101
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Parmesan C, Burrows MT, Duarte CM, Poloczanska ES, Richardson AJ, Schoeman DS, Singer MC. Beyond climate change attribution in conservation and ecological research. Ecol Lett 2014; 16 Suppl 1:58-71. [PMID: 23679010 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Revised: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing pressure from policymakers for ecologists to generate more detailed 'attribution' analyses aimed at quantitatively estimating relative contributions of different driving forces, including anthropogenic climate change (ACC), to observed biological changes. Here, we argue that this approach is not productive for ecological studies. Global meta-analyses of diverse species, regions and ecosystems have already given us 'very high confidence' [sensu Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)] that ACC has impacted wild species in a general sense. Further, for well-studied species or systems, synthesis of experiments and models with long-term observations has given us similarly high confidence that they have been impacted by regional climate change (regardless of its cause). However, the role of greenhouse gases in driving these impacts has not been estimated quantitatively. Should this be an ecological research priority? We argue that development of quantitative ecological models for this purpose faces several impediments, particularly the existence of strong, non-additive interactions among different external factors. However, even with current understanding of impacts of global warming, there are myriad climate change adaptation options already developed in the literature that could be, and in fact are being, implemented now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Parmesan
- Marine Institute, Level 3 Marine Bldg., Plymouth University, Drakes Circus Plymouth, Devon, PL4 8AA, UK.
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102
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Mammitzsch K, Jost G, Jürgens K. Impact of dissolved inorganic carbon concentrations and pH on growth of the chemolithoautotrophic epsilonproteobacterium Sulfurimonas gotlandica GD1T. Microbiologyopen 2014; 3:80-8. [PMID: 24376054 PMCID: PMC3937731 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilonproteobacteria have been found globally distributed in marine anoxic/sulfidic areas mediating relevant transformations within the sulfur and nitrogen cycles. In the Baltic Sea redox zones, chemoautotrophic epsilonproteobacteria mainly belong to the Sulfurimonas gotlandica GD17 cluster for which recently a representative strain, S. gotlandica GD1(T), could be established as a model organism. In this study, the potential effects of changes in dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and pH on S. gotlandica GD1(T) were examined. Bacterial cell abundance within a broad range of DIC concentrations and pH values were monitored and substrate utilization was determined. The results showed that the DIC saturation concentration for achieving maximal cell numbers was already reached at 800 μmol L(-1), which is well below in situ DIC levels. The pH optimum was between 6.6 and 8.0. Within a pH range of 6.6-7.1 there was no significant difference in substrate utilization; however, at lower pH values maximum cell abundance decreased sharply and cell-specific substrate consumption increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Mammitzsch
- Sektion Biologische Meereskunde, Leibniz-Institut für Ostseeforschung Warnemünde, Seestraße 15, D-18119, Rostock, Germany
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103
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Sunday JM, Calosi P, Dupont S, Munday PL, Stillman JH, Reusch TBH. Evolution in an acidifying ocean. Trends Ecol Evol 2013; 29:117-25. [PMID: 24355315 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2013.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Revised: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Ocean acidification poses a global threat to biodiversity, yet species might have the capacity to adapt through evolutionary change. Here we summarize tools available to determine species' capacity for evolutionary adaptation to future ocean change and review the progress made to date with respect to ocean acidification. We focus on two key approaches: measuring standing genetic variation within populations and experimental evolution. We highlight benefits and challenges of each approach and recommend future research directions for understanding the modulating role of evolution in a changing ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Sunday
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada; Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Piero Calosi
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Sam Dupont
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, The Sven Lovén Centre for Marine Sciences, Kristineberg, 45178, Fiskebäckskil, Sweden
| | - Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia; School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Jonathon H Stillman
- Romberg Tiburon Center and Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, Tiburon, CA 94920, USA; Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Thorsten B H Reusch
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Fishes, Düsternbrooker Weg 20, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
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104
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Mora C, Wei CL, Rollo A, Amaro T, Baco AR, Billett D, Bopp L, Chen Q, Collier M, Danovaro R, Gooday AJ, Grupe BM, Halloran PR, Ingels J, Jones DOB, Levin LA, Nakano H, Norling K, Ramirez-Llodra E, Rex M, Ruhl HA, Smith CR, Sweetman AK, Thurber AR, Tjiputra JF, Usseglio P, Watling L, Wu T, Yasuhara M. Biotic and human vulnerability to projected changes in ocean biogeochemistry over the 21st century. PLoS Biol 2013; 11:e1001682. [PMID: 24143135 PMCID: PMC3797030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ongoing greenhouse gas emissions can modify climate processes and induce shifts in ocean temperature, pH, oxygen concentration, and productivity, which in turn could alter biological and social systems. Here, we provide a synoptic global assessment of the simultaneous changes in future ocean biogeochemical variables over marine biota and their broader implications for people. We analyzed modern Earth System Models forced by greenhouse gas concentration pathways until 2100 and showed that the entire world's ocean surface will be simultaneously impacted by varying intensities of ocean warming, acidification, oxygen depletion, or shortfalls in productivity. In contrast, only a small fraction of the world's ocean surface, mostly in polar regions, will experience increased oxygenation and productivity, while almost nowhere will there be ocean cooling or pH elevation. We compiled the global distribution of 32 marine habitats and biodiversity hotspots and found that they would all experience simultaneous exposure to changes in multiple biogeochemical variables. This superposition highlights the high risk for synergistic ecosystem responses, the suite of physiological adaptations needed to cope with future climate change, and the potential for reorganization of global biodiversity patterns. If co-occurring biogeochemical changes influence the delivery of ocean goods and services, then they could also have a considerable effect on human welfare. Approximately 470 to 870 million of the poorest people in the world rely heavily on the ocean for food, jobs, and revenues and live in countries that will be most affected by simultaneous changes in ocean biogeochemistry. These results highlight the high risk of degradation of marine ecosystems and associated human hardship expected in a future following current trends in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilo Mora
- Department of Geography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Chih-Lin Wei
- Ocean Science Centre, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Audrey Rollo
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Teresa Amaro
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - Amy R. Baco
- Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - David Billett
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Laurent Bopp
- Institut Pierre Simon Laplace/Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Qi Chen
- Department of Geography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Mark Collier
- The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Marine and Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Victoria, Australia
| | - Roberto Danovaro
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Andrew J. Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin M. Grupe
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Paul R. Halloran
- Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, United Kingdom
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Jeroen Ingels
- Marine Biology Research Group, Biology Department, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel O. B. Jones
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa A. Levin
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | | | - Karl Norling
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eva Ramirez-Llodra
- Institut de Ciències Marines, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Michael Rex
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Henry A. Ruhl
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Craig R. Smith
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Andrew K. Sweetman
- International Research Institute of Stavanger, Thormøhlensgate, Bergen, Norway
| | - Andrew R. Thurber
- College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | | | - Paolo Usseglio
- Department of Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Hawaii, United States of America
- Centro de innovacion Fundacion In-nova Castilla La Mancha, Madrid, Spain
| | - Les Watling
- Department of Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Tongwen Wu
- Beijing Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Moriaki Yasuhara
- School of Biological Sciences, Swire Institute of Marine Science, and Department of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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105
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Cerrano C, Cardini U, Bianchelli S, Corinaldesi C, Pusceddu A, Danovaro R. Red coral extinction risk enhanced by ocean acidification. Sci Rep 2013; 3:1457. [PMID: 23492780 PMCID: PMC3597996 DOI: 10.1038/srep01457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The red coral Corallium rubrum is a habitat-forming species with a prominent and structural role in mesophotic habitats, which sustains biodiversity hotspots. This precious coral is threatened by both over-exploitation and temperature driven mass mortality events. We report here that biocalcification, growth rates and polyps' (feeding) activity of Corallium rubrum are significantly reduced at pCO2 scenarios predicted for the end of this century (0.2 pH decrease). Since C. rubrum is a long-living species (>200 years), our results suggest that ocean acidification predicted for 2100 will significantly increases the risk of extinction of present populations. Given the functional role of these corals in the mesophotic zone, we predict that ocean acidification might have cascading effects on the functioning of these habitats worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Cerrano
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy
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106
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Pancost RD, Badger MPS, Reinfelder J. Biogeochemistry: Ancient algae crossed a threshold. Nature 2013; 500:532-3. [PMID: 23985865 DOI: 10.1038/500532a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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107
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Benner I, Diner RE, Lefebvre SC, Li D, Komada T, Carpenter EJ, Stillman JH. Emiliania huxleyi increases calcification but not expression of calcification-related genes in long-term exposure to elevated temperature and pCO2. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20130049. [PMID: 23980248 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased atmospheric pCO2 is expected to render future oceans warmer and more acidic than they are at present. Calcifying organisms such as coccolithophores that fix and export carbon into the deep sea provide feedbacks to increasing atmospheric pCO2. Acclimation experiments suggest negative effects of warming and acidification on coccolithophore calcification, but the ability of these organisms to adapt to future environmental conditions is not well understood. Here, we tested the combined effect of pCO2 and temperature on the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi over more than 700 generations. Cells increased inorganic carbon content and calcification rate under warm and acidified conditions compared with ambient conditions, whereas organic carbon content and primary production did not show any change. In contrast to findings from short-term experiments, our results suggest that long-term acclimation or adaptation could change, or even reverse, negative calcification responses in E. huxleyi and its feedback to the global carbon cycle. Genome-wide profiles of gene expression using RNA-seq revealed that genes thought to be essential for calcification are not those that are most strongly differentially expressed under long-term exposure to future ocean conditions. Rather, differentially expressed genes observed here represent new targets to study responses to ocean acidification and warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Benner
- Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University, Tiburon, CA 94920, USA.
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108
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Stojkovic S, Beardall J, Matear R. CO2 -concentrating mechanisms in three southern hemisphere strains of Emiliania huxleyi. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2013; 49:670-9. [PMID: 27007199 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Rising global CO2 is changing the carbonate chemistry of seawater, which is expected to influence the way phytoplankton acquire inorganic carbon. All phytoplankton rely on ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RUBISCO) for assimilation of inorganic carbon in photosynthesis, but this enzyme is inefficient at present day CO2 levels. Many algae have developed a range of energy demanding mechanisms, referred to as carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCMs), which increase the efficiency of carbon acquisition. We investigated CCM activity in three southern hemisphere strains of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi W. W. Hay & H. P. Mohler. Both calcifying and non-calcifying strains showed strong CCM activity, with HCO3 (-) as a preferred source of photosynthetic carbon in the non-calcifying strain, but a higher preference for CO2 in the calcifying strains. All three strains were characterized by the presence of pyrenoids, external carbonic anhydrase (CA) and high affinity for CO2 in photosynthesis, indicative of active CCMs. We postulate that under higher CO2 levels cocco-lithophorids will be able to down-regulate their CCMs, and re-direct some of the metabolic energy to processes such as calcification. Due to the expected rise in CO2 levels, photosynthesis in calcifying strains is expected to benefit most, due to their use of CO2 for carbon uptake. The non-calcifying strain, on the other hand, will experience only a 10% increase in HCO3 (-) , thus making it less responsive to changes in carbonate chemistry of water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slobodanka Stojkovic
- CMAR--CSIRO, Hobart, Tas, 7001, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., 3800, Australia
| | - John Beardall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., 3800, Australia
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109
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Beardall J, Raven JA. Calcification and ocean acidification: new insights from the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2013; 199:1-3. [PMID: 23713549 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John Beardall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia
| | - John A Raven
- Division of Plant Science, University of Dundee at the James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
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110
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Rouco M, Branson O, Lebrato M, Iglesias-Rodríguez MD. The effect of nitrate and phosphate availability on Emiliania huxleyi (NZEH) physiology under different CO2 scenarios. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:155. [PMID: 23785363 PMCID: PMC3684784 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth and calcification of the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi is affected by ocean acidification and macronutrients limitation and its response varies between strains. Here we investigated the physiological performance of a highly calcified E. huxleyi strain, NZEH, in a multiparametric experiment. Cells were exposed to different CO2 levels (ranging from 250 to 1314 μatm) under three nutrient conditions [nutrient replete (R), nitrate limited (-N), and phosphate limited (-P)]. We focused on calcite and organic carbon quotas and on nitrate and phosphate utilization by analyzing the activity of nitrate reductase (NRase) and alkaline phosphatase (APase), respectively. Particulate inorganic (PIC) and organic (POC) carbon quotas increased with increasing CO2 under R conditions but a different pattern was observed under nutrient limitation. The PIC:POC ratio decreased with increasing CO2 in nutrient limited cultures. Coccolith length increased with CO2 under all nutrient conditions but the coccosphere volume varied depending on the nutrient treatment. Maximum APase activity was found at 561 μatm of CO2 (pH 7.92) in -P cultures and in R conditions, NRase activity increased linearly with CO2. These results suggest that E. huxleyi's competitive ability for nutrient uptake might be altered in future high-CO2 oceans. The combined dataset will be useful in model parameterizations of the carbon cycle and ocean acidification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Rouco
- National Oceanography Centre Southampton, School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Oscar Branson
- National Oceanography Centre Southampton, School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of CambridgeCambridge, UK
| | - Mario Lebrato
- GEOMAR. Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research KielKiel, Germany
| | - M. Débora Iglesias-Rodríguez
- National Oceanography Centre Southampton, School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA
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111
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Beare D, McQuatters-Gollop A, van der Hammen T, Machiels M, Teoh SJ, Hall-Spencer JM. Long-term trends in calcifying plankton and pH in the North Sea. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61175. [PMID: 23658686 PMCID: PMC3641030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Relationships between six calcifying plankton groups and pH are explored in a highly biologically productive and data-rich area of the central North Sea using time-series datasets. The long-term trends show that abundances of foraminiferans, coccolithophores, and echinoderm larvae have risen over the last few decades while the abundances of bivalves and pteropods have declined. Despite good coverage of pH data for the study area there is uncertainty over the quality of this historical dataset; pH appears to have been declining since the mid 1990s but there was no statistical connection between the abundance of the calcifying plankton and the pH trends. If there are any effects of pH on calcifying plankton in the North Sea they appear to be masked by the combined effects of other climatic (e.g. temperature), chemical (nutrient concentrations) and biotic (predation) drivers. Certain calcified plankton have proliferated in the central North Sea, and are tolerant of changes in pH that have occurred since the 1950s but bivalve larvae and pteropods have declined. An improved monitoring programme is required as ocean acidification may be occurring at a rate that will exceed the environmental niches of numerous planktonic taxa, testing their capacities for acclimation and genetic adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doug Beare
- Natural Resources Management, WorldFish, Batu Maung, Penang, Malaysia.
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112
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End of the century pCO₂ levels do not impact calcification in Mediterranean cold-water corals. PLoS One 2013; 8:e62655. [PMID: 23646133 PMCID: PMC3640017 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2012] [Accepted: 03/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification caused by anthropogenic uptake of CO₂ is perceived to be a major threat to calcifying organisms. Cold-water corals were thought to be strongly affected by a decrease in ocean pH due to their abundance in deep and cold waters which, in contrast to tropical coral reef waters, will soon become corrosive to calcium carbonate. Calcification rates of two Mediterranean cold-water coral species, Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata, were measured under variable partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) that ranged between 380 µatm for present-day conditions and 930 µatm for the end of the century. The present study addressed both short- and long-term responses by repeatedly determining calcification rates on the same specimens over a period of 9 months. Besides studying the direct, short-term response to elevated pCO₂ levels, the study aimed to elucidate the potential for acclimation of calcification of cold-water corals to ocean acidification. Net calcification of both species was unaffected by the levels of pCO₂ investigated and revealed no short-term shock and, therefore, no long-term acclimation in calcification to changes in the carbonate chemistry. There was an effect of time during repeated experiments with increasing net calcification rates for both species, however, as this pattern was found in all treatments, there is no indication that acclimation of calcification to ocean acidification occurred. The use of controls (initial and ambient net calcification rates) indicated that this increase was not caused by acclimation in calcification response to higher pCO₂. An extrapolation of these data suggests that calcification of these two cold-water corals will not be affected by the pCO₂ level projected at the end of the century.
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113
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Genome-wide diel growth state transitions in the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:7518-23. [PMID: 23596211 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1300962110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine diatoms are important primary producers that thrive in diverse and dynamic environments. They do so, in theory, by sensing changing conditions and adapting their physiology accordingly. Using the model species Thalassiosira pseudonana, we conducted a detailed physiological and transcriptomic survey to measure the recurrent transcriptional changes that characterize typical diatom growth in batch culture. Roughly 40% of the transcriptome varied significantly and recurrently, reflecting large, reproducible cell-state transitions between four principal states: (i) "dawn," following 12 h of darkness; (ii) "dusk," following 12 h of light; (iii) exponential growth and nutrient repletion; and (iv) stationary phase and nutrient depletion. Increases in expression of thousands of genes at the end of the reoccurring dark periods (dawn), including those involved in photosynthesis (e.g., ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase genes rbcS and rbcL), imply large-scale anticipatory circadian mechanisms at the level of gene regulation. Repeated shifts in the transcript levels of hundreds of genes encoding sensory, signaling, and regulatory functions accompanied the four cell-state transitions, providing a preliminary map of the highly coordinated gene regulatory program under varying conditions. Several putative light sensing and signaling proteins were associated with recurrent diel transitions, suggesting that these genes may be involved in light-sensitive and circadian regulation of cell state. These results begin to explain, in comprehensive detail, how the diatom gene regulatory program operates under varying environmental conditions. Detailed knowledge of this dynamic molecular process will be invaluable for new hypothesis generation and the interpretation of genetic, environmental, and metatranscriptomic data from field studies.
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114
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Jin P, Gao K, Beardall J. EVOLUTIONARY RESPONSES OF A COCCOLITHOPHORIDGEPHYROCAPSA OCEANICATO OCEAN ACIDIFICATION. Evolution 2013; 67:1869-78. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361005 China
| | - Kunshan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361005 China
| | - John Beardall
- School of Biological Sciences; Monash University; Clayton Victoria 3800 Australia
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115
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Jones BM, Iglesias-Rodriguez MD, Skipp PJ, Edwards RJ, Greaves MJ, Young JR, Elderfield H, O'Connor CD. Responses of the Emiliania huxleyi proteome to ocean acidification. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61868. [PMID: 23593500 PMCID: PMC3625171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification due to rising atmospheric CO2 is expected to affect the physiology of important calcifying marine organisms, but the nature and magnitude of change is yet to be established. In coccolithophores, different species and strains display varying calcification responses to ocean acidification, but the underlying biochemical properties remain unknown. We employed an approach combining tandem mass-spectrometry with isobaric tagging (iTRAQ) and multiple database searching to identify proteins that were differentially expressed in cells of the marine coccolithophore species Emiliania huxleyi (strain NZEH) between two CO2 conditions: 395 (∼current day) and ∼1340 p.p.m.v. CO2. Cells exposed to the higher CO2 condition contained more cellular particulate inorganic carbon (CaCO3) and particulate organic nitrogen and carbon than those maintained in present-day conditions. These results are linked with the observation that cells grew slower under elevated CO2, indicating cell cycle disruption. Under high CO2 conditions, coccospheres were larger and cells possessed bigger coccoliths that did not show any signs of malformation compared to those from cells grown under present-day CO2 levels. No differences in calcification rate, particulate organic carbon production or cellular organic carbon: nitrogen ratios were observed. Results were not related to nutrient limitation or acclimation status of cells. At least 46 homologous protein groups from a variety of functional processes were quantified in these experiments, of which four (histones H2A, H3, H4 and a chloroplastic 30S ribosomal protein S7) showed down-regulation in all replicates exposed to high CO2, perhaps reflecting the decrease in growth rate. We present evidence of cellular stress responses but proteins associated with many key metabolic processes remained unaltered. Our results therefore suggest that this E. huxleyi strain possesses some acclimation mechanisms to tolerate future CO2 scenarios, although the observed decline in growth rate may be an overriding factor affecting the success of this ecotype in future oceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethan M Jones
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
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116
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Hundred years of environmental change and phytoplankton ecophysiological variability archived in coastal sediments. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61184. [PMID: 23593424 PMCID: PMC3623915 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine protist species have been used for several decades as environmental indicators under the assumption that their ecological requirements have remained more or less stable through time. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that marine protists, including several phytoplankton species, are in fact highly diverse and may quickly respond to changes in the environment. Predicting how future climate will impact phytoplankton populations is important, but this task has been challenged by a lack of time-series of ecophysiological parameters at time-scales relevant for climate studies (i.e. at least decadal). Here, we report on ecophysiological variability in a marine dinoflagellate over a 100-year period of well-documented environmental change, by using the sedimentary archive of living cysts from a Scandinavian fjord (Koljö Fjord, Sweden). During the past century, Koljö Fjord has experienced important changes in salinity linked to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). We revived resting cysts of Pentapharsodinium dalei preserved in the fjord sediments and determined growth rates for 18 strains obtained from 3 sediment core layers at salinity 15 and 30, which represent extreme sea-surface conditions during periods of predominantly negative and positive NAO phases, respectively. Upper pH tolerance limits for growth were also tested. In general, P. dalei grew at a higher rate in salinity 30 than 15 for all layers, but there were significant differences among strains. When accounting for inter-strain variability, cyst age had no effect on growth performance or upper pH tolerance limits for this species, indicating a stable growth response over the 100-year period in spite of environmental fluctuations. Our findings give some support for the use of morphospecies in environmental studies, particularly at decadal to century scales. Furthermore, the high intra-specific variability found down to sediment layers dated as ca. 50 years-old indicates that cyst-beds of P. dalei are repositories of ecophysiological diversity.
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117
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Harvey BP, Gwynn-Jones D, Moore PJ. Meta-analysis reveals complex marine biological responses to the interactive effects of ocean acidification and warming. Ecol Evol 2013; 3:1016-30. [PMID: 23610641 PMCID: PMC3631411 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification and warming are considered two of the greatest threats to marine biodiversity, yet the combined effect of these stressors on marine organisms remains largely unclear. Using a meta-analytical approach, we assessed the biological responses of marine organisms to the effects of ocean acidification and warming in isolation and combination. As expected biological responses varied across taxonomic groups, life-history stages, and trophic levels, but importantly, combining stressors generally exhibited a stronger biological (either positive or negative) effect. Using a subset of orthogonal studies, we show that four of five of the biological responses measured (calcification, photosynthesis, reproduction, and survival, but not growth) interacted synergistically when warming and acidification were combined. The observed synergisms between interacting stressors suggest that care must be made in making inferences from single-stressor studies. Our findings clearly have implications for the development of adaptive management strategies particularly given that the frequency of stressors interacting in marine systems will be likely to intensify in the future. There is now an urgent need to move toward more robust, holistic, and ecologically realistic climate change experiments that incorporate interactions. Without them accurate predictions about the likely deleterious impacts to marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning over the next century will not be possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben P Harvey
- Institute of Biological, Environmental, and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University Aberystwyth, UK, SY23 3DA
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118
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Comeau S, Carpenter RC, Edmunds PJ. Coral reef calcifiers buffer their response to ocean acidification using both bicarbonate and carbonate. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 280:20122374. [PMID: 23256193 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.2374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Central to evaluating the effects of ocean acidification (OA) on coral reefs is understanding how calcification is affected by the dissolution of CO(2) in sea water, which causes declines in carbonate ion concentration [CO(3)(2-)] and increases in bicarbonate ion concentration [HCO(3)(-)]. To address this topic, we manipulated [CO(3)(2-)] and [HCO(3)(-)] to test the effects on calcification of the coral Porites rus and the alga Hydrolithon onkodes, measured from the start to the end of a 15-day incubation, as well as in the day and night. [CO(3)(2-)] played a significant role in light and dark calcification of P. rus, whereas [HCO(3)(-)] mainly affected calcification in the light. Both [CO(3)(2-)] and [HCO(3)(-)] had a significant effect on the calcification of H. onkodes, but the strongest relationship was found with [CO(3)(2-)]. Our results show that the negative effect of declining [CO(3)(2-)] on the calcification of corals and algae can be partly mitigated by the use of HCO(3)(-) for calcification and perhaps photosynthesis. These results add empirical support to two conceptual models that can form a template for further research to account for the calcification response of corals and crustose coralline algae to OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Comeau
- Department of Biology, California State University, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA 91330-8303, USA.
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119
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Liu X, Zheng T, Cai Y, Liu J. Cloning, expression and characterization of serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT)-like gene subunit (LCB2) from marine Emiliania huxleyi virus ( Coccolithovirus). ACTA OCEANOLOGICA SINICA = HAI YANG XUE BAO 2012; 31:127-138. [PMID: 32226188 PMCID: PMC7097000 DOI: 10.1007/s13131-012-0259-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The authors have isolated and characterized a novel serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT)-like gene in marine Emiliania huxleyi virus (EhV-99B1). The open-reading frame (ORF) of EhV99B1-SPT encoded a protein of 496 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 96 kDa and Ip 6.01. The results of sequence analysis showed that there was about 31%-45% identity in amino acid sequence with other organisms. The maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree suggested that the EhV99B1-SPT gene possibly horizontally transferred from the eukaryote. Hydrophobic profiles of deduced amino acid sequences suggested a hydrophobic, globular and membrane-associated protein with five transmembrane domains (TMDs) motifs. Several potential N-linked glycosylation sites were presented in SPT. These results suggested that EhV99B1-SPT was an integral endoplasmic reticulum membrane protein. Despite lower sequence identity, the secondary and three-dimensional structures predicted showed that the "pocket" structure element composed of 2α-helices and 4β-sheets was the catalytic center of this enzyme, with a typical conserved "TFTKSFG" active site in the N-terminal region and was very close to those of prokaryotic organisms. However, the N-terminal domain of EhV99B1-SPT most closely resembled the LCB2 catalysis subunit and the C-terminal domain most closely resembled the LCB1 regulatory subunit of other organisms which together formed a spherical molecule. This "chimera" was highly similar to the prokaryotic homologous SPT. For a functional identification, the EhV99B1-LCB2 subunit gene was expressed in Escherichia coli, which resulted in significant accumulation of new sphingolipid in E. coli cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuhong Liu
- Bioengineering College of Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021 China
| | - Tianling Zheng
- Key Laboratory of MOE for Coast and Wetland Ecosystem, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005 China
| | - Yiqin Cai
- Bioengineering College of Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021 China
| | - Jingwen Liu
- Bioengineering College of Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021 China
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120
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Drescher B, Dillaman RM, Taylor AR. Coccolithogenesis In Scyphosphaera apsteinii (Prymnesiophyceae). JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2012; 48:1343-61. [PMID: 27009987 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01227.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2012] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Coccolithophores are the most significant producers of marine biogenic calcite, although the intracellular calcification process is poorly understood. In the case of Scyphosphaera apsteinii Lohmann 1902, flat ovoid muroliths and bulky, vase-shaped lopadoliths with a range of intermediate morphologies may be produced by a single cell. This polymorphic species is within the Zygodiscales, a group that remains understudied with respect to ultrastructure and coccolith ontogeny. We therefore undertook an analysis of cell ultrastructure, morphology, and coccolithogenesis. The cell ultrastructure showed many typical haptophyte features, with calcification following a similar pattern to that described for other heterococcolith bearing species including Emiliania huxleyi. Of particular significance was the reticular body role in governing fine-scale morphology, specifically the central pore formation of the coccolith. Our observations also highlighted the essential role of the inter- and intracrystalline organic matrix in growth and arrangement of the coccolith calcite. S. apsteinii secreted mature coccoliths that attached to the plasma membrane via fibrillar material. Time-lapse light microscopy demonstrated secretion of lopadoliths occurred base first before being actively repositioned at the cell surface. Significantly, growth irradiance influenced the coccosphere composition with fewer lopadoliths being formed relative to muroliths at higher light intensities. Overall, our observations support dynamic metabolic (i.e., in response to growth irradiance), sensory and cytoskeletal control over the morphology and secretion of polymorphic heterococcoliths. With a basic understanding of calcification established, S. apsteinii could be a valuable model to further study coccolithophore calcification and cell physiological responses to ocean acidification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Drescher
- Biology Department, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina, 28403, USA
| | - Richard M Dillaman
- Biology Department, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina, 28403, USA
| | - Alison R Taylor
- Biology Department, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina, 28403, USA
- Marine Biological Association of the UK, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB, UK
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121
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Glas MS, Fabricius KE, de Beer D, Uthicke S. The O2, pH and Ca2+ microenvironment of benthic foraminifera in a high CO2 world. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50010. [PMID: 23166810 PMCID: PMC3499438 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification (OA) can have adverse effects on marine calcifiers. Yet, phototrophic marine calcifiers elevate their external oxygen and pH microenvironment in daylight, through the uptake of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) by photosynthesis. We studied to which extent pH elevation within their microenvironments in daylight can counteract ambient seawater pH reductions, i.e. OA conditions. We measured the O2 and pH microenvironment of four photosymbiotic and two symbiont-free benthic tropical foraminiferal species at three different OA treatments (∼432, 1141 and 2151 µatm pCO2). The O2 concentration difference between the seawater and the test surface (ΔO2) was taken as a measure for the photosynthetic rate. Our results showed that O2 and pH levels were significantly higher on photosymbiotic foraminiferal surfaces in light than in dark conditions, and than on surfaces of symbiont-free foraminifera. Rates of photosynthesis at saturated light conditions did not change significantly between OA treatments (except in individuals that exhibited symbiont loss, i.e. bleaching, at elevated pCO2). The pH at the cell surface decreased during incubations at elevated pCO2, also during light incubations. Photosynthesis increased the surface pH but this increase was insufficient to compensate for ambient seawater pH decreases. We thus conclude that photosynthesis does only partly protect symbiont bearing foraminifera against OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin S Glas
- Biogeochemistry Department, Microsensor Group, Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Bremen, Germany.
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122
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan W. Kelly
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology; University of California Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara; California; 93106-9620; USA
| | - Gretchen E. Hofmann
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology; University of California Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara; California; 93106-9620; USA
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123
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Chen F, Liu Z, Li D, Liu C, Zheng P, Chen S. Using ammonia for algae harvesting and as nutrient in subsequent cultures. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2012; 121:298-303. [PMID: 22858499 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.06.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Microalgae have been considered as a promising feedstock for biofuels and greenhouse gas reduction. A low-cost harvesting technology without secondary contamination for down-stream extraction is a key requirement to make algal biofuel commercially viable. A novel harvesting method using ammonia as a flocculant to make the algal biomass settable was devised and studied. Another major advantage of this approach is that the ammonia added will be reused as fertilizer in the subsequent cultures. The results indicated that ammonia-induced flocculation led to more than 99% removal of algae at 12h. The OD(600) of algae growing in the ammonia-enriched flocculation medium treated with heating and CO(2) was 2 times than that of initial after 6 days. These results suggested that this flocculation method was efficient, convenient and allowed the reuse of the flocculated medium, therefore providing an option for economic harvesting and cultivation of microalgae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangjian Chen
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological Systems and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, China
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124
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Kremp A, Godhe A, Egardt J, Dupont S, Suikkanen S, Casabianca S, Penna A. Intraspecific variability in the response of bloom-forming marine microalgae to changed climate conditions. Ecol Evol 2012; 2:1195-207. [PMID: 22833794 PMCID: PMC3402194 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytoplankton populations can display high levels of genetic diversity that, when reflected by phenotypic variability, may stabilize a species response to environmental changes. We studied the effects of increased temperature and CO(2) availability as predicted consequences of global change, on 16 genetically different isolates of the diatom Skeletonema marinoi from the Adriatic Sea and the Skagerrak (North Sea), and on eight strains of the PST (paralytic shellfish toxin)-producing dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii from the Baltic Sea. Maximum growth rates were estimated in batch cultures of acclimated isolates grown for five to 10 generations in a factorial design at 20 and 24°C, and present day and next century applied atmospheric pCO(2), respectively. In both species, individual strains were affected in different ways by increased temperature and pCO(2). The strongest response variability, buffering overall effects, was detected among Adriatic S. marinoi strains. Skagerrak strains showed a more uniform response, particularly to increased temperature, with an overall positive effect on growth. Increased temperature also caused a general growth stimulation in A. ostenfeldii, despite notable variability in strain-specific response patterns. Our data revealed a significant relationship between strain-specific growth rates and the impact of pCO(2) on growth-slow growing cultures were generally positively affected, while fast growing cultures showed no or negative responses to increased pCO(2). Toxin composition of A. ostenfeldii was consistently altered by elevated temperature and increased CO(2) supply in the tested strains, resulting in overall promotion of saxitoxin production by both treatments. Our findings suggest that phenotypic variability within populations plays an important role in the adaptation of phytoplankton to changing environments, potentially attenuating short-term effects and forming the basis for selection. In particular, A. ostenfeldii blooms may expand and increase in toxicity under increased water temperature and atmospheric pCO(2) conditions, with potentially severe consequences for the coastal ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Kremp
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anna Godhe
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg40530 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Jenny Egardt
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg40530 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Sam Dupont
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg40530 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Sanna Suikkanen
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Silvia Casabianca
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino61121 Pesaro, Italy
| | - Antonella Penna
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino61121 Pesaro, Italy
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125
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Petersen TW, Brent Harrison C, Horner DN, van den Engh G. Flow cytometric characterization of marine microbes. Methods 2012; 57:350-8. [PMID: 22796378 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The analysis of marine phytoplankton using flow cytometry has enabled the discovery of new taxa and has contributed new understanding to the dynamics and ecological contributions of phytoplankton to the global carbon cycle. Marine phytoplankton are uniquely suited to analysis by flow cytometry because of their size, pigment content, and ability to remain in suspension. Cytometric analysis of marine populations is not without challenges. Phytoplankton communities span a broad range of sizes. The smallest microbes are a few tenths of a micron, while the largest are a few tenths of a millimeter. The improvement of cytometric measurements of scattered laser light allows one to investigate marine microbes whose sizes span several orders of magnitude. To effectively leverage the advantages that marine microbes possess, cytometers have to be carefully engineered for marine use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy W Petersen
- Becton Dickinson Biosciences, Advanced Cytometry Group, 12730 28th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98125, USA.
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126
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McCarthy A, Rogers SP, Duffy SJ, Campbell DA. ELEVATED CARBON DIOXIDE DIFFERENTIALLY ALTERS THE PHOTOPHYSIOLOGY OF THALASSIOSIRA PSEUDONANA (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) AND EMILIANIA HUXLEYI (HAPTOPHYTA)(1). JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2012; 48:635-646. [PMID: 27011079 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01171.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide is causing changes to ocean chemistry, which will continue in a predictable manner. Dissolution of additional atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to increased concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide and bicarbonate and decreased pH in ocean water. The concomitant effects on phytoplankton ecophysiology, leading potentially to changes in community structure, are now a focus of concern. Therefore, we grew the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) W. W. Hay et H. Mohler and the diatom strains Thalassiosira pseudonana (Hust.) Hasle et Heimdal CCMP 1014 and T. pseudonana CCMP 1335 under low light in turbidostat photobioreactors bubbled with air containing 390 ppmv or 750 ppmv CO2 . Increased pCO2 led to increased growth rates in all three strains. In addition, protein levels of RUBISCO increased in the coastal strains of both species, showing a larger capacity for CO2 assimilation at 750 ppmv CO2 . With increased pCO2 , both T. pseudonana strains displayed an increased susceptibility to PSII photoinactivation and, to compensate, an augmented capacity for PSII repair. Consequently, the cost of maintaining PSII function for the diatoms increased at increased pCO2 . In E. huxleyi, PSII photoinactivation and the counter-acting repair, while both intrinsically larger than in T. pseudonana, did not change between the current and high-pCO2 treatments. The content of the photosynthetic electron transport intermediary cytochrome b6/f complex increased significantly in the diatoms under elevated pCO2 , suggesting changes in electron transport function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery McCarthy
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Susan P Rogers
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Stephen J Duffy
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Douglas A Campbell
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, E4L 1G7, Canada
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127
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Predominance of heavily calcified coccolithophores at low CaCO3 saturation during winter in the Bay of Biscay. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:8845-9. [PMID: 22615387 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1117508109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Coccolithophores are an important component of the Earth system, and, as calcifiers, their possible susceptibility to ocean acidification is of major concern. Laboratory studies at enhanced pCO(2) levels have produced divergent results without overall consensus. However, it has been predicted from these studies that, although calcification may not be depressed in all species, acidification will produce "a transition in dominance from more to less heavily calcified coccolithophores" [Ridgwell A, et al., (2009) Biogeosciences 6:2611-2623]. A recent observational study [Beaufort L, et al., (2011) Nature 476:80-83] also suggested that coccolithophores are less calcified in more acidic conditions. We present the results of a large observational study of coccolithophore morphology in the Bay of Biscay. Samples were collected once a month for over a year, along a 1,000-km-long transect. Our data clearly show that there is a pronounced seasonality in the morphotypes of Emiliania huxleyi, the most abundant coccolithophore species. Whereas pH and CaCO(3) saturation are lowest in winter, the E. huxleyi population shifts from <10% (summer) to >90% (winter) of the heavily calcified form. However, it is unlikely that the shifts in carbonate chemistry alone caused the morphotype shift. Our finding that the most heavily calcified morphotype dominates when conditions are most acidic is contrary to the earlier predictions and raises further questions about the fate of coccolithophores in a high-CO(2) world.
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128
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Newbold LK, Oliver AE, Booth T, Tiwari B, DeSantis T, Maguire M, Andersen G, van der Gast CJ, Whiteley AS. The response of marine picoplankton to ocean acidification. Environ Microbiol 2012; 14:2293-307. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02762.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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129
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Esbaugh AJ, Heuer R, Grosell M. Impacts of ocean acidification on respiratory gas exchange and acid-base balance in a marine teleost, Opsanus beta. J Comp Physiol B 2012; 182:921-34. [PMID: 22581071 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-012-0668-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The oceanic carbonate system is changing rapidly due to rising atmospheric CO(2), with current levels expected to rise to between 750 and 1,000 μatm by 2100, and over 1,900 μatm by year 2300. The effects of elevated CO(2) on marine calcifying organisms have been extensively studied; however, effects of imminent CO(2) levels on teleost acid-base and respiratory physiology have yet to be examined. Examination of these physiological processes, using a paired experimental design, showed that 24 h exposure to 1,000 and 1,900 μatm CO(2) resulted in a characteristic compensated respiratory acidosis response in the gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta). Time course experiments showed the onset of acidosis occurred after 15 min of exposure to 1,900 and 1,000 μatm CO(2), with full compensation by 2 and 4 h, respectively. 1,900-μatm exposure also resulted in significantly increased intracellular white muscle pH after 24 h. No effect of 1,900 μatm was observed on branchial acid flux; however, exposure to hypercapnia and HCO(3)(-) free seawater compromised compensation. This suggests branchial HCO(3)(-) uptake rather than acid extrusion is part of the compensatory response to low-level hypercapnia. Exposure to 1,900 μatm resulted in downregulation in branchial carbonic anhydrase and slc4a2 expression, as well as decreased Na(+)/K(+) ATPase activity after 24 h of exposure. Infusion of bovine carbonic anhydrase had no effect on blood acid-base status during 1,900 μatm exposures, but eliminated the respiratory impacts of 1,000 μatm CO(2). The results of the current study clearly show that predicted near-future CO(2) levels impact respiratory gas transport and acid-base balance. While the full physiological impacts of increased blood HCO(3)(-) are not known, it seems likely that chronically elevated blood HCO(3)(-) levels could compromise several physiological systems and furthermore may explain recent reports of increased otolith growth during exposure to elevated CO(2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Esbaugh
- Division of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA.
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130
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Martínez JM, Schroeder DC, Wilson WH. Dynamics and genotypic composition of Emiliania huxleyi and their co-occurring viruses during a coccolithophore bloom in the North Sea. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2012; 81:315-23. [PMID: 22404582 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2012.01349.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2011] [Revised: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the temporal succession of vertical profiles of Emiliania huxleyi and their specific viruses (EhVs) during the progression of a natural phytoplankton bloom in the North Sea in June 1999. Genotypic richness was assessed by exploiting the variations in a gene encoding a protein with calcium-binding motifs (GPA) for E. huxleyi and in the viral major capsid protein gene for EhVs. Using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and sequencing analysis, we showed at least three different E. huxleyi and EhV genotypic profiles during the period of study, revealing a complex, and changing assemblage at the molecular level. Our results also indicate that the dynamics of EhV genotypes reflect fluctuations in abundance of potential E. huxleyi host cells. The presence and concentration of specific EhVs in the area prior to the bloom, or EhVs transported into the area by different water masses, are significant factors affecting the structure and intraspecific succession of E. huxleyi during the phytoplankton bloom.
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131
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While J, Totterdell I, Martin M. Assimilation ofpCO2data into a global coupled physical-biogeochemical ocean model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jc006815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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132
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Bianucci L, Denman KL. Carbon and oxygen cycles: Sensitivity to changes in environmental forcing in a coastal upwelling system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jg001849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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133
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Raven JA, Giordano M, Beardall J, Maberly SC. Algal evolution in relation to atmospheric CO2: carboxylases, carbon-concentrating mechanisms and carbon oxidation cycles. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012; 367:493-507. [PMID: 22232762 PMCID: PMC3248706 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved at least 2.4 Ga; all oxygenic organisms use the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (Rubisco)-photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle (PCRC) rather than one of the five other known pathways of autotrophic CO(2) assimilation. The high CO(2) and (initially) O(2)-free conditions permitted the use of a Rubisco with a high maximum specific reaction rate. As CO(2) decreased and O(2) increased, Rubisco oxygenase activity increased and 2-phosphoglycolate was produced, with the evolution of pathways recycling this inhibitory product to sugar phosphates. Changed atmospheric composition also selected for Rubiscos with higher CO(2) affinity and CO(2)/O(2) selectivity correlated with decreased CO(2)-saturated catalytic capacity and/or for CO(2)-concentrating mechanisms (CCMs). These changes increase the energy, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, zinc and manganese cost of producing and operating Rubisco-PCRC, while biosphere oxygenation decreased the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus and iron. The majority of algae today have CCMs; the timing of their origins is unclear. If CCMs evolved in a low-CO(2) episode followed by one or more lengthy high-CO(2) episodes, CCM retention could involve a combination of environmental factors known to favour CCM retention in extant organisms that also occur in a warmer high-CO(2) ocean. More investigations, including studies of genetic adaptation, are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Raven
- Division of Plant Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, University of Dundee at TJHI, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK.
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134
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Iguchi A, Ozaki S, Nakamura T, Inoue M, Tanaka Y, Suzuki A, Kawahata H, Sakai K. Effects of acidified seawater on coral calcification and symbiotic algae on the massive coral Porites australiensis. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2012; 73:32-36. [PMID: 22115919 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2011.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Revised: 09/21/2011] [Accepted: 10/29/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the effect of acidified seawater on calcification and symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae density, chlorophyll content per single algal cell, fluorescence yield (Fv/Fm)) on a massive coral, Porites australiensis, a common species in the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan. We found that acidified seawater significantly decreased the calcification and fluorescence yield, but did not affect zooxanthellae density and chlorophyll content per single algal cell. This indicates low levels of photoacclimation to acidified seawater in this species, and this is contrary to the findings of previous studies of Acropora species. A significant correlation between calcification and fluorescence yield was observed, indicating the presence of a strong relationship between calcification and algal photosynthesis. Our results indicate that endosymbiont photosynthetic dysfunction may enhance the decrease of coral calcification in future acidified ocean conditions. Calcification and fluorescence yield among colonies clearly differed, showing that the response to acidified seawater is highly variable among colonies in natural coral populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Iguchi
- Sesoko Station, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 905-0227, Japan.
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135
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Spielmeyer A, Pohnert G. Influence of temperature and elevated carbon dioxide on the production of dimethylsulfoniopropionate and glycine betaine by marine phytoplankton. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2012; 73:62-69. [PMID: 22130520 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Revised: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The sulfur metabolite dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) is the most important precursor of the climate relevant metabolite dimethylsulfide (DMS). It has thus gained interest in the context of climate change and several studies investigated the influence of elevated temperature and/or CO(2) on DMSP in complex plankton communities. However, only little information about changes in response to these factors in single species is available. Therefore, we analyzed DMSP in different phytoplankton cultures (Thalassiosira pseudonana, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Emiliania huxleyi) under the influence of increased temperature by 6 °C and elevated CO(2) to 790 ppmv. In addition, we addressed glycine betaine (GBT) that fulfills a similar function as osmolyte like DMSP. In all cultures GBT concentrations increased at higher temperature and decreased at elevated CO(2). In contrast, diatoms and prymnesiophytes revealed opposite trends for DMSP. In diatoms increased CO(2) and temperature led to decreased DMSP concentrations, while rather elevated levels of this metabolite under the influence of these parameters were observed for E. huxleyi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Spielmeyer
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University, Lessingstr. 8, 07743 Jena (D), Germany
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136
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Fukuzawa H, Ogawa T, Kaplan A. The Uptake of CO2 by Cyanobacteria and Microalgae. PHOTOSYNTHESIS 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-1579-0_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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137
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Álvarez S, Zapata M, Garrido JL, Vaz B. Characterization of [8-ethyl]-chlorophyll c3 from Emiliania huxleyi. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012; 48:5500-2. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cc31329d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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138
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Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Hallegraeff GM. Progress in understanding harmful algal blooms: paradigm shifts and new technologies for research, monitoring, and management. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2012; 4:143-76. [PMID: 22457972 PMCID: PMC5373096 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 442] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The public health, tourism, fisheries, and ecosystem impacts from harmful algal blooms (HABs) have all increased over the past few decades. This has led to heightened scientific and regulatory attention, and the development of many new technologies and approaches for research and management. This, in turn, is leading to significant paradigm shifts with regard to, e.g., our interpretation of the phytoplankton species concept (strain variation), the dogma of their apparent cosmopolitanism, the role of bacteria and zooplankton grazing in HABs, and our approaches to investigating the ecological and genetic basis for the production of toxins and allelochemicals. Increasingly, eutrophication and climate change are viewed and managed as multifactorial environmental stressors that will further challenge managers of coastal resources and those responsible for protecting human health. Here we review HAB science with an eye toward new concepts and approaches, emphasizing, where possible, the unexpected yet promising new directions that research has taken in this diverse field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald M Anderson
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA.
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139
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Moolna A, Rickaby REM. Interaction of the coccolithophore Gephyrocapsa oceanica with its carbon environment: response to a recreated high-CO2 geological past. GEOBIOLOGY 2012; 10:72-81. [PMID: 22118223 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4669.2011.00308.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Coccolithophores have played a key role in the carbon cycle since becoming dominant in the Cretaceous ocean, and their influence depends fundamentally on how they interact with their external carbon environment. Because the photosynthetic carbon-fixing enzyme Rubisco requires high levels of CO(2) for effective catalysis, coccolithophores are known to induce carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCMs) to raise the level of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in an 'internal pool'. The ocean carbon system has varied greatly over the geological past, suggesting that coccolithophore interactions with that external carbon environment will have changed in parallel. The widespread present-day coccolithophore Gephyrocapsa oceanica was acclimated here to a geological scale change in the seawater carbon system (five times higher DIC and alkalinity). Significant acclimation in response to the external carbon environment was demonstrated by a fourfold increase in the K(m) substrate concentration requirement for half-maximum photosynthetic carbon fixation rates (suggesting that CCMs were down-regulated when ambient carbon was more available). There was, however, no difference in growth rate, morphology or calcification, suggesting that calcification is not coupled to photosynthesis as one of the CCMs induced here and that productivity (growth rate and calcification) is not carbon-limited under representative present-day conditions. Beyond the kinetic parameters of photosynthesis, the only other indication of changed cell physiology seen was the increased fractionation of carbon isotopes into organic matter. These findings demonstrate that G. oceanica changes its carbon-use physiology to maintain consistent photosynthetic carbon fixation in concert with different levels of ambient DIC without changing its morphology or calcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Moolna
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, UK
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140
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Abstract
Contemporary impacts of anthropogenic climate change on ecosystems are increasingly being recognized. Documenting the extent of these impacts requires quantitative tools for analyses of ecological observations to distinguish climate impacts in noisy data and to understand interactions between climate variability and other drivers of change. To assist the development of reliable statistical approaches, we review the marine climate change literature and provide suggestions for quantitative approaches in climate change ecology. We compiled 267 peer-reviewed articles that examined relationships between climate change and marine ecological variables. Of the articles with time series data (n = 186), 75% used statistics to test for a dependency of ecological variables on climate variables. We identified several common weaknesses in statistical approaches, including marginalizing other important non-climate drivers of change, ignoring temporal and spatial autocorrelation, averaging across spatial patterns and not reporting key metrics. We provide a list of issues that need to be addressed to make inferences more defensible, including the consideration of (i) data limitations and the comparability of data sets; (ii) alternative mechanisms for change; (iii) appropriate response variables; (iv) a suitable model for the process under study; (v) temporal autocorrelation; (vi) spatial autocorrelation and patterns; and (vii) the reporting of rates of change. While the focus of our review was marine studies, these suggestions are equally applicable to terrestrial studies. Consideration of these suggestions will help advance global knowledge of climate impacts and understanding of the processes driving ecological change.
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141
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Fiorini S, Middelburg JJ, Gattuso JP. TESTING THE EFFECTS OF ELEVATED PCO2 ON COCCOLITHOPHORES (PRYMNESIOPHYCEAE): COMPARISON BETWEEN HAPLOID AND DIPLOID LIFE STAGES(1). JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2011; 47:1281-1291. [PMID: 27020352 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2011.01080.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The response of Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) W. W. Hay et H. Mohler, Calcidiscus leptoporus (G. Murray et V. H. Blackman) J. Schiller, and Syracosphaera pulchra Lohmann to elevated partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2 ) was investigated in batch cultures. We reported on the response of both haploid and diploid life stages of these three species. Growth rate, cell size, particulate inorganic carbon (PIC), and particulate organic carbon (POC) of both life stages were measured at two different pCO2 (400 and 760 parts per million [ppm]), and their organic and inorganic carbon production were calculated. The two life stages within the same species generally exhibited a similar response to elevated pCO2 , the response of the haploid stage being often more pronounced than that of the diploid stage. The growth rate was consistently higher at elevated pCO2 , but the response of other processes varied among species. Calcification rate of C. leptoporus and of S. pulchra did not change at elevated pCO2 , whereas it increased in E. huxleyi. POC production and cell size of both life stages of S. pulchra and of the haploid stage of E. huxleyi markedly decreased at elevated pCO2 . It remained unaltered in the diploid stage of E. huxleyi and C. leptoporus and increased in the haploid stage of the latter. The PIC:POC ratio increased in E. huxleyi and was constant in C. leptoporus and S. pulchra. Elevated pCO2 has a significant effect on these three coccolithophore species, the haploid stage being more sensitive. This effect must be taken into account when predicting the fate of coccolithophores in the future ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Fiorini
- Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, B.P. 28, 06234 Villefranche-sur-Mer Cedex, France Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-mer, 06234 Villefranche-sur-mer, France Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, the Netherlands Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, the Netherlands Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.021, 3508 TA Utrecht, the Netherlands Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, B.P. 28, 06234 Villefranche-sur-Mer Cedex, France Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-mer, 06234 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
| | - Jack J Middelburg
- Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, B.P. 28, 06234 Villefranche-sur-Mer Cedex, France Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-mer, 06234 Villefranche-sur-mer, France Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, the Netherlands Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, the Netherlands Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.021, 3508 TA Utrecht, the Netherlands Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, B.P. 28, 06234 Villefranche-sur-Mer Cedex, France Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-mer, 06234 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Gattuso
- Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, B.P. 28, 06234 Villefranche-sur-Mer Cedex, France Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-mer, 06234 Villefranche-sur-mer, France Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, the Netherlands Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, the Netherlands Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.021, 3508 TA Utrecht, the Netherlands Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, B.P. 28, 06234 Villefranche-sur-Mer Cedex, France Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-mer, 06234 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
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142
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Chi Z, O’Fallon JV, Chen S. Bicarbonate produced from carbon capture for algae culture. Trends Biotechnol 2011; 29:537-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2011] [Revised: 05/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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143
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Gaylord B, Hill TM, Sanford E, Lenz EA, Jacobs LA, Sato KN, Russell AD, Hettinger A. Functional impacts of ocean acidification in an ecologically critical foundation species. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 214:2586-94. [PMID: 21753053 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.055939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Anthropogenic CO(2) is reducing the pH and altering the carbonate chemistry of seawater, with repercussions for marine organisms and ecosystems. Current research suggests that calcification will decrease in many species, but compelling evidence of impaired functional performance of calcium carbonate structures is sparse, particularly in key species. Here we demonstrate that ocean acidification markedly degrades the mechanical integrity of larval shells in the mussel Mytilus californianus, a critical community member on rocky shores throughout the northeastern Pacific. Larvae cultured in seawater containing CO(2) concentrations expected by the year 2100 (540 or 970 ppm) precipitated weaker, thinner and smaller shells than individuals raised under present-day seawater conditions (380 ppm), and also exhibited lower tissue mass. Under a scenario where mussel larvae exposed to different CO(2) levels develop at similar rates, these trends suggest a suite of potential consequences, including an exacerbated vulnerability of new settlers to crushing and drilling attacks by predators; poorer larval condition, causing increased energetic stress during metamorphosis; and greater risks from desiccation at low tide due to shifts in shell area to body mass ratios. Under an alternative scenario where responses derive exclusively from slowed development, with impacted individuals reaching identical milestones in shell strength and size by settlement, a lengthened larval phase could increase exposure to high planktonic mortality rates. In either case, because early life stages operate as population bottlenecks, driving general patterns of distribution and abundance, the ecological success of this vital species may be tied to how ocean acidification proceeds in coming decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Gaylord
- Bodega Marine Laboratory and Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California at Davis, 2099 Westshore Road, Bodega Bay, CA 94923, USA.
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144
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Raven JA, Giordano M, Beardall J, Maberly SC. Algal and aquatic plant carbon concentrating mechanisms in relation to environmental change. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2011; 109:281-296. [PMID: 21327536 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-011-9632-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms (also known as inorganic carbon concentrating mechanisms; both abbreviated as CCMs) presumably evolved under conditions of low CO(2) availability. However, the timing of their origin is unclear since there are no sound estimates from molecular clocks, and even if there were, there are no proxies for the functioning of CCMs. Accordingly, we cannot use previous episodes of high CO(2) (e.g. the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum) to indicate how organisms with CCMs responded. Present and predicted environmental change in terms of increased CO(2) and temperature are leading to increased CO(2) and HCO(3)(-) and decreased CO(3)(2-) and pH in surface seawater, as well as decreasing the depth of the upper mixed layer and increasing the degree of isolation of this layer with respect to nutrient flux from deeper waters. The outcome of these forcing factors is to increase the availability of inorganic carbon, photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) and ultraviolet B radiation (UVB) to aquatic photolithotrophs and to decrease the supply of the nutrients (combined) nitrogen and phosphorus and of any non-aeolian iron. The influence of these variations on CCM expression has been examined to varying degrees as acclimation by extant organisms. Increased PAR increases CCM expression in terms of CO(2) affinity, whilst increased UVB has a range of effects in the organisms examined; little relevant information is available on increased temperature. Decreased combined nitrogen supply generally increases CO(2) affinity, decreased iron availability increases CO(2) affinity, and decreased phosphorus supply has varying effects on the organisms examined. There are few data sets showing interactions amongst the observed changes, and even less information on genetic (adaptation) changes in response to the forcing factors. In freshwaters, changes in phytoplankton species composition may alter with environmental change with consequences for frequency of species with or without CCMs. The information available permits less predictive power as to the effect of the forcing factors on CCM expression than for their overall effects on growth. CCMs are currently not part of models as to how global environmental change has altered, and is likely to further alter, algal and aquatic plant primary productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Raven
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee at SCRI, Scottish Crop Research Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee, UK.
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145
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Mercado JM, Gordillo FJL. Inorganic carbon acquisition in algal communities: are the laboratory data relevant to the natural ecosystems? PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2011; 109:257-267. [PMID: 21445608 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-011-9646-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 03/14/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Most of the experimental work on the effects of ocean acidification on the photosynthesis of algae has been performed in the laboratory using monospecific cultures. It is frequently assumed that the information obtained from these cultures can be used to predict the acclimation response in the natural environment. CO(2) concentration is known to regulate the expression and functioning of the CCMs in the natural communities; however, ambient CO(2) can become quite variable in the marine ecosystems even in the short- to mid-term. We propose that the degree of saturation of the photosynthesis for a given algal community should be defined in relation to the particular characteristics of its habitat, and not only in relation to its taxonomic composition. The convenience of high CO(2) experiments to infer the degree of photosynthesis saturation by CO(2) in the natural algal communities under the present ocean conditions, as well as its trend in a coming future is discussed taking into account other factors such as the availability of light and nutrients, and seasonality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús M Mercado
- Centro Oceanográfico de Málaga, Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Fuengirola, Málaga, Spain.
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146
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Beaufort L, Probert I, de Garidel-Thoron T, Bendif EM, Ruiz-Pino D, Metzl N, Goyet C, Buchet N, Coupel P, Grelaud M, Rost B, Rickaby REM, de Vargas C. Sensitivity of coccolithophores to carbonate chemistry and ocean acidification. Nature 2011; 476:80-3. [PMID: 21814280 DOI: 10.1038/nature10295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 335] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
About one-third of the carbon dioxide (CO(2)) released into the atmosphere as a result of human activity has been absorbed by the oceans, where it partitions into the constituent ions of carbonic acid. This leads to ocean acidification, one of the major threats to marine ecosystems and particularly to calcifying organisms such as corals, foraminifera and coccolithophores. Coccolithophores are abundant phytoplankton that are responsible for a large part of modern oceanic carbonate production. Culture experiments investigating the physiological response of coccolithophore calcification to increased CO(2) have yielded contradictory results between and even within species. Here we quantified the calcite mass of dominant coccolithophores in the present ocean and over the past forty thousand years, and found a marked pattern of decreasing calcification with increasing partial pressure of CO(2) and concomitant decreasing concentrations of CO(3)(2-). Our analyses revealed that differentially calcified species and morphotypes are distributed in the ocean according to carbonate chemistry. A substantial impact on the marine carbon cycle might be expected upon extrapolation of this correlation to predicted ocean acidification in the future. However, our discovery of a heavily calcified Emiliania huxleyi morphotype in modern waters with low pH highlights the complexity of assemblage-level responses to environmental forcing factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Beaufort
- CEREGE, CNRS/Université Aix-Marseille, Avenue L. Philibert BP80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence, Cedex 4, France.
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147
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148
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Dorrell RG, Smith AG. Do red and green make brown?: perspectives on plastid acquisitions within chromalveolates. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2011; 10:856-68. [PMID: 21622904 PMCID: PMC3147421 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00326-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The chromalveolate "supergroup" is of key interest in contemporary phycology, as it contains the overwhelming majority of extant algal species, including several phyla of key importance to oceanic net primary productivity such as diatoms, kelps, and dinoflagellates. There is also intense current interest in the exploitation of these algae for industrial purposes, such as biodiesel production. However, the evolution of the constituent species, and in particular the origin and radiation of the chloroplast genomes, remains poorly understood. In this review, we discuss current theories of the origins of the extant red alga-derived chloroplast lineages in the chromalveolates and the potential ramifications of the recent discovery of large numbers of green algal genes in chromalveolate genomes. We consider that the best explanation for this is that chromalveolates historically possessed a cryptic green algal endosymbiont that was subsequently replaced by a red algal chloroplast. We consider how changing selective pressures acting on ancient chromalveolate lineages may have selectively favored the serial endosymbioses of green and red algae and whether a complex endosymbiotic history facilitated the rise of chromalveolates to their current position of ecological prominence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Dorrell
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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149
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Grosell M. Intestinal anion exchange in marine teleosts is involved in osmoregulation and contributes to the oceanic inorganic carbon cycle. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2011; 202:421-34. [PMID: 21362153 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.2010.02241.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Marine teleost fish osmoregulation involves seawater ingestion and intestinal fluid absorption. Solute coupled fluid absorption by the marine teleost fish intestine has long been believed to be the product of Na(+) and Cl(-) absorption via the Na(+) :K(+) :2Cl(-) co-transporter (NKCC2). However, the past decade has revealed that intestinal anion exchange contributes significantly to Cl(-) absorption, in exchange for HCO(3) (-) secretion, and that this process is important for intestinal water absorption. In addition to contributing to solute coupled water absorption intestinal anion exchange results in luminal precipitation of CaCO(3) which acts to reduce luminal osmotic pressure and thus assist water absorption. Most recently, activity of apical H(+) -pumps, especially in distal segments of the intestine have been suggested to not only promote anion exchange, but also to reduce luminal osmotic pressure by preventing excess HCO(3)(-) concentrations from accumulating in intestinal fluids, thereby aiding water absorption. The present review summarizes and synthesizes the most recent advances in our view of marine teleosts osmoregulation, including our emerging understanding of epithelial transport of acid-base equivalents in the intestine, the consequences for whole organism acid-base balance and finally the impact of piscine CaCO(3) formation on the global oceanic carbon cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Grosell
- RSMAS, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149-1098, USA.
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Taylor AR, Chrachri A, Wheeler G, Goddard H, Brownlee C. A voltage-gated H+ channel underlying pH homeostasis in calcifying coccolithophores. PLoS Biol 2011; 9:e1001085. [PMID: 21713028 PMCID: PMC3119654 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine coccolithophorid phytoplankton are major producers of biogenic calcite, playing a significant role in the global carbon cycle. Predicting the impacts of ocean acidification on coccolithophore calcification has received much recent attention and requires improved knowledge of cellular calcification mechanisms. Uniquely amongst calcifying organisms, coccolithophores produce calcified scales (coccoliths) in an intracellular compartment and secrete them to the cell surface, requiring large transcellular ionic fluxes to support calcification. In particular, intracellular calcite precipitation using HCO₃⁻ as the substrate generates equimolar quantities of H+ that must be rapidly removed to prevent cytoplasmic acidification. We have used electrophysiological approaches to identify a plasma membrane voltage-gated H+ conductance in Coccolithus pelagicus ssp braarudii with remarkably similar biophysical and functional properties to those found in metazoans. We show that both C. pelagicus and Emiliania huxleyi possess homologues of metazoan H(v)1 H+ channels, which function as voltage-gated H+ channels when expressed in heterologous systems. Homologues of the coccolithophore H+ channels were also identified in a diversity of eukaryotes, suggesting a wide range of cellular roles for the H(v)1 class of proteins. Using single cell imaging, we demonstrate that the coccolithophore H+ conductance mediates rapid H+ efflux and plays an important role in pH homeostasis in calcifying cells. The results demonstrate a novel cellular role for voltage gated H+ channels and provide mechanistic insight into biomineralisation by establishing a direct link between pH homeostasis and calcification. As the coccolithophore H+ conductance is dependent on the trans-membrane H+ electrochemical gradient, this mechanism will be directly impacted by, and may underlie adaptation to, ocean acidification. The presence of this H+ efflux pathway suggests that there is no obligate use of H+ derived from calcification for intracellular CO₂ generation. Furthermore, the presence of H(v)1 class ion channels in a wide range of extant eukaryote groups indicates they evolved in an early common ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison R. Taylor
- The Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Abdul Chrachri
- The Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom
| | - Glen Wheeler
- The Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, The Hoe, Plymouth, United Kingdom
| | - Helen Goddard
- The Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Brownlee
- The Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom
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