101
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Harris J, Werling D. Binding and entry of respiratory syncytial virus into host cells and initiation of the innate immune response. Cell Microbiol 2003; 5:671-80. [PMID: 12969373 DOI: 10.1046/j.1462-5822.2003.00313.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of severe lower respiratory tract infection in infants and the elderly. There is currently no effective antiviral treatment for the infection, but advances in our understanding of RSV uptake, especially the role of surfactant proteins, the attachment protein G and the fusion protein F, as well as the post-binding events, have revealed potential targets for new therapies and vaccine development. RSV infection triggers an intense inflammatory response, mediated initially by the infected airway epithelial cells and antigen-presenting cells. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are important in controlling the extent of infection and promoting viral clearance. The initial innate immune response may play a critical role by influencing the subsequent adaptive response generated. This review summarizes our current understanding of RSV binding and uptake in mammalian cells and how these initial interactions influence the subsequent innate immune response generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Harris
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK.
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102
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Haynes LM, Jones LP, Barskey A, Anderson LJ, Tripp RA. Enhanced disease and pulmonary eosinophilia associated with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccination are linked to G glycoprotein CX3C-CX3CR1 interaction and expression of substance P. J Virol 2003; 77:9831-44. [PMID: 12941892 PMCID: PMC224581 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.18.9831-9844.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (FI-RSV) vaccine or RSV G glycoprotein results in enhanced pulmonary disease after live RSV infection. Enhanced pulmonary disease is characterized by pulmonary eosinophilia and is associated with a substantial inflammatory response. We show that the absence of the G glycoprotein or G glycoprotein CX3C motif during FI-RSV vaccination or RSV challenge of FI-RSV-vaccinated mice, or treatment with anti-substance P or anti-CX3CR1 antibodies, reduces or eliminates enhanced pulmonary disease, modifies T-cell receptor Vbeta usage, and alters CC and CXC chemokine expression. These data suggest that the G glycoprotein, and in particular the G glycoprotein CX3C motif, is key in the enhanced inflammatory response to FI-RSV vaccination, possibly through the induction of substance P.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lia M Haynes
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center of Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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103
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Zheng T, Zhu Z, Liu W, Lee CG, Chen Q, Homer RJ, Elias JA. Cytokine regulation of IL-13Ralpha2 and IL-13Ralpha1 in vivo and in vitro. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111:720-8. [PMID: 12704349 DOI: 10.1067/mai.2003.1383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND IL-13 signals via a high-affinity receptor that includes IL-4Ralpha and IL-13Ralpha1 and binds to the decoy receptor IL-13Ralpha2. The processes that regulate the expression of these receptor subunits, however, are poorly defined. OBJECTIVE These studies were designed to define the regulation of IL-13R components by T(H)2 and T(H)1 cytokines in vivo and in vitro. METHODS Northern analysis, in situ hybridization, RT-PCR analysis, and immunoprecipitation were used to define the expression of IL-13Ralpha1 and IL-13Ralpha2 in lungs from lung targeted overexpression mice and lung fragments and cells in culture. RESULTS IL-13Ralpha2 and IL-13Ralpha1 mRNA were detected at modest levels in lungs from control mice. In contrast, transgenic IL-13 caused a marked increase in IL-13Ralpha2 and IL-13Ralpha1 mRNA; this was most prominent in airway epithelial cells and macrophages. The effects of IL-13 on IL-13Ralpha2 were associated with comparable increases in protein production and were mediated by a blood leukocyte-independent and IL-4Ralpha-dependent mechanism. IL-13 stimulation of IL-13Ralpha1 was mediated via a blood leukocyte-dependent and partially IL-4Ralpha-dependent pathway. These effects were not specific for IL-13, because transgenic IL-4, IL-10, and IFN-gamma also stimulated IL-13Ralpha2 mRNA accumulation while stimulating-not altering and inhibiting-IL-13Ralpha1 mRNA accumulation, respectively. These regulatory events were mediated, at least in part, by direct effects of these cytokines, because IL-13, IL-4, and IFN-gamma had similar effects on IL-13Ralpha2 and/or IL-13Ralpha1 in epithelial cells and macrophages in in vitro culture. CONCLUSION IL-13Ralpha2 and IL-13Ralpha1 are highly regulated in vivo and in vitro. These regulatory events might control IL-13 responses at sites of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zheng
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, USA
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104
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Johnson TR, Parker RA, Johnson JE, Graham BS. IL-13 is sufficient for respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein-induced eosinophilia after respiratory syncytial virus challenge. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:2037-45. [PMID: 12574374 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.4.2037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Although well studied in settings of helminth infection and allergen sensitization, the combined contributions of IL-4 and IL-13 and their signaling pathways in models of viral pathogenesis have not been reported. Using a murine model of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, we evaluated the contribution of IL-13, alone and in conjunction with IL-4, during immunization with recombinant vaccinia virus expressing RSV G glycoprotein (vvGs) or with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV). We showed that both IL-4 and IL-13 activity must be inhibited to modulate G-specific responses resulting in severe RSV-induced disease. Inhibition of IL-4 or IL-13 activity alone had minimal impact on disease in vvGs-immunized mice. However, treatment of IL-4-deficient mice with IL-13Ra during vvGs immunization reduced IL-5, IL-13, and eotaxin production and pulmonary eosinophilia after RSV challenge. In contrast, FI-RSV-induced immune responses were diminished when either IL-4 or IL-13 activity was blocked. After RSV challenge, these type 2 T cell responses were also diminished in vvGs-primed IL-4Ralpha-deficient mice. Our data suggest that secreted vvGs uses mechanisms requiring signaling through the IL-4Ralpha-chain by either IL-4 or IL-13 for induction of eosinophilia and is the first description of the relative contributions of IL-4, IL-13, and their receptors in viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa R Johnson
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 40 Convent Drive MSC 3017, Building 40, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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105
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Deng X, Li H, Tang YW. Cytokine expression in respiratory syncytial virus-infected mice as measured by quantitative reverse-transcriptase PCR. J Virol Methods 2003; 107:141-6. [PMID: 12505627 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-0934(02)00211-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In the murine model for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, cytokine patterns induced by vaccinations with either killed (i.e. formalin-inactivated, alum-precipitated) virus (KV) or live virus (LV) have been shown to influence disease expression. To determine the mRNA expression of the cytokines IL-4 and IFN-gamma in BALB/c mice challenged with RSV, a real-time quantitative reverse-transcriptase PCR assay was developed. This assay uses 5'-exonuclease fluorogenic probes and is performed on the ABI PRISM 7700 Sequence Detector System (TaqMan). The relative quantitative levels of mRNA for IL-4 and IFN-gamma were compared with those measured by an RNase protection assay (RPA) and an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), which are methods used to measure the levels of mRNA and protein, respectively. Results obtained by the TaqMan assay showed that mice primed with KV induces increased IL-4 mRNA production while LV induces increased IFN-gamma mRNA, which is in agreement with conventional methods. IL-4 and IFN-gamma relative quantities obtained from TaqMan were highly correlated to those determined by RPA (r=0.96 for IFN-gamma, P<0.01) and EIA (r=0.90 for IL-4 and r=0.75 for IFN-gamma, P<0.01). Assay reproducibility was examined by testing a same sample in triplicate at three experiments. Minimal deviation values were observed in both intra- and inter-assays. TaqMan, which is rapid, sensitive and reproducible, provides an alternative tool for the quantitative analysis of cytokine mRNA expression in the murine model of RSV immunopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinqing Deng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Hospital, A3310 MCN, Nashville, TN 37232-2605, USA
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106
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Schmidt U, Beyer J, Polster U, Gershwin LJ, Buchholz UJ. Mucosal immunization with live recombinant bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) and recombinant BRSV lacking the envelope glycoprotein G protects against challenge with wild-type BRSV. J Virol 2002; 76:12355-9. [PMID: 12414977 PMCID: PMC136874 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.23.12355-12359.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2002] [Accepted: 08/22/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recombinant bovine respiratory syncytial virus (rBRSV) and an rBRSV deletion mutant lacking the G gene (rBRSVDeltaG) were characterized in calves with respect to replication competence, attenuation, and protective efficacy as live-attenuated BRSV vaccines. Both recombinant viruses were safe and induced protection against a BRSV challenge infection. rBRSV replicated efficiently in the upper respiratory tract. Intranasal immunization with rBRSVDeltaG led to infection but not to mucosal virus replication. Neutralizing antibodies were induced by rBRSV and rBRSVDeltaG. Thus, the BRSV attachment glycoprotein G seems to be dispensable in vaccinating calves against BRSV.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Intranasal
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- Cattle
- Cattle Diseases/immunology
- Cattle Diseases/pathology
- Cattle Diseases/prevention & control
- Gene Deletion
- Genes, Viral
- Immunity, Mucosal
- Immunization/veterinary
- Lung/pathology
- Neutralization Tests
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/immunology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/pathology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/prevention & control
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/veterinary
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Bovine/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Bovine/immunology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Bovine/pathogenicity
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Bovine/physiology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/genetics
- Vaccines, Synthetic/pharmacology
- Viral Envelope Proteins/genetics
- Viral Envelope Proteins/immunology
- Viral Vaccines/genetics
- Viral Vaccines/pharmacology
- Virus Replication
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Schmidt
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Federal Research Centre for Virus Diseases of Animals, D-17498 Insel Riems, Germany
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107
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De Swart RL, Kuiken T, Timmerman HH, van Amerongen G, Van Den Hoogen BG, Vos HW, Neijens HJ, Andeweg AC, Osterhaus ADME. Immunization of macaques with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) induces interleukin-13-associated hypersensitivity to subsequent RSV infection. J Virol 2002; 76:11561-9. [PMID: 12388717 PMCID: PMC136757 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.22.11561-11569.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2002] [Accepted: 08/12/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of severe respiratory disease in infants and the elderly. RSV vaccine development has been hampered by results of clinical trials in the 1960s, when formalin-inactivated whole-RSV preparations adjuvated with alum (FI-RSV) were found to predispose infants for enhanced disease following subsequent natural RSV infection. We have reproduced this apparently immunopathological phenomenon in infant cynomolgus macaques and identified immunological and pathological correlates. Vaccination with FI-RSV induced specific virus-neutralizing antibody responses accompanied by strong lymphoproliferative responses. The vaccine-induced RSV-specific T cells predominantly produced the Th2 cytokines interleukin-13 (IL-13) and IL-5. Intratracheal challenge with a macaque-adapted wild-type RSV 3 months after the third vaccination elicited a hypersensitivity response associated with lung eosinophilia. The challenge resulted in a rapid boosting of IL-13-producing T cells in the FI-RSV-vaccinated animals but not in the FI-measles virus-vaccinated control animals. Two out of seven FI-RSV-vaccinated animals died 12 days after RSV challenge with pulmonary hyperinflation. Surprisingly, the lungs of these two animals did not show overt inflammatory lesions. However, upon vaccination the animals had shown the strongest lymphoproliferative responses associated with the most pronounced Th2 phenotype within their group. We hypothesize that an IL-13-associated asthma-like mechanism resulted in airway hyperreactivity in these animals. This nonhuman primate model will be an important tool to assess the safety of nonreplicating candidate RSV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rik L De Swart
- Institute of Virology, Erasmus MC, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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108
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Lee CG, Homer RJ, Cohn L, Link H, Jung S, Craft JE, Graham BS, Johnson TR, Elias JA. Transgenic overexpression of interleukin (IL)-10 in the lung causes mucus metaplasia, tissue inflammation, and airway remodeling via IL-13-dependent and -independent pathways. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:35466-74. [PMID: 12107190 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m206395200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
To address the complex chronic effector properties of interleukin (IL)-10, we generated transgenic mice in which IL-10 was overexpressed in the lung. In these mice, IL-10 inhibited endotoxin-induced tumor necrosis factor production and neutrophil accumulation. IL-10 also caused mucus metaplasia, B and T cell-rich inflammation, and subepithelial fibrosis and augmented the levels of mRNA encoding Gob-5, mucins, and IL-13. In mice bred to have null mutations of IL-13, IL-4R(alpha), or STAT-6, transgenic IL-10 did not induce mucus metaplasia but did induce inflammation and fibrosis. IL-10 was also a critical mucin regulator of virus-induced mucus metaplasia. Thus, IL-10, although inhibiting lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation, also causes mucus metaplasia, tissue inflammation, and airway fibrosis. These responses are mediated by multiple mechanisms with mucus metaplasia being dependent on and the inflammation and fibrosis being independent of an IL-13/IL-4R(alpha)/STAT-6 activation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Geun Lee
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department. of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8057, USA
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109
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Abstract
Memory T cells that are specific for one virus can become activated during infection with an unrelated heterologous virus, and might have roles in protective immunity and immunopathology. The course of each infection is influenced by the T-cell memory pool that has been laid down by a host's history of previous infections, and with each successive infection, T-cell memory to previously encountered agents is modified. Here, we discuss evidence from studies in mice and humans that shows the importance of this phenomenon in determining the outcome of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond M Welsh
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester 01655, USA
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110
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Graham BS, Rutigliano JA, Johnson TR. Respiratory syncytial virus immunobiology and pathogenesis. Virology 2002; 297:1-7. [PMID: 12083830 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2002.1431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barney S Graham
- Viral Pathogenesis Laboratory, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-3017, USA.
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111
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Johnson TR, Hong S, Van Kaer L, Koezuka Y, Graham BS. NK T cells contribute to expansion of CD8(+) T cells and amplification of antiviral immune responses to respiratory syncytial virus. J Virol 2002; 76:4294-303. [PMID: 11932395 PMCID: PMC155085 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.9.4294-4303.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
CD1d-deficient mice have normal numbers of T lymphocytes and natural killer cells but lack Valpha14(+) natural killer T cells. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) immunopathogenesis was evaluated in 129xC57BL/6, C57BL/6, and BALB/c CD1d(-/-) mice. CD8(+) T lymphocytes were reduced in CD1d(-/-) mice of all strains, as shown by cell surface staining and major histocompatibility complex class I tetramer analysis, and resulted in strain-specific alterations in illness, viral clearance, and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production. Transient activation of NK T cells in CD1d(+/+) mice by alpha-GalCer resulted in reduced illness and delayed viral clearance. These data suggest that early IFN-gamma production and efficient induction of CD8(+)-T-cell responses during primary RSV infection require CD1d-dependent events. We also tested the ability of alpha-GalCer as an adjuvant to modulate the type 2 immune responses induced by RSV glycoprotein G or formalin-inactivated RSV immunization. However, immunized CD1-deficient or alpha-GalCer-treated wild-type mice did not exhibit diminished disease following RSV challenge. Rather, some disease parameters, including cytokine production, eosinophilia, and viral clearance, were increased. These findings indicate that CD1d-dependent NK T cells play a role in expansion of CD8(+) T cells and amplification of antiviral responses to RSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa R Johnson
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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112
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Varga SM, Beckman NA, Chu M, Braciale TJ. Sensitive detection and quantitation of mouse eosinophils in tissues using an enzymatic eosinophil peroxidase assay: its use to rapidly measure pulmonary eosinophilia during experimental respiratory syncytial virus infection of mice. J Immunol Methods 2002; 262:111-20. [PMID: 11983224 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(02)00014-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Eosinophils are granular proinflammatory leukocytes implicated in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory processes including allergy, asthma, and in the development of enhanced disease during respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. Here, we adapted a colorimetric assay to measure eosinophil peroxidase (EPO) activity in inflamed mouse lung tissue in order to quantitate pulmonary eosinophilia during experimental RSV infection. Using the substrate o-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (OPD) in the presence of bromide ions, we show that this assay is able to quantitate limiting numbers of eosinophils in lung tissue homogenates even in the presence of large numbers of infiltrating neutrophils and macrophages. The ability of the EPO assay to selectively quantitate eosinophils in a complex tissue inflammatory infiltrate demonstrates the usefulness of this enzymatic assay as a rapid and sensitive method to quantitate the influx of eosinophils into inflamed mouse tissue such as the lung during experimental RSV infection without reliance on morphologic criteria to identify murine eosinophils in tissues or bronchial lavage fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Varga
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville 22908, USA
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113
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Durbin JE, Johnson TR, Durbin RK, Mertz SE, Morotti RA, Peebles RS, Graham BS. The role of IFN in respiratory syncytial virus pathogenesis. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:2944-52. [PMID: 11884466 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.6.2944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine preparations have been shown to cause enhanced disease in naive hosts following natural infection. In this study we demonstrate a similar pattern of enhanced disease severity following primary RSV infection of IFN-nonresponsive STAT1(-/-) mice. STAT1(-/-) mice showed markedly increased illness compared with wild-type BALB/c animals following RSV inoculation despite similar lung virus titers and rates of virus clearance. Histologically, STAT1(-/-) animals had eosinophilic and neutrophilic pulmonary infiltrates not present in wild-type or IFN-gamma(-/-)-infected mice. In cytokine analyses of infected lung tissue, IFN-gamma was induced in both STAT1(-/-) and wild-type mice, with preferential IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 induction only in the STAT1(-/-) animals. Eotaxin was detected in the lungs of both wild-type and STAT1(-/-) mice following infection, with a 1.7-fold increase over wild-type in the STAT1(-/-) mice. Using a peptide epitope newly identified in the RSV fusion protein, we were able to demonstrate that wild-type memory CD4(+) T cells stimulated by this peptide produce primarily IFN-gamma, while STAT1(-/-)CD4(+) cells produce primarily IL-13. These findings suggest that STAT1 activation by both type I (alphabeta) and type II (gamma) IFNs plays an important role in establishing a protective, Th1 Ag-specific immune response to RSV infection.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytokines/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/deficiency
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Genotype
- Immunologic Memory/genetics
- Interferons/deficiency
- Interferons/genetics
- Interferons/physiology
- Membrane Proteins
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Knockout
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Pulmonary Eosinophilia/genetics
- Pulmonary Eosinophilia/immunology
- Receptor, Interferon alpha-beta
- Receptors, Interferon/deficiency
- Receptors, Interferon/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/immunology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/virology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/growth & development
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/immunology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/pathogenicity
- STAT1 Transcription Factor
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/virology
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/metabolism
- Th1 Cells/virology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/metabolism
- Th2 Cells/virology
- Trans-Activators/deficiency
- Trans-Activators/genetics
- Interferon gamma Receptor
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan E Durbin
- Children's Research Institute, Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA.
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114
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Teng MN, Whitehead SS, Collins PL. Contribution of the respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein and its secreted and membrane-bound forms to virus replication in vitro and in vivo. Virology 2001; 289:283-96. [PMID: 11689051 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2001.1138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The surface glycoproteins of viruses can play important roles in viral attachment, entry, and morphogenesis. Here, we investigated the role of the attachment G glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in viral infection. RSV G is produced both as a complete, transmembrane form and as an N-terminally truncated form that is secreted. Using reverse genetics, we created mutant recombinant RSVs (rRSV) that do not express G (DeltaG) or express either the secreted or the membrane-bound form of G only (sG and mG, respectively). In Vero cells, the DeltaG virus formed plaques and grew as efficiently as wild-type rRSV and mG. In contrast, DeltaG replicated less efficiently and did not form distinct plaques in HEp-2 cells. This defect was primarily at the level of the initiation of infection, with only a minor additional effect at the level of packaging. Replication of DeltaG in the respiratory tract of mice was very highly restricted, indicating that G is important in vivo. Although the G protein expressed by the sG virus was confirmed to be secreted, this virus grew at least as efficiently as wild-type in HEp-2 cells and was only moderately attenuated in vivo. Thus, the G protein was important for efficient replication in HEp-2 cells and in vivo, but this function could be supplied in large part by the secreted form and thus does not require the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains. Amino acids 184-198 have been identified as the major heparin-binding domain of the G protein and were implicated in mediating binding to cells [S. A. Feldman et al., 1999, J. Virol. 73, 6610-6617]. Heparin-like glycosaminoglycans also appeared to be important for infection in vitro by direct clinical isolates of RSV. Deletion of amino acids 187-197 from rRSV did not reduce its sensitivity to neutralization in vitro by incubation with soluble heparin, did not reduce its efficiency of growth in vitro, and resulted in only a modest reduction in vivo. Thus, the putative heparin-binding domain is not the sole determinant of heparin sensitivity and is not a critical functional domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- M N Teng
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 7 Center Dr. MSC 0720, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-0720, USA
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115
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Varga SM, Wang X, Welsh RM, Braciale TJ. Immunopathology in RSV infection is mediated by a discrete oligoclonal subset of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells. Immunity 2001; 15:637-46. [PMID: 11672545 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(01)00209-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination with the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) attachment (G) protein results in immune-mediated lung injury after natural RSV infection with pathogenic features characteristic of an exaggerated Th2 response. Here we demonstrate that approximately half of the CD4(+) T cells infiltrating the lungs of G-primed mice utilize a single V beta gene (V beta 14) with remarkably limited CDR3 diversity. Furthermore, elimination of these V beta 14-bearing CD4(+) T cells in vivo abolishes the type 2-like pulmonary injury. These results suggest that a novel subset of CD4(+) T cells may be crucial in the development of pathology during human RSV infection and that genetic or environmental factors prior to or at the time of G antigen exposure may affect the commitment of this discrete antigen-specific T cell subset to Th2 differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Varga
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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116
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Johnson TR, Fischer JE, Graham BS. Construction and characterization of recombinant vaccinia viruses co-expressing a respiratory syncytial virus protein and a cytokine. J Gen Virol 2001; 82:2107-2116. [PMID: 11514719 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-82-9-2107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recombinant vaccinia viruses are well-characterized tools that can be used to define novel approaches to vaccine formulation and delivery. While vector co-expression of immune mediators has enormous potential for optimizing the composition of vaccine-induced immune responses, the impact on antigen expression and vector antigenicity must also be considered. Co-expression of IL-4 increased vaccinia virus vector titres, while IFN-gamma co-expression reduced vaccinia virus replication in BALB/c mice and in C57BL/6 mice infected with some recombinant viruses. Protection against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) challenge was similar in mice immunized with vaccinia virus expressing RSV G glycoprotein and IFN-gamma, even though the replication efficiency of the vector was diminished. These data demonstrate the ability of vector-expressed cytokine to influence the virulence of the vector and to direct the development of selected immune responses. This suggests that the co-expression of cytokines and other immunomodulators has the potential to improve the safety of vaccine vectors while improving the immunogenicity of vaccine antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa R Johnson
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology1 and Medicine2, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Julie E Fischer
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology1 and Medicine2, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Barney S Graham
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology1 and Medicine2, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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117
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Ray R, Hoft DF, Meyer K, Brown R, Lagging LM, Belshe RB. Immunoregulatory role of secreted glycoprotein G from respiratory syncytial virus. Virus Res 2001; 75:147-54. [PMID: 11325469 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1702(01)00237-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The secretory glycoprotein (Gs) of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) was enriched and investigated for its effects on T cells specific for RSV and unrelated antigens. Gs exhibited a dose dependent suppression of lymphoproliferative responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), specific for mycobacterial lysates or tetanus toxoid. However, Gs did not inhibit live RSV specific T cell responses. These results suggest that Gs may suppress immune response to unrelated antigens, but should not interfere with the overall development of RSV specific immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ray
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Saint Louis University, 3635 Vista Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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118
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Brandenburg AH, Neijens HJ, Osterhaus AD. Pathogenesis of RSV lower respiratory tract infection: implications for vaccine development. Vaccine 2001; 19:2769-82. [PMID: 11282187 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(00)00536-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is the most prevalent cause of severe respiratory disease in infants. It also causes considerable morbidity in older children and adults with underlying risk factors. RSV vaccine development has been complicated by the need to administer the vaccine at a very young age and by enhanced disease observed after vaccination with formalin inactivated RSV. For infants live attenuated vaccines, which may not be expected to predispose for vaccine induced enhanced pathology, hold the greatest promise. However, the balance between attenuation and immunogenicity appears to be delicate. For older risk groups, results with subunit vaccines are most promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Brandenburg
- Institute of Virology, Erasmus University, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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119
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Tekkanat KK, Maassab HF, Cho DS, Lai JJ, John A, Berlin A, Kaplan MH, Lukacs NW. IL-13-induced airway hyperreactivity during respiratory syncytial virus infection is STAT6 dependent. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:3542-8. [PMID: 11207314 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.5.3542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Airway damage and hyperreactivity induced during respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection can have a prolonged effect in infants and young children. These infections can alter the long-term function of the lung and may lead to severe asthma-like responses. In these studies, the role of IL-13 in inducing and maintaining a prolonged airway hyperreactivity response was examined using a mouse model of primary RSV infection. Using this model, there was evidence of significant airway epithelial cell damage and sloughing, along with mucus production. The airway hyperreactivity response was significantly increased by 8 days postinfection, peaked during days 10-12, and began to resolve by day 14. When the local production of Th1- and Th2-associated cytokines was examined, there was a significant increase, primarily in IL-13, as the viral response progressed. Treatment of RSV-infected mice with anti-IL-13 substantially inhibited airway hyperreactivity. Anti-IL-4 treatment had no effect on the RSV-induced responses. Interestingly, when IL-13 was neutralized, an early increase in IL-12 production was observed within the lungs, as was a significantly lower level of viral Ags, suggesting that IL-13 may be regulating an important antiviral pathway. The examination of RSV-induced airway hyperreactivity in STAT6(-/-) mice demonstrated a significant attenuation of the response, similar to the anti-IL-13 treatment. In addition, STAT6(-/-) mice had a significant alteration of mucus-producing cells in the airway. Altogether, these studies suggest that a primary factor leading to chronic RSV-induced airway dysfunction may be the inappropriate production of IL-13.
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Affiliation(s)
- K K Tekkanat
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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120
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Tripp RA, Hou S, Etchart N, Prinz A, Moore D, Winter J, Anderson LJ. CD4(+) T cell frequencies and Th1/Th2 cytokine patterns expressed in the acute and memory response to respiratory syncytial virus I-E(d)-restricted peptides. Cell Immunol 2001; 207:59-71. [PMID: 11161454 DOI: 10.1006/cimm.2000.1752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-specific frequencies and cytokine expression patterns of acute and memory CD4(+) T cells from RSV strain-A- and strain-B-infected BALB/c mice were determined following restimulation with a panel of 14 predicted RSV I-E(d) peptides from NSP-2, M, SH, F, and L proteins. Ten of fourteen peptides stimulated intracellular Th1 and/or Th2 cytokines in CD4(+) T cells from the mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN) and spleens of RSV strain-A- or strain-B-immune BALB/c mice. Spleen cells exhibited a predominant Th2 cytokine expression pattern after peptide stimulation, whereas MLN cells exhibited a mixed Th1/Th2 cytokine pattern. For a few peptides, there were differences in the Th1/Th2 cytokine response to peptides from the homologous versus heterologous RSV group. None of the 10 peptides induced both Th1 and Th2 cytokines in cells from similarly immunized mice. The frequency and breadth of cytokine expression by I-E(d)-restricted CD4(+) T cells to peptide stimulation was diminished in the memory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Tripp
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center of Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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121
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Graham BS, Johnson TR, Peebles RS. Immune-mediated disease pathogenesis in respiratory syncytial virus infection. IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 2000; 48:237-47. [PMID: 10960663 DOI: 10.1016/s0162-3109(00)00233-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an important cause of severe respiratory disease in persons at both extremes of age. Wheezing is a cardinal sign of infection and the illness is associated with an increased incidence of childhood asthma. Data from both humans and animal models have linked severe disease in infants and the syndrome of vaccine-enhanced illness with an aberrant composition of CD4+ T cells, suggestive of an exaggerated Th2 response. Studies in murine models have shown that prior vaccination, coexisting allergic inflammation, or direct modulation of the cytokine milieu can profoundly influence the immune response to RSV and thereby affect the expression of disease. In addition, there are intrinsic antigenic properties of the RSV G glycoprotein that promote Th2 responses and eosinophilia. This paper proposes an integrated working model of how host and virus factors interact to determine the characteristics of RSV-induced illness. This model suggests strategies for the development of new vaccine and immunotherapeutic interventions, and creates a framework for asking additional questions about the immunopathogenesis of RSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Graham
- Department of Medicine, A-4103 MCN, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN 37232-2582, USA.
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122
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Tripp RA, Jones L, Anderson LJ. Respiratory syncytial virus G and/or SH glycoproteins modify CC and CXC chemokine mRNA expression in the BALB/c mouse. J Virol 2000; 74:6227-9. [PMID: 10846112 PMCID: PMC112127 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.13.6227-6229.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokine mRNA expression by pulmonary leukocytes following infection of BALB/c mice with two strains of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and one strain of parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV-3) was determined. The results suggest that RSV G and/or SH proteins inhibit early MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, MIP-2, MCP-1, and IP-10 mRNA expression. TCA-3 mRNA expression was found to be increased during PIV-3 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Tripp
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center of Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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