was corroborated with EpCAM/CD3-bispecific BiTE antibody MT110 by testing various fusion proteins between MCSP and EpCAM as surface antigens. CHO cells expressing small surface target antigens were generally better lysed than those expressing larger target antigens, indicating that antigen size was also an important determinant for the potency of BiTE antibody. The present study for the first time relates the positioning of binding domains and size of surface antigens to the potency of target cell lysis by BiTE-redirected cytotoxic T cells. In case of the MCSP antigen, this provides the basis for selection of a maximally potent BiTE antibody candidate for development of a novel melanoma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Petra Fluhr
- Micromet AG, Staffelseestr. 2, 81477 Munich, Germany
| | | | - William B. Stallcup
- Sanford-Burnham Institute for Medical Research, Cancer Research Center, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Patrick A. Baeuerle
- Micromet AG, Staffelseestr. 2, 81477 Munich, Germany
- Micromet, Inc., 6707 Democracy Blvd., Bethesda, MD 20217 USA
| | - Peter Kufer
- Micromet AG, Staffelseestr. 2, 81477 Munich, Germany
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124
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Dudley ME, Gross CA, Langhan MM, Garcia MR, Sherry RM, Yang JC, Phan GQ, Kammula US, Hughes MS, Citrin DE, Restifo NP, Wunderlich JR, Prieto PA, Hong JJ, Langan RC, Zlott DA, Morton KE, White DE, Laurencot CM, Rosenberg SA. CD8+ enriched "young" tumor infiltrating lymphocytes can mediate regression of metastatic melanoma. Clin Cancer Res 2010; 16:6122-31. [PMID: 20668005 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-10-1297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) and interleukin (IL)-2 administered following lymphodepletion can cause the durable complete regression of bulky metastatic melanoma in patients refractory to approved treatments. However, the generation of a unique tumor-reactive TIL culture for each patient may be prohibitively difficult. We therefore investigated the clinical and immunologic impact of unscreened, CD8+ enriched "young" TIL. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Methods were developed for generating TIL that minimized the time in culture and eliminated the individualized tumor-reactivity screening step. Thirty-three patients were treated with these CD8+ enriched young TIL and IL-2 following nonmyeloablative lymphodepletion (NMA). Twenty-three additional patients were treated with CD8+ enriched young TIL and IL-2 after lymphodepletion with NMA and 6 Gy of total body irradiation. RESULTS Young TIL cultures for therapy were successfully established from 83% of 122 consecutive melanoma patients. Nineteen of 33 patients (58%) treated with CD8+ enriched young TIL and NMA had an objective response (Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors) including 3 complete responders. Eleven of 23 patients (48%) treated with TIL and 6 Gy total body irradiation had an objective response including 2 complete responders. At 1 month after TIL infusion the absolute CD8+ cell numbers in the periphery were highly correlated with response. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that a rapid and simplified method can be used to reliably generate CD8+ enriched young TIL for administration as an individualized therapy for advanced melanoma, and may allow this potentially effective treatment to be applied at other institutions and to reach additional patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E Dudley
- Surgery Branch and Radiation Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1201, USA.
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125
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Program death-1 signaling and regulatory T cells collaborate to resist the function of adoptively transferred cytotoxic T lymphocytes in advanced acute myeloid leukemia. Blood 2010; 116:2484-93. [PMID: 20570856 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2010-03-275446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-induced immune defects can weaken host immune response and permit tumor cell growth. In a systemic model of murine acute myeloid leukemia (AML), tumor progression resulted in increased regulatory T cells (Treg) and elevation of program death-1 (PD-1) expression on CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) at the tumor site. PD-1 knockout mice were more resistant to AML despite the presence of similar percentage of Tregs compared with wild type. In vitro, intact Treg suppression of CD8(+) T-cell responses was dependent on PD-1 expression by T cells and Tregs and PD-L1 expression by antigen-presenting cells. In vivo, the function of adoptively transferred AML-reactive CTLs was reduced by AML-associated Tregs. Anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibody treatment increased the proliferation and function of CTLs at tumor sites, reduced AML tumor burden, and resulted in long-term survivors. Treg depletion followed by PD-1/PD-L1 blockade showed superior efficacy for eradication of established AML. These data demonstrated that interaction between PD-1 and PD-L1 can facilitate Treg-induced suppression of T-effector cells and dampen the antitumor immune response. PD-1/PD-L1 blockade coupled with Treg depletion represents an important new approach that can be readily translated into the clinic to improve the therapeutic efficacy of adoptive AML-reactive CTLs in advanced AML disease.
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126
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Powell DJ, Brennan AL, Zheng Z, Huynh H, Cotte J, Levine BL. Efficient clinical-scale enrichment of lymphocytes for use in adoptive immunotherapy using a modified counterflow centrifugal elutriation program. Cytotherapy 2010; 11:923-35. [PMID: 19903104 DOI: 10.3109/14653240903188921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AIMS Clinical-scale lymphocyte enrichment from a leukapheresis product has been performed most routinely using costly magnetic bead separation systems that deplete monocytes, but this procedure may leave behind residual beads or antibodies in the enriched cell product. Counterflow centrifugal elutriation has been demonstrated previously to enrich monocytes efficiently for generation of dendritic cells. This study describes a modified elutriation procedure for efficient bead-free economical enrichment of lymphocytes from leukapheresis products from healthy donors and study subjects with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection or malignancy. METHODS Modified program settings and conditions for the CaridianBCT Elutra device were investigated to optimize lymphocyte enrichment and recovery. Lymphocyte enrichment was measured using a novel approach utilizing cell sizing analysis on a Beckman Coulter Multisizer and confirmed by flow cytometry phenotypic analysis. RESULTS Efficient enrichment and recovery of lymphocytes from leukapheresis cell products was achieved using modified elutriation settings for flow rate and fraction volume. Elutriation allowed for enrichment of larger numbers of lymphocytes compared with depletion of monocytes by bead adherence, with a trend toward increased lymphocyte purity and yield via elutriation, resulting in a substantial reduction in the cost of enrichment per cell. Importantly, significant lymphocyte enrichment could be accomplished using leukapheresis samples from healthy donors (n=12) or from study subjects with HIV infection (n=15) or malignancy (n=12). CONCLUSIONS Clinical-scale closed-system elutriation can be performed efficiently for the selective enrichment of lymphocytes for immunotherapy protocols. This represents an improvement in cost, yield and purity over current methods that require the addition of monocyte-depleting beads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Powell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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127
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Norell H, Zhang Y, McCracken J, Martins da Palma T, Lesher A, Liu Y, Roszkowski JJ, Temple A, Callender GG, Clay T, Orentas R, Guevara-Patiño J, Nishimura MI. CD34-based enrichment of genetically engineered human T cells for clinical use results in dramatically enhanced tumor targeting. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2010; 59:851-62. [PMID: 20052466 PMCID: PMC3736983 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-009-0810-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 12/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Objective clinical responses can be achieved in melanoma patients by infusion of T cell receptor (TCR) gene transduced T cells. Although promising, the therapy is still largely ineffective, as most patients did not benefit from treatment. That only a minority of the infused T cells were genetically modified and that these were extensively expanded ex vivo may have prevented their efficacy. We developed novel and generally applicable retroviral vectors that allow rapid and efficient selection of T cells transduced with human TCRs. These vectors encode two TCR chains and a truncated CD34 molecule (CD34t) in a single mRNA transcript. Transduced T cells were characterized and the effects of CD34-based enrichment of redirected T cells were evaluated. Both CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells could be transduced and efficiently co-expressed all introduced transgenes on their surface. Importantly, more than fivefold enrichment of both the frequency of transduced cells and the specific anti-tumor reactivity of the effector population could be achieved by magnetic beads-based enrichment procedures readily available for clinical grade hematopoietic stem cell isolation. This CD34-based enrichment technology will improve the feasibility of adoptive transfer of clinically relevant effectors. In addition to their enhanced tumor recognition, the enriched redirected T cells may also show superior reactivity and persistence in vivo due to the high purity of transduced cells and the shortened ex vivo culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håkan Norell
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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128
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Koos D, Josephs SF, Alexandrescu DT, Chan RCF, Ramos F, Bogin V, Gammill V, Dasanu CA, De Necochea-Campion R, Riordan NH, Carrier E. Tumor vaccines in 2010: need for integration. Cell Immunol 2010; 263:138-47. [PMID: 20434139 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2010.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Induction of tumor-specific immunity is an attractive approach to cancer therapy, however to date every major pivotal trial has resulted in failure. While the phenomena of tumor-mediated immune suppression has been known for decades, only recently have specific molecular pathways been elucidated, and for the first time, rationale means of intervening and observing results of intervention have been developed. In this review we describe major advances in our understanding of tumor escape from immunological pressure and provide some possible therapeutic scenarios for enhancement of efficacy in future cancer vaccine trials.
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129
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Poehlein CH, Haley DP, Walker EB, Fox BA. Depletion of tumor-induced Treg prior to reconstitution rescues enhanced priming of tumor-specific, therapeutic effector T cells in lymphopenic hosts. Eur J Immunol 2010; 39:3121-33. [PMID: 19839008 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200939453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
We reported previously that vaccination of reconstituted, lymphopenic mice resulted in a higher frequency of tumor-specific effector T cells with therapeutic activity than vaccination of normal mice. Here, we show that lymphopenic mice reconstituted with spleen cells from tumor-bearing mice (TBM), a situation that resembles the clinical condition, failed to generate tumor-specific T cells with therapeutic efficacy. However, depletion of CD25(+) Treg from the spleen cells of TBM restored tumor-specific priming and therapeutic efficacy. Adding back TBM CD25(+) Treg to CD25(-) naïve and TBM donor T cells prior to reconstitution confirmed their suppressive role. CD25(+) Treg from TBM prevented priming of tumor-specific T cells since subsequent depletion of CD4(+) T cells did not restore therapeutic efficacy. This effect may not be antigen-specific as three histologically distinct tumors generated CD25(+) Treg that could suppress the T-cell immune response to a melanoma vaccine. Importantly, since ex vivo depletion of CD25(+) Treg from TBM spleen cells prior to reconstitution and vaccination fully restored the generation of therapeutic effector T cells, even in animals with established tumor burden, we have initiated a translational clinical trial of this strategy in patients with metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian H Poehlein
- Laboratory of Molecular and Tumor Immunology, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Robert W. Franz Cancer Center, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, OR 97213, USA
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130
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Rosenblatt J, Wu Z, Vasir B, Zarwan C, Stone R, Mills H, Friedman T, Konstantinopoulos PA, Spentzos D, Ghebremichael M, Stevenson K, Neuberg D, Levine JD, Joyce R, Tzachanis D, Boussiotis V, Kufe D, Avigan D. Generation of tumor-specific T lymphocytes using dendritic cell/tumor fusions and anti-CD3/CD28. J Immunother 2010; 33:155-66. [PMID: 20145548 PMCID: PMC2938173 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e3181bed253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive immunotherapy with tumor-specific T cells represents a promising treatment strategy for patients with malignancy. However, the efficacy of T-cell therapy has been limited by the ability to expand tumor-reactive cells with an activated phenotype that effectively target malignant cells. We have developed an anticancer vaccine in which patient-derived tumor cells are fused with autologous dendritic cells (DCs), such that a wide array of tumor antigens are presented in the context of DC-mediated costimulation. In this study, we demonstrate that DC/tumor fusions induce T cells that react with tumor and are dramatically expanded by subsequent ligation of the CD3/CD28 costimulatory complex. These T cells exhibit a predominantly activated phenotype as manifested by an increase in the percentage of cells expressing CD69 and interferon gamma. In addition, the T cells upregulate granzyme B expression and are highly effective in lysing autologous tumor targets. Targeting of tumor-specific antigen was demonstrated by the expansion of T cells with specificity for the MUC1 tetramer. Stimulation with anti-CD3/CD28 followed by DC/tumor fusions or either agent alone failed to result in a similar expansion of tumor-reactive T cells. Consistent with these findings, spectratyping analysis demonstrates selective expansion of T-cell clones as manifested by considerable skewing of the Vbeta repertoire following sequential stimulation with DC/tumor fusions and anti-CD3/CD28. Gene expression analysis was notable for the upregulation of inflammatory pathways. These findings indicate that stimulation with DC/tumor fusions provides a unique platform for subsequent expansion with anti-CD3/CD28 in adoptive T-cell therapy of cancer.
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131
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Steenblock ER, Wrzesinski SH, Flavell RA, Fahmy TM. Antigen presentation on artificial acellular substrates: modular systems for flexible, adaptable immunotherapy. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2010; 9:451-64. [PMID: 19344282 DOI: 10.1517/14712590902849216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent findings on T cells and dendritic cells have elucidated principles that can be used for a bottom-up approach to engineering artificial antigen presentation on synthetic substrates. OBJECTIVE/METHODS To compare the latest artificial antigen-presenting cell (aAPC) technology, focussing on acellular systems because they offer advantages such as easy tunability and rapid point-of-care application compared with cellular systems. We review acellular aAPC performance and discuss their promise for clinical applications. RESULTS/CONCLUSION Acellular aAPCs are a powerful alternative to natural-cell-based therapies, offering flexibility and modularity for incorporation oSf a variety of stimuli, hence increasing precision. Current technologies should adapt physiologically important signals within safe materials to more closely approximate their cellular counterparts. These constructs could be administered parenterally as APC replacements for active vaccines or used ex vivo for adoptive immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin R Steenblock
- Yale University, Malone Engineering Center, 55 Prospect Street, Room 402C, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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132
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Berry LJ, Moeller M, Darcy PK. Adoptive immunotherapy for cancer: the next generation of gene-engineered immune cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 74:277-89. [PMID: 19775368 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2009.01336.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive cellular immunotherapy involving transfer of tumor-reactive T cells has shown some notable antitumor responses in a minority of cancer patients. In particular, transfer of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes has resulted in long-term objective responses in patients with advanced melanoma. However, the inability to isolate sufficient numbers of tumor-specific T cells from most malignancies has restricted the broad utility of this approach. An emerging approach to circumvent this limitation involves the genetic modification of effector cells with T cell receptor (TCR) transgenes or chimeric single-chain variable fragment (scFv) receptors that can specifically redirect T cells to tumor. There has been much progress in the design of TCR and scFv receptors to enhance the antigen-specific activation of effector cells and their trafficking and persistence in vivo. Considerable effort has been directed toward improving the safety of this approach and reducing the immunogenicity of the receptor. This review discusses the latest developments in the field of adoptive immunotherapy using genetically modified immune cells that have been transduced with either TCR or scFv receptor transgenes and used in preclinical and clinical settings as anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Berry
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victoria, Australia
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133
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Mitchell DA, Sampson JH. Toward effective immunotherapy for the treatment of malignant brain tumors. Neurotherapeutics 2009; 6:527-38. [PMID: 19560742 PMCID: PMC2763142 DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2009] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 04/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunologic treatment of cancer has long been heralded as a targeted molecular therapeutic with the promise of eradicating tumor cells with minimal damage to surrounding normal tissues. However, a demonstrative example of the efficacy of immunotherapy in modulating cancer progression is still lacking for most human cancers. Recent breakthroughs in our understanding of the mechanisms leading to full T-cell activation, and recognition of the importance of overcoming tumor-induced immunosuppressive mechanisms, have shed new light on how to generate effective anti-tumor immune responses in humans, and sparked a renewed and enthusiastic effort to realize the full potential of cancer immunotherapy. The immunologic treatment of invasive malignant brain tumors has not escaped this re-invigorated endeavor, and promising therapies are currently under active investigation in dozens of clinical trials at several institutions worldwide. This review will focus on some of the most important breakthroughs in our understanding of how to generate potent anti-tumor immune responses, and some of the clear challenges that lie ahead in achieving effective immunotherapy for the majority of patients with malignant brain tumors. A review of immunotherapeutic strategies currently under clinical evaluation, as well as an outline of promising novel approaches on the horizon, is included to provide perspective on the active and stalwart progress toward effective immunotherapy for the treatment of malignant brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duane A Mitchell
- Duke Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
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134
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Rosenberg SA, Dudley ME. Adoptive cell therapy for the treatment of patients with metastatic melanoma. Curr Opin Immunol 2009; 21:233-40. [PMID: 19304471 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2009.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 449] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) is the best available treatment for patients with metastatic melanoma. In a recent series of three consecutive clinical trials using increasing lymphodepletion before infusion of autologous tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), objective response rates between 49% and 72% were seen. Persistence of infused cells in the circulation at one month was highly correlated with anti-tumor response as was the mean telomere length of the cells infused and the number of CD8+ CD27+ cells infused. Responses occur at all sites and appear to be durable with many patients in ongoing response beyond three years. In the most recent trial of 25 patients receiving maximum lymphodepletion, seven of the 25 patients (28%) achieved a complete response. Of the 12 patients in the three trials who achieved a complete response all but one are ongoing between 18 and 75 months. We recently demonstrated that ACT using autologous lymphocytes genetically modified to express anti-tumor T cell receptors can mediate tumor regression and this approach is now being applied to patients with common epithelial cancers.
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135
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Tatum AM, Mylin LM, Bender SJ, Fischer MA, Vigliotti BA, Tevethia MJ, Tevethia SS, Schell TD. CD8+ T cells targeting a single immunodominant epitope are sufficient for elimination of established SV40 T antigen-induced brain tumors. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:4406-17. [PMID: 18768900 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.6.4406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapy of established solid tumors is rarely achieved, and the mechanisms leading to success remain to be elucidated. We previously showed that extended control of advanced-stage autochthonous brain tumors is achieved following adoptive transfer of naive C57BL/6 splenocytes into sublethally irradiated line SV11 mice expressing the SV40 T Ag (T Ag) oncoprotein, and was associated with in vivo priming of CD8(+) T cells (T(CD8)) specific for the dominant epitope IV (T Ag residues 404-411). Using donor lymphocytes derived from mice that are tolerant to epitope IV or a newly characterized transgenic mouse line expressing an epitope IV-specific TCR, we show that epitope IV-specific T(CD8) are a necessary component of the donor pool and that purified naive epitope IV-specific T(CD8) are sufficient to promote complete and rapid regression of established tumors. While transfer of naive TCR-IV cells alone induced some initial tumor regression, increased survival of tumor-bearing mice required prior conditioning of the host with a sublethal dose of gamma irradiation and was associated with complete tumor eradication. Regression of established tumors was associated with rapid accumulation of TCR-IV T cells within the brain following initial priming against the endogenous T Ag in the peripheral lymphoid organs. Additionally, persistence of functional TCR-IV cells in both the brain and peripheral lymphoid organs was associated with long-term tumor-free survival. Finally, we show that production of IFN-gamma, but not perforin or TNF-alpha, by the donor lymphocytes is critical for control of autochthonous brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Tatum
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
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136
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Fadel TR, Steenblock ER, Stern E, Li N, Wang X, Haller GL, Pfefferle LD, Fahmy TM. Enhanced cellular activation with single walled carbon nanotube bundles presenting antibody stimuli. NANO LETTERS 2008; 8:2070-2076. [PMID: 18547120 DOI: 10.1021/nl080332i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Efficient immunotherapy can be accomplished by expanding T cells outside the body using single walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) bundles presenting antibody stimuli. Owing to the large surface area of these bundles, which can reach 1560 m (2)/g, T cell stimulating antibodies such as anti-CD3, can be presented at high local concentrations inducing potent activation of T cells. We show that anti-CD3 adsorbed onto SWNT bundles stimulate cells more effectively than equivalent concentrations of soluble anti-CD3. Stimulation by antibody adsorbed onto SWNT is significantly higher than other high surface area materials (activated carbon, polystyrene, and C60 nanoparticles), suggesting unique properties of SWNT bundles for stimuli presentation. We demonstrate the surface area tunability of these bundles by chemical treatment and its effect on antibody adsorption and subsequent T cell activation. In addition, the T cell response varied with the concentration of SWNT in a concentration dependent manner. Antibody stimuli adsorbed onto SWNT bundles represent a novel paradigm for efficient activation of lymphocytes, useful for basic science applications and clinical immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek R Fadel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, P.O. Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
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137
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Goldberger O, Volovitz I, Machlenkin A, Vadai E, Tzehoval E, Eisenbach L. Exuberated numbers of tumor-specific T cells result in tumor escape. Cancer Res 2008; 68:3450-7. [PMID: 18451173 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-5006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T cells (CTL) play a major role in tumor rejection. Expansion of CTLs, either by immunization or adoptive transfer, is a prominent goal in current immunotherapy. The antigen-specific nature of these expansion processes inevitably initiates a clonotypic attack on the tumor. By injecting an Ovalbumin-expressing melanoma into OT-I mice, in which >90% of CTLs recognize an Ovalbumin peptide, we show that an increased number of tumor-specific CTLs causes emergence of escape variants. We show that these escape variants are a result of antigen silencing via a yet undetermined epigenetic mechanism, which occurs frequently and is spontaneously reversible. We further show that an increase in the time of tumor onset in OT-I compared with C57BL/6J is a result of immune selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofir Goldberger
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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138
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Migration Patterns of Nonspecifically Activated Versus Nonactivated Nonhuman Primate T Lymphocytes: Preferential Homing of Activated Autologous CD8+ T Cells in the Rectal Mucosa. J Immunother 2008; 31:334-44. [DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e3181635e7f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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139
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Ruby CE, Montler R, Zheng R, Shu S, Weinberg AD. IL-12 is required for anti-OX40-mediated CD4 T cell survival. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:2140-8. [PMID: 18250420 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.4.2140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Engagement of OX40 greatly improves CD4 T cell function and survival. Previously, we showed that both OX40 engagement and CTLA-4 blockade led to enhanced CD4 T cell expansion, but only OX40 signaling increased survival. To identify pathways associated with OX40-mediated survival, the gene expression of Ag-activated CD4 T cells isolated from mice treated with anti-OX40 and -CTLA-4 was compared. This comparison revealed a potential role for IL-12 through increased expression of the IL-12R-signaling subunit (IL-12Rbeta2) on T cells activated 3 days previously with Ag and anti-OX40. The temporal expression of IL-12Rbeta2 on OX40-stimulated CD4 T cells was tightly regulated and peaked approximately 4-6 days after initial activation/expansion, but before the beginning of T cell contraction. IL-12 signaling, during this window of IL-12Rbeta2 expression, was required for enhanced T cell survival and survival was associated with STAT4-specific signaling. The findings from these observations were exploited in several different mouse tumor models where we found that the combination of anti-OX40 and IL-12 showed synergistic therapeutic efficacy. These results may lead to the elucidation of the molecular pathways involved with CD4 T cell survival that contribute to improved memory, and understanding of these pathways could lead to greater efficacy of immune stimulatory Abs in tumor-bearing individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl E Ruby
- Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, OR 97213, USA
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140
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Chu CS, Kim SH, June CH, Coukos G. Immunotherapy opportunities in ovarian cancer. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2008; 8:243-57. [PMID: 18279065 DOI: 10.1586/14737140.8.2.243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is responsible for the majority of gynecologic cancer deaths and despite the highest standard of multimodality therapy with surgery and cytotoxic chemotherapy, long-term survival remains low. With compelling evidence that epithelial ovarian cancer is an immunogenic tumor capable of stimulating an antitumor immune response, renewed efforts to develop immune therapies to augment the efficacy of traditional therapies are underway. Current immunotherapies focus on varied modes of antitumor vaccine development, particularly with the use of dendritic cell vaccines, effective methods for adoptive T-cell transfer and combinatorial approaches with immune modulatory therapy subverting natural tolerance mechanisms or boosting effector mechanisms. Additional combinatorial approaches include the use of cytokines and/or chemotherapy with immune therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina S Chu
- University of Pennsylvania, Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Center for Research on Ovarian Cancer, PA, USA.
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141
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IL-2 and IL-21 confer opposing differentiation programs to CD8+ T cells for adoptive immunotherapy. Blood 2008; 111:5326-33. [PMID: 18276844 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-09-113050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
IL-2 and IL-21 are closely related cytokines that might have arisen by gene duplication. Both cytokines promote the function of effector CD8(+) T cells, but their distinct effects on antigen-driven differentiation of naive CD8(+) T cells into effector CD8(+) T cells are not clearly understood. We found that antigen-induced expression of Eomesodermin (Eomes) and maturation of naive CD8(+) T cells into granzyme B- and CD44-expressing effector CD8(+) T cells was enhanced by IL-2, but, unexpectedly, suppressed by IL-21. Furthermore, IL-21 repressed expression of IL-2Ra and inhibited IL-2-mediated acquisition of a cytolytic CD8(+) T-cell phenotype. Despite its inhibitory effects, IL-21 did not induce anergy, but instead potently enhanced the capacity of cells to mediate tumor regression upon adoptive transfer. In contrast, IL-2 impaired the subsequent antitumor function of transferred cells. Gene expression studies revealed a distinct IL-21 program that was characterized phenotypically by increased expression of L-selectin and functionally by enhanced antitumor immunity that was not reversed by secondary in vitro stimulation with antigen and IL-2. Thus, the efficacy of CD8(+) T cells for adoptive immunotherapy can be influenced by opposing differentiation programs conferred by IL-2 and IL-21, a finding with important implications for the development of cellular cancer therapies.
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142
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DiGiusto DL, Cooper LJN. Preparing clinical grade Ag-specific T cells for adoptive immunotherapy trials. Cytotherapy 2008; 9:613-29. [PMID: 17943498 DOI: 10.1080/14653240701650320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The production of clinical-grade T cells for adoptive immunotherapy has evolved from the ex vivo numerical expansion of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes to sophisticated bioengineering processes often requiring cell selection, genetic modification and other extensive tissue culture manipulations, to produce desired cells with improved therapeutic potential. Advancements in understanding the biology of lymphocyte signaling, activation, homing and sustained in vivo proliferative potential have redefined the strategies used to produce T cells suitable for clinical investigation. When combined with new technical methods in cell processing and culturing, the therapeutic potential of T cells manufactured in academic centers has improved dramatically. Paralleling these technical achievements in cell manufacturing is the development of broadly applied regulatory standards that define the requirements for the clinical implementation of cell products with ever-increasing complexity. In concert with academic facilities operating in compliance with current good manufacturing practice, the prescribing physician can now infuse T cells with a highly selected or endowed phenotype that has been uniformly manufactured according to standard operating procedures and that meets federal guidelines for quality of investigational cell products. In this review we address salient issues related to the technical, immunologic, practical and regulatory aspects of manufacturing these advanced T-cell products for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L DiGiusto
- Division of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, Beckman Research Institute and City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA.
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143
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Increased Susceptibility to Immune Destruction of B16BL6 Tumor Cells Engineered to Express a Novel Pro-Smac Fusion Protein. J Immunother 2008; 31:43-51. [DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e318158fd16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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144
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Sensi M, Anichini A. Unique tumor antigens: evidence for immune control of genome integrity and immunogenic targets for T cell-mediated patient-specific immunotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 12:5023-32. [PMID: 16951217 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-05-2682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The molecular identification and characterization of antigenic epitopes recognized by T cells on human cancers has rapidly evolved since the cloning in 1991 of MAGEA1, the first gene reported to encode a CTL-defined human tumor antigen. In the expanding field of human tumor immunology, unique tumor antigens constitute a growing class of T cell-defined epitopes that exhibit strong immunogenicity. Some of these antigens, which often derive from mutation of genes that have relevant biological functions, are less susceptible to immunoselection and may be retained even in advanced tumors. Immunogenicity and constitutive expression of the unique tumor antigens provide a strong rationale for the design of novel, patient-tailored therapies that target such determinants. Here we discuss the immunologic relevance of unique tumor antigens in the light of the prospects for exploiting such epitopes as targets for patient-specific immune intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marialuisa Sensi
- Human Tumor Immunobiology Unit, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
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145
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Yorty JL, Tevethia SS, Schell TD. Rapid accumulation of adoptively transferred CD8+ T cells at the tumor site is associated with long-term control of SV40 T antigen-induced tumors. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2007; 57:883-95. [PMID: 18004562 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-007-0424-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 10/29/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We previously established a model to study CD8(+) T cell (T(CD8))-based adoptive immunotherapy of cancer using line SV11 mice that develop choroid plexus tumors in the brain due to transgenic expression of Simian Virus 40 large T antigen (Tag). These mice are tolerant to the three dominant T(CD8)-recognized Tag epitopes I, II/III and IV. However, adoptive transfer of spleen cells from naïve C57BL/6 (B6) mice prolongs SV11 survival following T(CD8) priming against the endogenous Tag epitope IV. In addition, survival of SV11 mice is dramatically increased following transfer of lymphocytes from Tag-immune B6 mice. In the current study, we compared the kinetics and magnitude of Tag-specific T(CD8) accumulation at the tumor site following adoptive transfer with a high dose of either Tag-immune or naïve donor cells or decreasing doses of Tag-immune lymphocytes. Following adoptive transfer of Tag-immune cells, epitope I- and IV-specific T(CD8) accumulated to high levels in the brain of SV11 mice, peaking at 5-7 days, while epitope IV-specific T(CD8 )derived from naïve donors required three weeks to achieve peak levels. A similar delay in the peak of epitope IV-specific T(CD8) accumulation was observed when tenfold fewer Tag-immune donor cells were administered, reducing control of tumor progression. These results suggest that efficient and prolonged control of established autochthonous tumors is associated with high-level early accumulation of adoptively transferred T cells. We also provide evidence that although multiple specificities are represented in the Tag immune donor lymphocytes, epitope IV-specific donor T(CD8) play a predominant role in control of tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodi L Yorty
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, H107, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
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146
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Wall EM, Milne K, Martin ML, Watson PH, Theiss P, Nelson BH. Spontaneous mammary tumors differ widely in their inherent sensitivity to adoptively transferred T cells. Cancer Res 2007; 67:6442-50. [PMID: 17616705 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-0622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy of cancer can lead to the selection of antigen loss variants, which provides strong rationale to target oncogenes that are essential for tumor growth or viability. To investigate this concept, we tagged the HER2/neu oncogene with epitopes from ovalbumin to confer recognition by T-cell receptor transgenic CD8(+) (OT-I) and CD4(+) (OT-II) T cells. Transgenic mice expressing neu(OT-I/OT-II) developed mammary adenocarcinomas at 6 to 10 months of age. Adoptively transferred naive OT-I cells (with or without OT-II cells) proliferated vigorously on encountering neu(OT-I/OT-II)-expressing tumors. This was followed by the complete regression of 37% of tumors, whereas others showed partial/stable responses (40%) or progressive disease (23%). Those tumors undergoing complete regression never recurred. In mice with multiple primary tumors, simultaneous regressions and nonregressions were often seen, indicating that immune evasion occurred at a local rather than systemic level. The majority of nonregressing tumors expressed Neu(OT-I/OT-II) and MHC class I, and many avoided rejection through a profound block to T-cell infiltration. Thus, T cells directed against an essential oncogene can permanently eradicate a subset of spontaneous, established mammary tumors. However, in other tumors, local barriers severely limit the therapeutic response. To maximize the efficacy of immunotherapy against spontaneous cancers, predictive strategies that take into account the heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment will be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika M Wall
- Trev & Joyce Deeley Research Centre, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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147
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Friedl J, Riss S, Stift A. Is immunotherapy a reasonable approach for the treatment of esophageal cancer? Eur Surg 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s10353-007-0334-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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148
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Laust AK, Sur BW, Wang K, Hubby B, Smith JF, Nelson EL. VRP immunotherapy targeting neu: treatment efficacy and evidence for immunoediting in a stringent rat mammary tumor model. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2007; 106:371-82. [PMID: 17351745 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-007-9517-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2007] [Accepted: 01/07/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The ability to overcome intrinsic tolerance to a strict "self" tumor-associated antigen (TAA) and successfully treat pre-existing tumor is the most stringent test for anti-tumor immunotherapeutic strategies. Although this capacity has been demonstrated in various models using complicated strategies that may not be readily translated into the clinical arena, straightforward antigen-specific immunotherapeutic strategies in the most stringent models of common epithelial cancers have largely failed to meet this standard. We employed an immunotherapeutic strategy using an alphavirus-based, virus-like replicon particle (VRP), which has in vivo tropism for dendritic cells, to elicit immune responses to the non-mutated TAA rat neu in an aggressive rat mammary tumor model. Using this VRP-based immunotherapeutic strategy targeting a single TAA, we generated effective anti-tumor immunity in the setting of pre-existing tumor resulting in the cure of 36% of rats over multiple experiments, P = 0.002. We also observed down-regulation of rat neu expression in tumors that showed initial responses followed by tumor escape with resumption of rapid tumor growth. These responses were accompanied by significant anti-tumor proliferative responses and CD8+ cellular tumor infiltrates, all of which were restricted to animals receiving the anti-neu immunotherapy. Together these data, obtained in a stringent "self" TAA model, indicate that the VRP-based antigen-specific immunotherapy elicits sufficiently potent immune responses to exert immunologic pressure, selection, and editing of the growing tumors, thus supporting the activity of this straightforward immunotherapy and suggesting that it is a promising platform upon which to build even more potent strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda K Laust
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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149
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Lizée G, Radvanyi LG, Overwijk WW, Hwu P. Improving antitumor immune responses by circumventing immunoregulatory cells and mechanisms. Clin Cancer Res 2006; 12:4794-803. [PMID: 16914564 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-0944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although numerous immunotherapeutic strategies have been studied in patients with cancer, consistent induction of clinical responses remains a formidable challenge. Cancer vaccines are often successful at generating elevated numbers of tumor-specific T lymphocytes in peripheral blood, however, despite this, tumors usually continue to grow unabated. Recent evidence suggests that endogenous regulatory cells, known to play a major role in the induction of immune tolerance to self and prevention of autoimmunity, as well as suppressive myeloid cells invoked in the tumor-bearing state, may be largely responsible for preventing effective antitumor immune responses. This review will focus on the major regulatory cell subtypes, including CD4(+)CD25(+) T-regulatory cells, type 1 regulatory T cells, natural killer T cells, and immature myeloid cells. Studies in humans and in animal models have shown a role for all of these cells in tumor progression, although the mechanisms by which they act to suppress immunity remain largely undefined. Elucidation of the dominant molecular mechanisms mediating immune suppression in vivo will allow more precise targeting of the relevant regulatory cell populations, as well as the development of novel strategies and clinical reagents that will directly block molecules that induce the suppression of antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Lizée
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA.
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150
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Neeson P, Paterson Y. Effects of the tumor microenvironment on the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. Immunol Invest 2006; 35:359-94. [PMID: 16916758 DOI: 10.1080/08820130600755009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy utilizes vaccines targeting tumor antigens or tumor endothelium to prevent or regress tumors. Many cancer vaccines are designed to induce antigen-specific effector T cells that migrate to the tumor site. In an optimal situation, the effector T cells penetrate the tumor, release their effector molecules, induce tumor cell death and tumor regression. However, the tumor microenvironment is frequently immunosuppressive and contributes to a state of immune ignorance, impacting on the vaccine's ability to break tolerance to tumor antigen/s. This review discusses the factors in the tumor microenvironment that can affect the efficacy of cancer vaccines. In particular, the review focuses on pathways leading to effector T cell penetration of tumors or the inhibition of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Neeson
- Microbiology Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6076, USA
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