Adaptation in hair cells

Inner ear formation during the early larval development of Xenopus laevis

The formation of the eight independent endorgan compartments (sacculus, utricle, horizontal canal, anterior canal, posterior canal, lagena, amphibian papilla, and basilar papilla) of the Xenopus laevis inner ear is illustrated as the otic vesicle develops into a complex labyrinthine structure. The morphology of transverse sections and whole-mounts of the inner ear was assessed in seven developmental stages (28, 31, 37, 42, 45, 47, 50) using brightfield and laser scanning confocal microscopy. The presence of mechanosensory hair cells in the sensory epithelia was determined by identification of stereociliary bundles in cryosectioned tissue and whole-mounts of the inner ear labeled with the fluorescent F-actin probe Alexa-488 phalloidin. Between stages 28 and 45, the otic vesicle grows in size, stereociliary bundles appear and increase in number, and the pars inferior and pars superior become visible. The initial formation of vestibular compartments with their nascent stereociliary bundles is seen by larval stage 47, and all eight vestibular and auditory compartments with their characteristic sensory fields are present by larval stage 50. Thus, in Xenopus, inner ear compartments are established between stages 45 and 50, a 2-week period during which the ear quadruples in length in the anteroposterior dimension. The anatomical images presented here demonstrate the morphological changes that occur as the otic vesicle forms the auditory and vestibular endorgans of the inner ear. These images provide a resource for investigations of gene expression patterns in Xenopus during inner ear compartmentalization and morphogenesis.

Adaptive shift in the domain of negative stiffness during spontaneous oscillation by hair bundles from the internal ear

When a hair cell of the bullfrog's sacculus is maintained in vitro under native ionic conditions, its mechanosensitive hair bundle may oscillate spontaneously. This movement has been hypothesized to result from the interaction of the bundle's negative stiffness, which creates a region of mechanical instability, with a myosin-based adaptation mechanism that continually repositions the bundle there. To test this proposition, we used a flexible stimulus fiber in an analog feedback loop to measure the displacement-force relation of an oscillating hair bundle. A digital signal processor was used to monitor spontaneous oscillations in real time and trigger measurements at particular phases of the movement cycle. By comparing the displacement-force curves obtained at the two extremes of a hair bundle's motion, we demonstrated a shift in the negative-stiffness region whose direction, orientation, magnitude, and kinetics agreed with the predictions of the gating-spring theory. The results are in accordance with the idea that adaptation underlies spontaneous hair-bundle oscillation, and therefore powers the active process that also amplifies and tunes the hair cell's mechanical responsiveness.

Stochastic resonance in the mechanoelectrical transduction of hair cells

In transducing mechanical stimuli into electrical signals, at least some hair cells in vertebrate auditory and vestibular systems respond optimally to weak periodic signals at natural, nonzero noise intensities. We understand this stochastic resonance by constructing a faithful mechanical model reflecting the hair cell geometry and described by a nonlinear stochastic differential equation. This Langevin description elucidates the mechanism of hair cell stochastic resonance while supporting the hypothesis that noise plays a functional role in hearing.

Compression, adaptation and efferent control in a revised outer hair cell functional model

In the cochlea of the inner ear, outer hair cells (OHC) together with the local passive structures of the tectorial and basilar membranes comprise non-linear resonance circuits with the local and central (afferent-efferent) feedback. The characteristics of these circuits and their control possibilities depend on the mechanomotility of the OHC. The main element of our functional model of the OHC is the mechanomotility circuit with the general transfer characteristic y=ktanh(x-a). The parameter k of this characteristic reflects the axial stiffness of the OHC, and the parameter a working position of the hair bundle. The efferent synaptic signals act on the parameter k directly and on the parameter a indirectly through changes in the membrane potential. The dependences of the sensitivity and selectivity on changes in the parameters a and k are obtained by the computer simulation. Functioning of the model at low-level input signals is linear. Due to the non-linearity of the transfer characteristic of the mechanomotility circuit the high-level signals are compressed. For the adaptation and efferent control, however, the transfer characteristic with respect to the initial operating point should be asymmetrical (a>0). The asymmetry relies on the deflection of the hair bundle from the axis of the OHC.

Molecular characterization of two novel splice variants of G alphai2 in the rat vestibular periphery

GTP binding proteins play an important role in mediating signals transduced across the cell membrane by membrane-bound receptors. We previously described a partial sequence, termed Galphai2vest, obtained from rat vestibular tissue that was nearly identical to rat Galphai2. Using an experimental strategy to further characterize Galphai2vest (GenBank accession number AF189020) and identify other possible Galphai2-related transcripts expressed in the rat vestibular periphery, we employed a RecA-based gene enrichment protocol in place of conventional library screening techniques. We identified two novel Galphai2 splice variants, Galphai2(a) (GenBank accession number AY899210) and Galphai2(b) (GenBank accession number AY899211), that have most of exons 8 and 9 deleted, and exons 5 through 9 deleted, respectively. In situ hybridization studies were completed to determine the differential expression of Galphai2 between the vestibular primary afferent neurons and the vestibular end organs. Computer modeling and predicted 3D conformation of the wild type Galphai2 and the two splice variants were completed to evaluate the changes associated with the Gbetagamma and GTP binding sites. These two novel alternatively spliced isoforms of Galphai2 putatively encode truncated proteins that could serve unique roles in the physiology of the vestibular neuroepithelium. Galphai2vest was found to be a processed pseudogene.

Three-dimensional culture of newborn rat utricle using an extracellular matrix promotes formation of a cyst

The vestibule is the end organ devoted to sensing of head movements in space. To function properly, its mechano-receptors require the presence of a unique apical extracellular medium, the endolymph. Numerous studies have elucidated the mechanisms involved in the production and homeostasis of this unique medium and the responses of sensory cells to stimulation. However, anatomical constraints have prevented direct and simultaneous studies of their relationships. The aim of this study was the development of an in vitro model that would allow concomitant investigations on maturation and physiological properties of both the hair cells and their endolymphatic compartment. A three-dimensional (3D) culture of newborn rat utricles using an extracellular matrix sustaining 3D cellular growth was developed during 3, 6, or 10 days in vitro (DIV). Using morphological and electrophysiological techniques, we describe the de novo formation of a cyst. It was composed of the sensory epithelium and non-sensory cells-canalar, dark and intermediate cells-that polarized so that their apical surface faced its lumen. During the time of culture, the utricular potential (UP) was steady (-1.1+/-5.0 mV) in oxygenated condition, while in anoxia, the UP significantly decreased to -8.4+/-1.0 mV at 8 DIV. Over the same period, the K+ concentration in the cyst increased up to 86.1+/-33.9 mM (versus 5.6+/-1.5 mM in the bath). These observations indicated that the mechanisms generating the UP and the K-secretory activity were functional at this stage. Concomitantly, the hair cells acquired mature and functional properties: the type 1 and type 2 phenotypes, a mean resting membrane potential of -68.1+/-4.6 mV and typical electrophysiological responses. This preparation provides a powerful means to simultaneous access the hair cells and their endolymphatic compartment, with the possibility to use multi-technical approaches to investigate their interdependent relationships.

How the ear's works work: mechanoelectrical transduction and amplification by hair cells

The sensitivity of our hearing is enhanced by an active process that both amplifies and tunes the movements of the ear's sensory receptors, the hair cells. In a quiet environment, the active process can even evoke spontaneous emission of sounds from an ear. Recent research indicates that, at least in non-mammalian tetrapods, the active process results from the interaction of negative stiffness in the mechanosensitive hair bundles with two motor processes, one due to myosin-based adaptation and the other to Ca2+ -dependent reclosure of transduction channels. These three processes together explain many of the complex phenomena characteristic of the hearing process.

Rapid responses of the cupula in the lateral line of ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus)

Displacements of cupulae in the supraorbital lateral line canal in ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus) have been measured using laser interferometry and by applying transient as well as sinusoidal fluid stimuli in the lateral line canal. The cupular displacement in response to impulses of fluid velocity shows damped oscillations at approximately 120 Hz and a relaxation time-constant of 4.4 ms, commensurate with a quality factor of approximately 1.8. These values are in close agreement with the frequency characteristics determined via sinusoidal fluid stimuli, implying that the nonlinearity of cupular dynamics imposed by the gating apparatus of the sensory hair cells is limited in the range of cupular displacements and velocities measured (100-300 nm; 100-300 microm/s). The measurements also show that cupular displacement instantaneously follows the initial waveform of transient stimuli. The functional significance of the observed cupular dynamics is discussed.

Force generation by mammalian hair bundles supports a role in cochlear amplification

It is generally accepted that the acute sensitivity and frequency discrimination of mammalian hearing requires active mechanical amplification of the sound stimulus within the cochlea. The prevailing hypothesis is that this amplification stems from somatic electromotility of the outer hair cells attributable to the motor protein prestin. Thus outer hair cells contract and elongate in synchrony with the sound-evoked receptor potential. But problems arise with this mechanism at high frequencies, where the periodic component of the receptor potential will be attenuated by the membrane time constant. On the basis of work in non-mammalian vertebrates, force generation by the hair bundles has been proposed as an alternative means of boosting the mechanical stimulus. Here we show that hair bundles of mammalian outer hair cells can also produce force on a submillisecond timescale linked to adaptation of the mechanotransducer channels. Because the bundle motor may ultimately be limited by the deactivation rate of the channels, it could theoretically operate at high frequencies. Our results show the existence of another force generator in outer hair cells that may participate in cochlear amplification.

Computational models of hair cell bundle mechanics: III. 3-D utricular bundles

Six utricular hair bundles from a red-eared turtle are modeled using 3-D finite element analysis. The mechanical model includes shear deformable stereocilia, realignment of all forces during force load increments, and tip and lateral link inter-stereocilia connections. Results show that there are two distinct bundle types that can be separated by mechanical bundle stiffness. The more compliant group has fewer total stereocilia and short stereocilia relative to kinocilium height; these cells are located in the medial and lateral extrastriola. The stiff group are located in the striola. They have more stereocilia and long stereocilia relative to kinocilia heights. Tip link tensions show parallel behavior in peripheral columns of the bundle and serial behavior in central columns when the tip link modulus is near or above that of collagen (1x10(9) N/m(2)). This analysis shows that lumped parameter models of single stereocilia columns can show some aspects of bundle mechanics; however, a distributed, 3-D model is needed to explore overall bundle behavior.

Hair-cell versus afferent adaptation in the semicircular canals

The time course and extent of adaptation in semicircular canal hair cells was compared to adaptation in primary afferent neurons for physiological stimuli in vivo to study the origins of the neural code transmitted to the brain. The oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau, was used as the experimental model. Afferent firing-rate adaptation followed a double-exponential time course in response to step cupula displacements. The dominant adaptation time constant varied considerably among afferent fibers and spanned six orders of magnitude for the population ( approximately 1 ms to >1,000 s). For sinusoidal stimuli (0.1-20 Hz), the rapidly adapting afferents exhibited a 90 degrees phase lead and frequency-dependent gain, whereas slowly adapting afferents exhibited a flat gain and no phase lead. Hair-cell voltage and current modulations were similar to the slowly adapting afferents and exhibited a relatively flat gain with very little phase lead over the physiological bandwidth and dynamic range tested. Semicircular canal microphonics also showed responses consistent with the slowly adapting subset of afferents and with hair cells. The relatively broad diversity of afferent adaptation time constants and frequency-dependent discharge modulations relative to hair-cell voltage implicate a subsequent site of adaptation that plays a major role in further shaping the temporal characteristics of semicircular canal afferent neural signals.

Matching the neural adaptation in the rat ventral cochlear nucleus produced by artificial (electric) and acoustic stimulation of the cochlea

To investigate neural adaptive properties, near-field evoked potentials were recorded from a chronically implanted electrode in the ventral cochlear nucleus in awake Long-Evans rats exposed to acoustic stimuli or receiving intracochlear electric stimulation. Stimuli were 250-ms trains of repetitive acoustic clicks (10, 30 and 50 dB SPL) or biphasic electric pulses (30, 50 and 70 microA) with intratrain pulse rates ranging from 100 to 1000 pulses per second (pps). The amplitude of the first negative (N(1)) to positive (P(1)) component of the average evoked potentials was measured for each consecutive individual pulse in the train. While a progressive exponential decrease in N(1)-P(1) amplitude was observed as a function of the position of the pulse within the train for both types of stimulation, the decrement of electric responses (adaptive pattern) was substantially less prominent than that observed for acoustic stimuli. Based on this difference, the present work was extended by modifying electric stimuli in order to try to restore normal adaptation phenomena. The results suggest the feasibility of mimicking acoustic adaptation by stimulation with exponentially decreasing electric pulse trains, which may be clinically applicable in the auditory implant field.

Cochlear hysteresis: observation with low-frequency modulated distortion product otoacoustic emissions

Low-frequency modulation of distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) can be used to estimate a nonlinear transducer function (fTr) of the cochlea. From gerbils, DPOAEs were measured while presenting a high-level bias tone. Within one period of the bias tone, the magnitudes of the cubic difference tone (CDT, 2f1 - f2) demonstrated two similar modulation patterns (MPs) each resembled the absolute value of the third derivative of the fTr. The center peaks of the MPs occurred at positive sound pressures for rising in bias pressure or loading of the cochlear transducer, and more negative pressures while decreasing bias amplitude or unloading. The corresponding fTr revealed a sigmoid-shaped hysteresis loop with counterclockwise traversal. Physiologic indices that characterized the double MP varied with primary level. A Boltzmann-function-based model with negative damping as a feedback component was proposed. The model was able to replicate the experimental results. Model parameters that fit to the CDT data indicated higher transducer gain and more prominent feedback role at lower primary levels. Both physiologic indices and model parameters suggest that the cochlear transducer dynamically changes its gain with input signal level and the nonlinear mechanism is a time-dependent feedback process.

Mechanisms of Mammalian Otoacoustic Emission and their Implications for the Clinical Utility of Otoacoustic Emissions

We review recent progress in understanding the physical and physiological mechanisms that generate otoacoustic emissions (OAEs). Until recently, the conceptual model underlying the interpretation of OAEs has been an integrated view that regards all OAEs as manifestations of cochlear nonlinearity. However, OAEs appear to arise by at least two fundamentally different mechanisms within the cochlea: nonlinear distortion and linear reflection. These differences in mechanism have be used to construct a new taxonomy for OAEs that identifies OAEs based on their mechanisms of generation rather than the details of their measurement. The mechanism-based taxonomy provides a useful conceptual framework for understanding and interpreting otoacoustic responses. As commonly measured in the clinic, distortion-product and other evoked OAEs comprise a mixtures of emissions produced by both mechanisms. This mixing precludes any fixed correspondence with the conventional, measurement-based nomenclature. We discuss consequences of the taxonomy for the clinical measurement and interpretation of OAEs.

Channel gating forces govern accuracy of mechano-electrical transduction in hair cells

Sensory hair cells are known for the exquisite displacement sensitivity with which they detect the sound-evoked vibrations in the inner ear. In this article, we determine a stochastically imposed fundamental lower bound on a hair cell's sensitivity to detect mechanically coded information arriving at its hair bundle. Based on measurements of transducer current and its noise in outer hair cells and the application of estimation theory, we show that a hair cell's transducer current carries information that allows the detection of vibrational amplitudes with an accuracy on the order of nanometers. We identify the transducer channel's molecular gating force as the physical factor controlling this accuracy in proportion to the inverse of its magnitude. Further, we show that the match of stochastic channel noise to gating-spring noise implies that the gating apparatus operates at the threshold of negative stiffness.

Myosin XVa localizes to the tips of inner ear sensory cell stereocilia and is essential for staircase formation of the hair bundle

Mutations of the gene encoding unconventional myosin XVa are associated with sensorineural deafness in humans (DFNB3) and shaker (Myo15sh2) mice. In deaf Myo15sh2/sh2 mice, stereocilia are short, nearly equal in length, and lack myosin XVa immunoreactivity. We previously reported that myosin XVa mRNA and protein are expressed in cochlear hair cells. We now show that in the mouse, rat, and guinea pig, endogenous myosin XVa localizes to the tips of the stereocilia of the cochlear and vestibular hair cells. Myosin XVa localization overlaps with the barbed ends of actin filaments and extends to the apical plasma membrane of the stereocilia. Gene gun-mediated transfection of mouse inner ear sensory epithelia explants shows selective accumulation of myosin XVa-GFP at the tips of stereocilia, confirming the localization of native myosin XVa. Expression in COS7 cells also reveals targeting of myosin XVa-GFP to the dynamic actin region at the tips of filopodia. In a wild-type mouse, during auditory and vestibular hair cell development, myosin XVa appears at the tips of stereocilia at the time when the hair bundle begins to develop its characteristic staircase pattern. We propose that myosin XVa is essential for the graded elongation of stereocilia during their functional maturation.

Calcium signaling mediated by P2Y receptors in mouse taste cells

Evidence implicates a number of neuroactive substances and their receptors in mediating complex cell-to-cell communications in the taste bud. Recently, we found that ATP, a ubiquitous neurotransmitter/neuromodulator, mobilizes intracellular Ca2+ in taste cells by activating P2Y receptors. Here, P2Y receptor-cellular response coupling was characterized in detail using single cell ratio photometry and the inhibitory analysis. The sequence of underlying events was shown to include ATP-dependent activation of PLC, IP3 production, and IP3 receptor-mediated Ca2+ release followed by Ca2+ influx. Data obtained favor SOC channels rather than receptor-operated channels as a pathway for Ca2+ influx that accompanies Ca2+ release. Intracellular Ca2+ mobilized by ATP is apparently extruded by the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase, while a contribution of the Na+/Ca2+ exchange and other mechanisms of Ca2+ clearance is negligible. Cyclic AMP-dependent phosphorylation is likely to control a gain of the phosphoinositide cascade involved in ATP transduction. ATP-responsive taste cells are abundant in circumvallate, foliate, and fungiform papillae. Taken together, our observations point to a putative role for ATP as a neurotransmitter operative in the taste bud.

Time course and extent of mechanotransducer adaptation in mouse utricular hair cells: comparison with frog saccular hair cells

Whole cell transduction currents were recorded from hair cells in early postnatal mouse utricles in response to step deflections of the hair bundle. For displacement steps delivered by a stiff probe (1-ms rise time), half-maximal responses decayed monoexponentially with a mean time constant of 30 ms. Adaptation and other transduction properties did not vary systematically with hair cell type (I vs. II) or region (striola vs. extrastriola). Thus regional variation in the phasic properties of utricular afferents arises through other mechanisms. When bundles were deflected by a fluid jet, which delivers force steps, transduction currents decayed about 3-fold more slowly than during displacement steps. A simple model of myosin-mediated adaptation predicts such slowing through forward creep of the bundle during a force step. For a faster stiff probe (rise time 200 micros), step responses of both mouse utricular and frog saccular hair cells decayed with two exponential components, which may correspond to distinct feedback processes. For half-maximal responses, the two components had mean time constants of 5 and 45 ms (mouse) and 2 and 18 ms (frog). The fast and slow components dominated the decay of responses to small and large stimuli, respectively. Adaptation shifts the instantaneous operating range in the direction of the adapting step. In frog saccular hair cells, the operating range shift is a constant percentage of the displacement. In mouse utricular hair cells, the percentage shift increases for large displacements, extending the range of background stimuli over which adaptation can restore instantaneous sensitivity.

HUMANNONSYNDROMICSENSORINEURALDEAFNESS

Given the unique biological requirements of sound transduction and the selective advantage conferred upon a species capable of sensitive sound detection, it is not surprising that up to 1% of the approximately 30,000 or more human genes are necessary for hearing. There are hundreds of monogenic disorders for which hearing loss is one manifestation of a syndrome or the only disorder and therefore is nonsyndromic. Herein we review the supporting evidence for identifying over 30 genes for dominantly and recessively inherited, nonsyndromic, sensorineural deafness. The state of knowledge concerning their biological roles is discussed in the context of the controversies within an evolving understanding of the intricate molecular machinery of the inner ear.

Fast adaptation of mechanoelectrical transducer channels in mammalian cochlear hair cells

Outer hair cells are centrally involved in the amplification and frequency tuning of the mammalian cochlea, but evidence about their transducing properties in animals with fully developed hearing is lacking. Here we describe measurements of mechanoelectrical transducer currents in outer hair cells of rats between postnatal days 5 and 18, before and after the onset of hearing. Deflection of hair bundles using a new rapid piezoelectric stimulator evoked transducer currents with ultra-fast activation and adaptation kinetics. Fast adaptation resembled the same process in turtle hair cells, where it is regulated by changes in stereociliary calcium. It is argued that sub-millisecond transducer adaptation can operate in outer hair cells under the ionic, driving force and temperature conditions that prevail in the intact mammalian cochlea.

Adaptation in auditory hair cells

The narrow stimulus limits of hair cell transduction, equivalent to a total excursion of about 100nm at the tip of the hair bundle, demand tight regulation of the mechanical input to ensure that the mechanoelectrical transducer (MET) channels operate in their linear range. This control is provided by multiple components of Ca(2+)-dependent adaptation. A slow mechanism limits the mechanical stimulus through the action of one or more unconventional myosins. There is also a fast, sub-millisecond, Ca(2+) regulation of the MET channel, which can generate resonance and confer tuning on transduction. Changing the conductance or kinetics of the MET channels can vary their resonant frequency. The tuning information conveyed in transduction may combine with the somatic motility of outer hair cells to produce an active process that supplies amplification and augments frequency selectivity in the mammalian cochlea.

Genetics of sensory mechanotransduction

The molecular mechanisms for the transduction of light and chemical signals in animals are fairly well understood. In contrast, the processes by which the senses of touch, balance, hearing, and proprioception are transduced are still largely unknown. Biochemical approaches to identify transduction components are difficult to use with mechanosensory systems, but genetic approaches are proving more successful. Genetic research in several organisms has demonstrated the importance of cytoskeletal, extracellular, and membrane components for sensory mechanotransduction. In particular, researchers have identified channel proteins in the DEG/ENaC and TRP families that are necessary for signaling in a variety of mechanosensory cells. Proof that these proteins are components of the transduction channel, however, is incomplete.

Spontaneous oscillation by hair bundles of the bullfrog's sacculus

One prominent manifestation of mechanical activity in hair cells is spontaneous otoacoustic emission, the unprovoked emanation of sound by an internal ear. Because active hair bundle motility probably constitutes the active process of nonmammalian hair cells, we investigated the ability of hair bundles in the bullfrog's sacculus to produce oscillations that might underlie spontaneous otoacoustic emissions. When maintained in the normal ionic milieu of the ear, many bundles oscillated spontaneously through distances as great as 80 nm at frequencies of 5-50 Hz. Whole-cell recording disclosed that the positive phase of movement was associated with the opening of transduction channels. Gentamicin, which blocks transduction channels, reversibly arrested oscillation; drugs that affect the cAMP phosphorylation pathway and might influence the activity of myosin altered the rate of oscillation. Increasing the Ca 2+ concentration rendered oscillations faster and smaller until they were suppressed; lowering the Ca 2+ concentration moderately with chelators had the opposite effect. When a bundle was offset with a stimulus fiber, oscillations were transiently suppressed but gradually resumed. Loading a bundle by partial displacement clamping, which simulated the presence of the accessory structures to which a bundle is ordinarily attached, increased the frequency and diminished the magnitude of oscillation. These observations accord with a model in which oscillations arise from the interplay of the hair bundle's negative stiffness with the activity of adaptation motors and with Ca 2+-dependent relaxation of gating springs.

Structure and innervation of the cochlea

The role of the cochlea is to transduce complex sound waves into electrical neural activity in the auditory nerve. Hair cells of the organ of Corti are the sensory cells of hearing. The inner hair cells perform the transduction and initiate the depolarization of the spiral ganglion neurons. The outer hair cells are accessory sensory cells that enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of the cochlea. Neural feedback loops that bring efferent signals to the outer hair cells assist in sharpening and amplifying the signals. The stria vascularis generates the endocochlear potential and maintains the ionic composition of the endolymph, the fluid in which the apical surface of the hair cells is bathed. The mechanical characteristics of the basilar membrane and its related structures further enhance the frequency selectivity of the auditory transduction mechanism. The tectorial membrane is an extracellular matrix, which provides mass loading on top of the organ of Corti, facilitating deflection of the stereocilia. This review deals with the structure of the normal mature mammalian cochlea and includes recent data on the molecular organization of the main cell types within the cochlea.

Dynamic properties of stretch-activated K+ channels in adult rat atrial myocytes

The effect of mechanical stress on the heart's electrical activity has been termed mechanoelectric feedback. The response to stretch depends upon the magnitude and the waveform of the stimulus, and upon the timing relative to the cardiac cycle. Stretch-activated ion channels (SACs) have been regarded as the most likely candidates for serving as the primary transducers of mechanical stress. We explored the steady state and dynamic responses of single channels in adult rat atrial cells using the patch clamp with a pressure clamp. Surprisingly, we only observed K(+)-selective SACs, probably of the 2P domain family. The channels were weakly outward rectifying with flickery bursts. In cell attached mode, the mean conductance was 74+/-14 and 65+/-16 pS for +60 and -60 mV, respectively (140 mM [K(+)](out), 2mM [Mg(2+)](out) and 0mM [Ca(2+)](out)). The latency of the response to pressure steps was 50-100 ms and the time to peak approximately 400 ms. About half of the channels in cell-attached patches showed adaptation/inactivation where channel activity declined to a plateau of 20-30% of peak in approximately 1s. The time dependent behavior of these SACs is generally consistent with whole-cell currents observed in chick and rat ventricular cells, although the net current was outward rather than inward.

Hair-bundle movements elicited by transepithelial electrical stimulation of hair cells in the sacculus of the bullfrog

Electrically evoked otoacoustic emission is a manifestation of reverse transduction by the inner ear. We present evidence for a single-cell correlate of this phenomenon, hair-bundle movement driven by transepithelial electrical stimulation of the frog's sacculus. Responses could be observed at stimulus frequencies up to 1 kHz, an order of magnitude higher than the organ's natural range of sensitivity to acceleration or sound. Measurements at high-stimulus frequencies and pharmacological treatments allow us to distinguish two mechanisms that mediate the electrical responses: myosin-based adaptation and Ca(2+)-dependent reclosure of transduction channels. These mechanisms also participate in the active process that amplifies and tunes the mechanical responses of this receptor organ. Transient application of the channel blocker gentamicin demonstrated the crucial role of mechanoelectrical transduction channels in the rapid responses to electrical stimulation. A model for electrically driven bundle motion that incorporates the negative stiffness of the hair bundle as well as its two mechanisms of motility captures the essential features of the measured responses.

Characterization of adaptation motors in saccular hair cells by fluctuation analysis

The mechanical sensitivity of hair cells, the sensory receptors of the vestibular and auditory systems, is maintained by adaptation, which resets the transducer to cancel the effects of static stimuli. Adaptation motors in hair cells can be experimentally activated by externally applying a transduction channel blocker to the hair bundle, causing the hair bundle to move in the negative direction. We studied the variance in the position of the hair bundle during these displacements and found that it increases as the bundle moves to its new position. Often the variance peaks, and then declines to a steady-state value. We describe both displacement and variance with a model in which a motor acting on the bundle takes approximately 3.6-nm steps whose frequency (approximately 22 s(-1)) declines with the motor's load.

Transient expression of the t-isoform of plastins/fimbrin in the stereocilia of developing auditory hair cells

The transduction of auditory signals by cochlear hair cells depends upon the integrity of hair cell stereociliary bundles. Stereocilia contain a central core of actin filaments, cross-linked by actin bundling proteins. In the cochlea, the two proteins described to date as responsible for the spatial arrangement of actin filaments in sterocilia are fimbrin and the recently discovered espin. Fimbrin (the chick homolog of human I-plastin) belongs to the plastins/fimbrin family that includes two additional isoforms of plastins, T- and L-plastin. In the present study, we used isoform specific antibodies to investigate the presence of the T- and L-isoforms of plastin/fimbrin in the adult and developing rat cochlea. We found that T-plastin, but not L-plastin, is expressed in the rat cochlea. During postnatal development of the rat organ of Corti, T-plastin can be detected in the core of stereocilia from early stages of hair cell differentiation, and its expression gradually increases in stereocilia as hair cells mature. However, as opposed to other actin-binding proteins expressed in stereocilia, T-plastin is absent from the stereocilia of mature hair cells. Such temporally restricted expression strengthens the idea of functional differences between plastins isoforms, and suggests that T-plastin could have a specific role in stereocilia formation.

Activity-dependent sensitivity of proprioceptive sensory neurons in the stick insect femoral chordotonal organ

Mechanosensory neurons exhibit a wide range of dynamic changes in response, including rapid and slow adaptation. In addition to mechanical factors, electrical processes may also contribute to sensory adaptation. We have investigated adaptation of afferent neurons in the stick insect femoral chordotonal organ (fCO). The fCO contains sensory neurons that respond to position, velocity, and acceleration of the tibia. We describe the influence of random mechanical stimulation of the fCO on the response of fCO afferent neurons. The activity of individual sensory neurons was recorded intracellularly from their axons in the main leg nerve. Most fCO afferents (93%) exhibited a marked decrease in response to trapezoidal stimuli following sustained white noise stimulation (bandwidth = 60 Hz, amplitudes from +/-5 to +/-30 degrees ). Concurrent decreases in the synaptic drive to leg motoneurons and interneurons were also observed. Electrical stimulation of spike activity in individual fCO afferents in the absence of mechanical stimulation also led to a dramatic decrease in response in 15 of 19 afferents tested. This indicated that electrical processes are involved in the regulation of the generator potential or encoding of action potentials and partially responsible for the decreased response of the afferents. Replacing Ca(2+) with Ba(2+) in the saline surrounding the fCO greatly reduced or blocked the decrease in response elicited by electrically induced activity or mechanical stimulation when compared with control responses. Our results indicate that activity of fCO sensory neurons strongly affects their sensitivity, most likely via Ca(2+)-dependent processes.

An immunogold investigation of the distribution of calmodulin in the apex of cochlear hair cells

Calmodulin is found in the mechanosensitive stereociliary bundle of hair cells where it plays a role in various calcium-sensitive events associated with mechanoelectrical transduction. In this study, we have investigated the ultrastructural distribution of calmodulin in the apex of guinea-pig cochlear hair cells, using post-embedding immunogold labelling, in order to determine in more detail where calmodulin-dependent processes may be occurring. Labelling was found in the cuticular plate as well as the hair bundle, the rootlets of the stereocilia being more densely labelled than the surrounding filamentous matrix. In the bundle, labelling was found almost exclusively at the periphery rather than over the centre of the actin core of the stereocilia, and was clearly associated with the attachments of the lateral links that connect them to their nearest neighbours. It was also found to be denser towards the tips of stereocilia compared to other stereociliary regions and occurred consistently at either end of the tip link that connects stereocilia of adjacent rows. The contact region between stereocilia that is found just below the tip link was also clearly labelled. These concentrations of labelling in the bundle are likely to indicate sites where calmodulin is associated with calcium/calmodulin-sensitive proteins such as the various myosin isoforms and the plasma membrane ATPase (PMCA2a) that are known to occur there, and possibly with the transduction channels themselves. At least one of the myosin isoforms, myosin 1c, is thought to be associated with slow adaptation, and PMCA2a with control of calcium levels in the bundle. The concentration of calmodulin in the contact region further supports the suggestion that this is a functionally distinct region rather than a simple geometrical association between adjacent stereocilia.

Micro- and nanomechanics of the cochlear outer hair cell

Outer hair cell electromotility is crucial for the amplification, sharp frequency selectivity, and nonlinearities of the mammalian cochlea. Current modeling efforts based on morphological, physiological, and biophysical observations reveal transmembrane potential gradients and membrane tension as key independent variables controlling the passive and active mechanics of the cell. The cell's mechanics has been modeled on the microscale using a continuum approach formulated in terms of effective (cellular level) mechanical and electric properties. Another modeling approach is nanostructural and is based on the molecular organization of the cell's membranes and cytoskeleton. It considers interactions between the components of the composite cell wall and the molecular elements within each of its components. The methods and techniques utilized to increase our understanding of the central role outer hair cell mechanics plays in hearing are also relevant to broader research questions in cell mechanics, cell motility, and cell transduction.

A chemical-genetic strategy implicates myosin-1c in adaptation by hair cells

Myosin-1c (also known as myosin-Ibeta) has been proposed to mediate the slow component of adaptation by hair cells, the sensory cells of the inner ear. To test this hypothesis, we mutated tyrosine-61 of myosin-1c to glycine, conferring susceptibility to inhibition by N(6)-modified ADP analogs. We expressed the mutant myosin-1c in utricular hair cells of transgenic mice, delivered an ADP analog through a whole-cell recording pipette, and found that the analog rapidly blocked adaptation to positive and negative deflections in transgenic cells but not in wild-type cells. The speed and specificity of inhibition suggests that myosin-1c participates in adaptation in hair cells.

Prestin, a new type of motor protein

Prestin, a transmembrane protein found in the outer hair cells of the cochlea, represents a new type of molecular motor, which is likely to be of great interest to molecular cell biologists. In contrast to enzymatic-activity-based motors, prestin is a direct voltage-to-force converter, which uses cytoplasmic anions as extrinsic voltage sensors and can operate at microsecond rates. As prestin mediates changes in outer hair cell length in response to membrane potential variations, it might be responsible for sound amplification in the mammalian hearing organ.

Mechanoelectrical and voltage-gated ion channels in mammalian vestibular hair cells

Mammalian vestibular afferents respond robustly to head movements at low frequencies and provide input to reflexes that control eye, head and body position. Vestibular organs have distinctive regions and hair cells: Type II cells receive bouton afferent endings and type I cells receive large calyx afferent endings. In the rodent utricle, type II cells are broadly tuned to frequencies between 10 and 30 Hz. Other recent data suggest that otolith organs function in this frequency range, which is higher than previously imagined. Some of the tuning derives from adaptation of the transducer current, which is best fitted with a double exponential decay with time constants of approximately 4 and 40 ms. Further tuning is provided by basolateral conductances, principally outwardly rectifying, voltage-gated K+ conductances. The kinetics of the K+ currents tend to vary with location in the sensory epithelium and therefore may contribute to regional variation in afferent physiology. Type I hair cells have a large, negatively activating K+ conductance, g(K,L), that confers a very low input resistance and therefore attenuates the receptor potential. This may reduce nonlinearity in the receptor potential, a possibly useful feature for the motor reflexes served by the vestibular system. On the other hand, the small receptor potentials together with unusually negative resting potentials are hard to reconcile with calcium-mediated quantal transmission. This problem may be overcome by factors that inhibit g(K,L)'s activation at resting potential. Also, the calyx may support nonquantal transmission.

Comparison of a hair bundle's spontaneous oscillations with its response to mechanical stimulation reveals the underlying active process

Hearing relies on active filtering to achieve exquisite sensitivity and sharp frequency selectivity. In a quiet environment, the ears of many vertebrates become unstable and emit one to several tones. These spontaneous otoacoustic emissions, the most striking manifestation of the inner ear's active process, must result from self-sustained mechanical oscillations of aural constituents. The mechanoreceptive hair bundles of hair cells in the bullfrog's sacculus have the ability to amplify mechanical stimuli and oscillate spontaneously. By comparing a hair bundle's spontaneous oscillations with its response to small mechanical stimuli, we demonstrate a breakdown in a general principle of equilibrium thermodynamics, the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. We thus confirm that a hair bundle's spontaneous movements are produced by energy-consuming elements within the hair cell. To characterize the dynamical behavior of the active process, we introduce an effective temperature that, for each frequency component, quantifies a hair bundle's deviation from thermal equilibrium. The effective temperature diverges near the bundle's frequency of spontaneous oscillation. This behavior, which is not generic for active oscillators, can be accommodated by a simple model that characterizes quantitatively the fluctuations of the spontaneous movements as well as the hair bundle's linear response function.

Mechanics of the mammalian cochlea

In mammals, environmental sounds stimulate the auditory receptor, the cochlea, via vibrations of the stapes, the innermost of the middle ear ossicles. These vibrations produce displacement waves that travel on the elongated and spirally wound basilar membrane (BM). As they travel, waves grow in amplitude, reaching a maximum and then dying out. The location of maximum BM motion is a function of stimulus frequency, with high-frequency waves being localized to the "base" of the cochlea (near the stapes) and low-frequency waves approaching the "apex" of the cochlea. Thus each cochlear site has a characteristic frequency (CF), to which it responds maximally. BM vibrations produce motion of hair cell stereocilia, which gates stereociliar transduction channels leading to the generation of hair cell receptor potentials and the excitation of afferent auditory nerve fibers. At the base of the cochlea, BM motion exhibits a CF-specific and level-dependent compressive nonlinearity such that responses to low-level, near-CF stimuli are sensitive and sharply frequency-tuned and responses to intense stimuli are insensitive and poorly tuned. The high sensitivity and sharp-frequency tuning, as well as compression and other nonlinearities (two-tone suppression and intermodulation distortion), are highly labile, indicating the presence in normal cochleae of a positive feedback from the organ of Corti, the "cochlear amplifier." This mechanism involves forces generated by the outer hair cells and controlled, directly or indirectly, by their transduction currents. At the apex of the cochlea, nonlinearities appear to be less prominent than at the base, perhaps implying that the cochlear amplifier plays a lesser role in determining apical mechanical responses to sound. Whether at the base or the apex, the properties of BM vibration adequately account for most frequency-specific properties of the responses to sound of auditory nerve fibers.

Molecular basis of mechanotransduction in living cells

The simplest cell-like structure, the lipid bilayer vesicle, can respond to mechanical deformation by elastic membrane dilation/thinning and curvature changes. When a protein is inserted in the lipid bilayer, an energetic cost may arise because of hydrophobic mismatch between the protein and bilayer. Localized changes in bilayer thickness and curvature may compensate for this mismatch. The peptides alamethicin and gramicidin and the bacterial membrane protein MscL form mechanically gated (MG) channels when inserted in lipid bilayers. Their mechanosensitivity may arise because channel opening is associated with a change in the protein's membrane-occupied area, its hydrophobic mismatch with the bilayer, excluded water volume, or a combination of these effects. As a consequence, bilayer dilation/thinning or changes in local membrane curvature may shift the equilibrium between channel conformations. Recent evidence indicates that MG channels in specific animal cell types (e.g., Xenopus oocytes) are also gated directly by bilayer tension. However, animal cells lack the rigid cell wall that protects bacteria and plants cells from excessive expansion of their bilayer. Instead, a cortical cytoskeleton (CSK) provides a structural framework that allows the animal cell to maintain a stable excess membrane area (i.e., for its volume occupied by a sphere) in the form of membrane folds, ruffles, and microvilli. This excess membrane provides an immediate membrane reserve that may protect the bilayer from sudden changes in bilayer tension. Contractile elements within the CSK may locally slacken or tighten bilayer tension to regulate mechanosensitivity, whereas membrane blebbing and tight seal patch formation, by using up membrane reserves, may increase membrane mechanosensitivity. In specific cases, extracellular and/or CSK proteins (i.e., tethers) may transmit mechanical forces to the process (e.g., hair cell MG channels, MS intracellular Ca(2+) release, and transmitter release) without increasing tension in the lipid bilayer.

In vivo evidence for a cochlear amplifier in the hair-cell bundle of lizards

Vertebrate sensory hair cells achieve high sensitivity and frequency selectivity by adding self-generated mechanical energy to low-level signals. This allows them to detect signals that are smaller than thermal molecular motion and to achieve significant resonance amplitudes and frequency selectivity despite the viscosity of the surrounding fluid. In nonmammals, a great deal of in vitro evidence indicates that the active process responsible for this amplification is intimately associated with the hair cells' transduction channels in the stereovillar bundle. Here, we provide in vivo evidence of hair-cell bundle involvement in active processes. Electrical stimulation of the inner ear of a lizard at frequencies typical for this hearing organ induced low-level otoacoustic emissions that could be modulated by low-frequency sound. The unique modulation pattern permitted the tracing of the active process involved to the stereovillar bundles of the sensory hair cells. This supports the notion that, in nonmammals, the cochlear amplifier in the hair cells is driven by a bundle motor system.

Active hair bundle motion linked to fast transducer adaptation in auditory hair cells

During transduction in auditory hair cells, hair bundle deflection opens mechanotransducer channels that subsequently reclose or adapt to maintained stimuli, a major component of the adaptation occurring on a submillisecond time scale. Using a photodiode imaging technique, we measured hair bundle motion in voltage-clamped turtle hair cells to search for a mechanical correlate of fast adaptation. Excitatory force steps imposed by a flexible glass fiber attached to the bundle caused an initial movement toward the kinocilium, followed by a fast recoil equivalent to bundle stiffening. The recoil had a time course identical to adaptation of the transducer current, and like adaptation, was most prominent for small stimuli, was slowed by reducing extracellular calcium, and varied with hair cell resonant frequency. In free-standing hair bundles, depolarizations positive to 0 mV evoked an outward current attributable to opening of transducer channels, which was accompanied by a sustained bundle deflection toward the kinocilium. Both processes were sensitive to external calcium concentration and were abolished by blocking the transducer channels with dihydrostreptomycin. The similarity in properties of fast adaptation and the associated bundle motion indicates the operation of a rapid calcium-sensitive force generator linked to the gating of the transducer channels. This force generator may permit stimulus amplification during transduction in auditory hair cells.

Putting ion channels to work: mechanoelectrical transduction, adaptation, and amplification by hair cells

As in other excitable cells, the ion channels of sensory receptors produce electrical signals that constitute the cellular response to stimulation. In photoreceptors, olfactory neurons, and some gustatory receptors, these channels essentially report the results of antecedent events in a cascade of chemical reactions. The mechanoelectrical transduction channels of hair cells, by contrast, are coupled directly to the stimulus. As a consequence, the mechanical properties of these channels shape our hearing process from the outset of transduction. Channel gating introduces nonlinearities prominent enough to be measured and even heard. Channels provide a feedback signal that controls the transducer's adaptation to large stimuli. Finally, transduction channels participate in an amplificatory process that sensitizes and sharpens hearing.

Negative hair-bundle stiffness betrays a mechanism for mechanical amplification by the hair cell

Hearing and balance rely on the ability of hair cells in the inner ear to sense miniscule mechanical stimuli. In each cell, sound or acceleration deflects the mechanosensitive hair bundle, a tuft of rigid stereocilia protruding from the cell's apical surface. By altering the tension in gating springs linked to mechanically sensitive transduction channels, this deflection changes the channels' open probability and elicits an electrical response. To detect weak stimuli despite energy losses caused by viscous dissipation, a hair cell can use active hair-bundle movement to amplify its mechanical inputs. This amplificatory process also yields spontaneous bundle oscillations. Using a displacement-clamp system to measure the mechanical properties of individual hair bundles from the bullfrog's ear, we found that an oscillatory bundle displays negative slope stiffness at the heart of its region of mechanosensitivity. Offsetting the hair bundle's position activates an adaptation process that shifts the region of negative stiffness along the displacement axis. Modeling indicates that the interplay between negative bundle stiffness and the motor responsible for mechanical adaptation produces bundle oscillation similar to that observed. Just as the negative resistance of electrically excitable cells and of tunnel diodes can be embedded in a biasing circuit to amplify electrical signals, negative stiffness can be harnessed to amplify mechanical stimuli in the ear.