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Dillon MJ, Bowkett AE, Bungard MJ, Beckman KM, O'Brien MF, Bates K, Fisher MC, Stevens JR, Thornton CR. Tracking the amphibian pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans using a highly specific monoclonal antibody and lateral-flow technology. Microb Biotechnol 2017; 10:381-394. [PMID: 27995742 PMCID: PMC5328824 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) causes chytridiomycosis, a lethal epizootic disease of amphibians. Rapid identification of the pathogen and biosecurity is essential to prevent its spread, but current laboratory-based tests are time-consuming and require specialist equipment. Here, we describe the generation of an IgM monoclonal antibody (mAb), 5C4, specific to Bd as well as the related salamander and newt pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). The mAb, which binds to a glycoprotein antigen present on the surface of zoospores, sporangia and zoosporangia, was used to develop a lateral-flow assay (LFA) for rapid (15 min) detection of the pathogens. The LFA detects known lineages of Bd and also Bsal, as well as the closely related fungus Homolaphlyctis polyrhiza, but does not detect a wide range of related and unrelated fungi and oomycetes likely to be present in amphibian habitats. When combined with a simple swabbing procedure, the LFA was 100% accurate in detecting the water-soluble 5C4 antigen present in skin, foot and pelvic samples from frogs, newts and salamanders naturally infected with Bd or Bsal. Our results demonstrate the potential of the portable LFA as a rapid qualitative assay for tracking these amphibian pathogens and as an adjunct test to nucleic acid-based detection methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Dillon
- BiosciencesUniversity of ExeterGeoffrey Pope BuildingExeterEX4 4QDUK
| | | | | | | | | | - Kieran Bates
- Department of Infectious Disease EpidemiologyImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
| | - Matthew C. Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease EpidemiologyImperial College LondonLondonSW7 2AZUK
| | - Jamie R. Stevens
- BiosciencesUniversity of ExeterGeoffrey Pope BuildingExeterEX4 4QDUK
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102
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Balàž V, Gortázar Schmidt C, Murray K, Carnesecchi E, Garcia A, Gervelmeyer A, Martino L, Munoz Guajardo I, Verdonck F, Zancanaro G, Fabris C. Scientific and technical assistance concerning the survival, establishment and spread of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) in the EU. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04739. [PMID: 32625419 PMCID: PMC7010177 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A new fungus, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), was identified in wild populations of salamanders in the Netherlands and Belgium, and in kept salamander populations in Germany and the United Kingdom. EFSA assessed the potential of Bsal to affect the health of wild and kept salamanders in the EU, the effectiveness and feasibility of a movement ban of traded salamanders, the validity, reliability and robustness of available diagnostic methods for Bsal detection, and possible alternative methods and feasible risk mitigation measures to ensure safe international and EU trade of salamanders and their products. Bsal was isolated and characterised in 2013 from a declining fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) population in the Netherlands. Based on the available evidence, it is likely that Bsal is a sufficient cause for the death of S. salamandra both in the laboratory and in the wild. Despite small sample sizes, the available experimental evidence indicates that Bsal is associated with disease and death in individuals of 12 European and 3 Asian salamander species, and with high mortality rate outbreaks in kept salamanders. Bsal experimental infection was detected in individuals of at least one species pertaining to the families Salamandridae, Plethodontidae, Hynobiidae and Sirenidae. Movement bans constitute key risk mitigation measures to prevent pathogen spread into naïve areas and populations. The effectiveness of a movement ban is mainly dependent on the import volumes, possibility of Bsal to remain viable outside susceptible/tolerant species, and the capacity to limit illegal movements. Duplex real-time PCR can be used to detect Bsal DNA, but has not been fully validated. Quarantining salamanders, enacting legislation that requires testing of animals to demonstrate freedom from Bsal, before movement can take place, restricting salamander movements, tracking all traded species, hygienic procedures/biosecurity measures before and during movements, and increasing public awareness are relevant measures for ensuring safe intra-EU and international trade of salamanders.
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103
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Nguyen TT, Nguyen TV, Ziegler T, Pasmans F, Martel A. Trade in wild anurans vectors the urodelan pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans into Europe. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Pathogen pollution has caused dramatic losses of amphibian diversity on a global scale. The recently emerged chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) has been hypothesized to have its origin in Asian urodelan populations, from which it may have been introduced to Europe through the trade in live urodelans. We here show that Bsal is present on wild small-webbed fire-bellied toads (Bombina microdeladigitora) from Vietnam and on representatives of the same species that have recently been imported in Germany. This finding suggests that the installment of measures to mitigate the Bsal threat through the amphibian trade should not be limited to urodeles, but should equally take anurans into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Thien Nguyen
- Vietnam National Museum of Nature, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet Road, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thinh Van Nguyen
- Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thomas Ziegler
- AG Zoologischer Garten Köln, Riehler Strasse 173, D-50735 Cologne, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Straße 47b, D-50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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104
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Sabino-Pinto J, Bletz M, Iturriaga M, Vences M, Rodríguez A. Low infection prevalence of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Chytridiomycetes: Rhizophydiales) in Cuba. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is responsible for population declines and extinctions of amphibians worldwide. The distribution and prevalence of Bd in Cuba has remained unknown to date, with only a single report on its presence. We collected 182 samples from wild anuran populations across 21 species and 16 localities and tested for the presence of Bd using qPCRs. Only six Bd positive samples from four species were detected in three very close localities in Central Cuba. Bd prevalence was of 10-20% in the positive localities, and the island-wide prevalence was only 3.2%. These results indicate that Bd occurrence in Cuba might be concentrated in or even restricted to the central Guamuhaya Massif and call for increased conservation and monitoring efforts in these mountains along with additional sampling in areas and species not covered in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Sabino-Pinto
- Zoological Institute, Technical University of Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstr. 4, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Molly C. Bletz
- Zoological Institute, Technical University of Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstr. 4, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Manuel Iturriaga
- División de Colecciones Zoológicas, Instituto de Ecología y Sistemática, Cta. Varona 11835 e/ Oriente y Lindero, Reparto Parajón, Boyeros, 11900 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoological Institute, Technical University of Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstr. 4, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ariel Rodríguez
- Zoological Institute, Technical University of Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstr. 4, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
- Zoological Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine (TiHo) Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
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105
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Ip HS, Lorch JM, Blehert DS. Detection of spring viraemia of carp virus in imported amphibians reveals an unanticipated foreign animal disease threat. Emerg Microbes Infect 2016; 5:e97. [PMID: 27599472 PMCID: PMC5113056 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2016.94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Global translocation of plants and animals is a well-recognized mechanism for introduction of pathogens into new regions. To mitigate this risk, various tools such as preshipment health certificates, quarantines, screening for specific disease agents and outright bans have been implemented. However, such measures only target known infectious agents and their hosts and may fail to prevent translocation of even well-recognized pathogens if they are carried by novel host species. In a recent example, we screened an imported shipment of Chinese firebelly newts (Cynops orientalis) for Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, an emergent fungal pathogen of salamanders. All animals tested negative for the fungus. However, a virus was cultured from internal organs from 7 of the 11 individual dead salamanders and from two pools of tissues from four additional dead animals. Sequencing of a portion of the glycoprotein gene from all viral isolates indicated 100% identity and that they were most closely related to spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV). Subsequently, SVCV-specific PCR testing indicated the presence of virus in internal organs from each of the four animals previously pooled, and whole-genome sequencing of one of the viral isolates confirmed genomic arrangement characteristic of SVCV. SVCV is a rhabdovirus pathogen of cyprinid fish that is listed as notifiable to the Office International des Epizooties. This discovery reveals a novel route for potential spillover of this economically important pathogen as rhabdovirus has not previously been documented in amphibians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hon S Ip
- US Geological Survey - National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Lorch
- US Geological Survey - National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - David S Blehert
- US Geological Survey - National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
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106
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Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Martel A, Asselberghs J, Bales EK, Beukema W, Bletz MC, Dalbeck L, Goverse E, Kerres A, Kinet T, Kirst K, Laudelout A, Marin da Fonte LF, Nöllert A, Ohlhoff D, Sabino-Pinto J, Schmidt BR, Speybroeck J, Spikmans F, Steinfartz S, Veith M, Vences M, Wagner N, Pasmans F, Lötters S. Expanding Distribution of Lethal Amphibian Fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22:1286-8. [PMID: 27070102 PMCID: PMC4918153 DOI: 10.3201/eid2207.160109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging fungal diseases can drive amphibian species to local extinction. During 2010–2016, we examined 1,921 urodeles in 3 European countries. Presence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans at new locations and in urodeles of different species expands the known geographic and host range of the fungus and underpins its imminent threat to biodiversity.
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107
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108
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Van Rooij P, Martel A, Haesebrouck F, Pasmans F. Amphibian chytridiomycosis: a review with focus on fungus-host interactions. Vet Res 2015; 46:137. [PMID: 26607488 PMCID: PMC4660679 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0266-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Amphibian declines and extinctions are emblematic for the current sixth mass extinction event. Infectious drivers of these declines include the recently emerged fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Chytridiomycota). The skin disease caused by these fungi is named chytridiomycosis and affects the vital function of amphibian skin. Not all amphibians respond equally to infection and host responses might range from resistant, over tolerant to susceptible. The clinical outcome of infection is highly dependent on the amphibian host, the fungal virulence and environmental determinants. B. dendrobatidis infects the skin of a large range of anurans, urodeles and caecilians, whereas to date the host range of B. salamandrivorans seems limited to urodeles. So far, the epidemic of B. dendrobatidis is mainly limited to Australian, neotropical, South European and West American amphibians, while for B. salamandrivorans it is limited to European salamanders. Other striking differences between both fungi include gross pathology and thermal preferences. With this review we aim to provide the reader with a state-of-the art of host-pathogen interactions for both fungi, in which new data pertaining to the interaction of B. dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans with the host’s skin are integrated. Furthermore, we pinpoint areas in which more detailed studies are necessary or which have not received the attention they merit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascale Van Rooij
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - An Martel
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Freddy Haesebrouck
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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109
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Cunningham AA, Beckmann K, Perkins M, Fitzpatrick L, Cromie R, Redbond J, O'Brien MF, Ghosh P, Shelton J, Fisher MC. Emerging disease in UK amphibians. Vet Rec 2015; 176:468. [PMID: 25934745 DOI: 10.1136/vr.h2264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY
| | - Katie Beckmann
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY
| | - Matthew Perkins
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY
| | - Liam Fitzpatrick
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY
| | - Ruth Cromie
- Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire GL2 7BT
| | - Jay Redbond
- Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire GL2 7BT
| | | | - Pria Ghosh
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG
| | - Jennifer Shelton
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG
| | - Matthew C Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG
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110
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Yap TA, Koo MS, Ambrose RF, Wake DB, Vredenburg VT. BIODIVERSITY. Averting a North American biodiversity crisis. Science 2015; 349:481-2. [PMID: 26228132 DOI: 10.1126/science.aab1052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany A Yap
- Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Michelle S Koo
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Richard F Ambrose
- Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - David B Wake
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Vance T Vredenburg
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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111
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Blooi M, Pasmans F, Rouffaer L, Haesebrouck F, Vercammen F, Martel A. Successful treatment of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans infections in salamanders requires synergy between voriconazole, polymyxin E and temperature. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11788. [PMID: 26123899 PMCID: PMC4485233 DOI: 10.1038/srep11788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) poses a serious threat to urodelan diversity worldwide. Antimycotic treatment of this disease using protocols developed for the related fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), results in therapeutic failure. Here, we reveal that this therapeutic failure is partly due to different minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of antimycotics against Bsal and Bd. In vitro growth inhibition of Bsal occurs after exposure to voriconazole, polymyxin E, itraconazole and terbinafine but not to florfenicol. Synergistic effects between polymyxin E and voriconazole or itraconazole significantly decreased the combined MICs necessary to inhibit Bsal growth. Topical treatment of infected fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra), with voriconazole or itraconazole alone (12.5 μg/ml and 0.6 μg/ml respectively) or in combination with polymyxin E (2000 IU/ml) at an ambient temperature of 15 °C during 10 days decreased fungal loads but did not clear Bsal infections. However, topical treatment of Bsal infected animals with a combination of polymyxin E (2000 IU/ml) and voriconazole (12.5 μg/ml) at an ambient temperature of 20 °C resulted in clearance of Bsal infections. This treatment protocol was validated in 12 fire salamanders infected with Bsal during a field outbreak and resulted in clearance of infection in all animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Blooi
- 1] Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium [2] Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - F Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L Rouffaer
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Haesebrouck
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Vercammen
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - A Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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112
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Bales EK, Hyman OJ, Loudon AH, Harris RN, Lipps G, Chapman E, Roblee K, Kleopfer JD, Terrell KA. Pathogenic chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, but not B. salamandrivorans, detected on eastern hellbenders. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116405. [PMID: 25695636 PMCID: PMC4335058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent worldwide declines and extinctions of amphibian populations have been attributed to chytridiomycosis, a disease caused by the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Until recently, Bd was thought to be the only Batrachochytrium species that infects amphibians; however a newly described species, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bs), is linked to die-offs in European fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). Little is known about the distribution, host range, or origin of Bs. In this study, we surveyed populations of an aquatic salamander that is declining in the United States, the eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis), for the presence of Bs and Bd. Skin swabs were collected from a total of 91 individuals in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Virginia, and tested for both pathogens using duplex qPCR. Bs was not detected in any samples, suggesting it was not present in these hellbender populations (0% prevalence, 95% confidence intervals of 0.0–0.04). Bd was found on 22 hellbenders (24% prevalence, 95% confidence intervals of 0.16 ≤ 0.24 ≤ 0.34), representing all four states. All positive samples had low loads of Bd zoospores (12.7 ± 4.9 S.E.M. genome equivalents) compared to other Bd susceptible species. More research is needed to determine the impact of Batrachochytrium infection on hellbender fitness and population viability. In particular, understanding how hellbenders limit Bd infection intensity in an aquatic environment may yield important insights for amphibian conservation. This study is among the first to evaluate the distribution of Bs in the United States, and is consistent with another, which failed to detect Bs in the U.S. Knowledge about the distribution, host-range, and origin of Bs may help control the spread of this pathogen, especially to regions of high salamander diversity, such as the eastern United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma K. Bales
- Biology Department, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Oliver J. Hyman
- Biology Department, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Andrew H. Loudon
- Biology Department, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Reid N. Harris
- Biology Department, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Gregory Lipps
- Gregory Lipps, LLC, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Eric Chapman
- Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kenneth Roblee
- New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - John D. Kleopfer
- Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Kimberly A. Terrell
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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113
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Blooi M, Martel A, Haesebrouck F, Vercammen F, Bonte D, Pasmans F. Treatment of urodelans based on temperature dependent infection dynamics of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. Sci Rep 2015; 5:8037. [PMID: 25623498 PMCID: PMC5389025 DOI: 10.1038/srep08037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The recently emerged chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans currently causes amphibian population declines. We hypothesized that temperature dictates infection dynamics of B. salamandrivorans, and that therefore heat treatment may be applied to clear animals from infection. We examined the impact of environmental temperature on B. salamandrivorans infection and disease dynamics in fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). Colonization of salamanders by B. salamandrivorans occurred at 15°C and 20°C but not at 25°C, with a significantly faster buildup of infection load and associated earlier mortality at 15°C. Exposing B. salamandrivorans infected salamanders to 25°C for 10 days resulted in complete clearance of infection and clinically cured all experimentally infected animals. This treatment protocol was validated in naturally infected wild fire salamanders. In conclusion, we show that B. salamandrivorans infection and disease dynamics are significantly dictated by environmental temperature, and that heat treatment is a viable option for clearing B. salamandrivorans infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Blooi
- 1] Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium [2] Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - A Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Haesebrouck
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Vercammen
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - D Bonte
- Department of Biology, Terrestrial Ecology Unit, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - F Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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114
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Sabino-Pinto J, Bletz M, Hendrix R, Perl RB, Martel A, Pasmans F, Lötters S, Mutschmann F, Schmeller DS, Schmidt BR, Veith M, Wagner N, Vences M, Steinfartz S. First detection of the emerging fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Germany. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2015. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis is one of the major factors triggering global amphibian declines. A recently discovered species of chytrid fungus,Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans(Bsal), likely originated in East Asia, has led to massive declines in populations of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) after its apparent introduction to the Netherlands and Belgium. Here, we report the first detection of this pathogen in Germany where it caused mass mortality of fire salamanders in a captive collection. Salamanders from this collection showed an almost 100% prevalence of infection withBsal. SupposedBsal-induced mortality occurred in multipleSalamandraspecies (S. salamandra,S. algira,S. corsica, andS. infraimmaculata), whileBsalinfection was confirmed in nine subspecies ofS. salamandraand inS. algira. Our study indicates that this pathogen can potentially infect all fire salamander species and subspecies. IfBsalspreads from captive collections to wild populations, then a similar devastating effect associated with high mortality should be expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Sabino-Pinto
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Molly Bletz
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ralf Hendrix
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - R.G. Bina Perl
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Frank Mutschmann
- Exomed – Institut für veterinärmedizinische Betreuung niederer Wirbeltiere und Exoten, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dirk S. Schmeller
- UFZ – Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Conservation Biology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Benedikt R. Schmidt
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- KARCH, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Veith
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Norman Wagner
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sebastian Steinfartz
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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115
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Martel A, Blooi M, Adriaensen C, Van Rooij P, Beukema W, Fisher MC, Farrer RA, Schmidt BR, Tobler U, Goka K, Lips KR, Muletz C, Zamudio KR, Bosch J, Lötters S, Wombwell E, Garner TWJ, Cunningham AA, Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Salvidio S, Ducatelle R, Nishikawa K, Nguyen TT, Kolby JE, Van Bocxlaer I, Bossuyt F, Pasmans F. Wildlife disease. Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers Western Palearctic salamanders. Science 2014; 346:630-1. [PMID: 25359973 DOI: 10.1126/science.1258268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases are reducing biodiversity on a global scale. Recently, the emergence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans resulted in rapid declines in populations of European fire salamanders. Here, we screened more than 5000 amphibians from across four continents and combined experimental assessment of pathogenicity with phylogenetic methods to estimate the threat that this infection poses to amphibian diversity. Results show that B. salamandrivorans is restricted to, but highly pathogenic for, salamanders and newts (Urodela). The pathogen likely originated and remained in coexistence with a clade of salamander hosts for millions of years in Asia. As a result of globalization and lack of biosecurity, it has recently been introduced into naïve European amphibian populations, where it is currently causing biodiversity loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - M Blooi
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium. Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - C Adriaensen
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - P Van Rooij
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - W Beukema
- CIBIO/InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências Agrárias de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, Vairão, Portugal
| | - M C Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - R A Farrer
- Genome Sequencing and Analysis Program, The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - B R Schmidt
- Koordinationsstelle für amphibien- und reptilienschutz in der Schweiz (KARCH), Passage Maximilien-de-Meuron 6, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Institut für Evolutionsbiologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Zürich. Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - U Tobler
- Koordinationsstelle für amphibien- und reptilienschutz in der Schweiz (KARCH), Passage Maximilien-de-Meuron 6, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Institut für Evolutionsbiologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Zürich. Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - K Goka
- Invasive Alien Species Research Team, National Institute for Environment Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - K R Lips
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - C Muletz
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - K R Zamudio
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - J Bosch
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones cientificas (CSIC), José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - S Lötters
- Biogeography Department, Trier University, 54286 Trier, Germany
| | - E Wombwell
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, Kent CT2 7NR, UK. Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - T W J Garner
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - A A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - A Spitzen-van der Sluijs
- Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation the Netherlands (RAVON), Post Office Box 1413, 6501 BK Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - S Salvidio
- Department of Earth Science, Environmental and Life (Di.S.T.A.V.), University of Genova, Corso Europa 26, I-16132 Genova, Italy
| | - R Ducatelle
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K Nishikawa
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Nihonmatsu-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - T T Nguyen
- Vietnam National Museum of Nature, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - J E Kolby
- James Cook University, One Health Research Group, School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitation Sciences, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - I Van Bocxlaer
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - F Bossuyt
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - F Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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