Assessment of infant brain development with frequency-domain near-infrared spectroscopy

Developmental changes of prefrontal activation in humans: a near-infrared spectroscopy study of preschool children and adults

Previous morphological studies indicated that development of the human prefrontal cortex (PFC) appears to continue into late adolescence. Although functional brain imaging studies have sought to determine the time course of functional development of the PFC, it is unclear whether the developmental change occurs after adolescence to adulthood and when it achieves a peak because of the narrow or discontinuous range in the participant's age. Moreover, previous functional studies have not focused on the anterior frontal region, that is, the frontopolar regions (BA9/10). Thus, the present study investigated the developmental change in frontopolar PFC activation associated with letter fluency task by using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), in subjects from preschool children to adults. We analyzed the relative concentration of hemoglobin (ΔHb) in the prefrontal cortex measured during the activation task in 48 typically-developing children and adolescents and 22 healthy adults. Consistent with prior morphological studies, we found developmental change with age in the children/adolescents. Moreover, the average Δoxy-Hb in adult males was significantly larger than that in child/adolescent males, but was not true for females. These data suggested that functional development of the PFC continues into late adolescence. Although the developmental change of the frontopolar PFC was independent of gender from childhood to adolescence, in adulthood a gender difference was shown.

Functional near infrared spectroscopy study of age-related difference in cortical activation patterns during cycling with speed feedback

Functional decline of lower-limb affects the ability of locomotion and the age-related brain differences have been elucidated among the elderly. Cycling exercise is a common training program for restoring motor function in the deconditioned elderly or stroke patients. The provision of speed feedback has been commonly suggested to clinical therapists for facilitating learning of controlled cycling performance and maintaining motivation in training programs with elderly participants. However, the cortical control of pedaling movements and the effect of external feedback remain poorly understanding. This study investigated the regional cortical activities detected by functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in 12 healthy young and 13 healthy elderly subjects under conditions of cycling without-(free cycling) and with feedback (target cycling). The elderly exhibited predominant activation of the sensorimotor cortex during free cycling similar to young subjects but with poorer cycling performance. The cycling performance improved in both groups, and the elderly showed increased brain activities of the supplementary motor area and premotor cortex under target cycling condition. These findings demonstrated age-related changes in the cortical control in processing external feedback and pedaling movements. Use of fNIRS to evaluate brain activation patterns after training may facilitate brain-based design of tailored therapeutic rehabilitation strategies.

Bedside optical imaging of occipital resting-state functional connectivity in neonates

Resting-state networks derived from temporal correlations of spontaneous hemodynamic fluctuations have been extensively used to elucidate the functional organization of the brain in adults and infants. We have previously developed functional connectivity diffuse optical tomography methods in adults, and we now apply these techniques to study functional connectivity in newborn infants at the bedside. We present functional connectivity maps in the occipital cortices obtained from healthy term-born infants and premature infants, including one infant with an occipital stroke. Our results suggest that functional connectivity diffuse optical tomography has potential as a valuable clinical tool for the early detection of functional deficits and for providing prognostic information on future development.

Optical coherence tomography for the quantitative study of cerebrovascular physiology

Doppler optical coherence tomography (DOCT) and OCT angiography are novel methods to investigate cerebrovascular physiology. In the rodent cortex, DOCT flow displays features characteristic of cerebral blood flow, including conservation along nonbranching vascular segments and at branch points. Moreover, DOCT flow values correlate with hydrogen clearance flow values when both are measured simultaneously. These data validate DOCT as a noninvasive quantitative method to measure tissue perfusion over a physiologic range.

Microvascular oxygen tension and flow measurements in rodent cerebral cortex during baseline conditions and functional activation

Measuring cerebral oxygen delivery and metabolism microscopically is important for interpreting macroscopic functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data and identifying pathological changes associated with stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and brain injury. Here, we present simultaneous, microscopic measurements of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and oxygen partial pressure (pO(2)) in cortical microvessels of anesthetized rats under baseline conditions and during somatosensory stimulation. Using a custom-built imaging system, we measured CBF with Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT), and vascular pO(2) with confocal phosphorescence lifetime microscopy. Cerebral blood flow and pO(2) measurements displayed heterogeneity over distances irresolvable with fMRI and positron emission tomography. Baseline measurements indicate O(2) extraction from pial arterioles and homogeneity of ascending venule pO(2) despite large variation in microvessel flows. Oxygen extraction is linearly related to flow in ascending venules, suggesting that flow in ascending venules closely matches oxygen demand of the drained territory. Oxygen partial pressure and relative CBF transients during somatosensory stimulation further indicate arteriolar O(2) extraction and suggest that arterioles contribute to the fMRI blood oxygen level dependent response. Understanding O(2) supply on a microscopic level will yield better insight into brain function and the underlying mechanisms of various neuropathologies.

Precision of cerebral oxygenation and hemoglobin concentration measurements in neonates measured by near-infrared spectroscopy

BACKGROUND AND AIM

One source of error with near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is the assumption that the measured tissue is optically homogeneous. This is not always the case. Our aim is to assess the impact of tissue homogeneity (TH) on the precision of NIRS measurements in neonates.

METHODS

On 36 term and 27 preterm neonates at least five 1-min measurements are performed on each subject using the OxiplexTS. The sensor position is slightly changed before each measurement while assessing TH. The precision for cerebral tissue oxygenation saturation (StO(2)) and total hemoglobin concentration (tHb) are calculated by repeated measures analysis of variance.

RESULTS

The mean StO(2) is not significantly different between term and preterm infants. The mean tHb is significantly lower in preterm infants (p < 0.01). With increasing TH, the precision of StO(2) increase from 5.6 to 4.6% for preterm and from 11.0 to 2.0% for term infants; the precision of tHb increases from 10.1 to 7.5μM for preterm and from 16.4 to 3.5 μM for term infants. The precision for StO(2) is higher in term than in preterm infants. The precision for tHb shows no significant difference between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The precision of NIRS measurements correlates with tissue homogeneity.

Assessment of the frequency-domain multi-distance method to evaluate the brain optical properties: Monte Carlo simulations from neonate to adult

The near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) frequency-domain multi-distance (FD-MD) method allows for the estimation of optical properties in biological tissue using the phase and intensity of radiofrequency modulated light at different source-detector separations. In this study, we evaluated the accuracy of this method to retrieve the absorption coefficient of the brain at different ages. Synthetic measurements were generated with Monte Carlo simulations in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based heterogeneous head models for four ages: newborn, 6 and 12 month old infants, and adult. For each age, we determined the optimal set of source-detector separations and estimated the corresponding errors. Errors arise from different origins: methodological (FD-MD) and anatomical (curvature, head size and contamination by extra-cerebral tissues). We found that the brain optical absorption could be retrieved with an error between 8-24% in neonates and infants, while the error increased to 19-44% in adults over all source-detector distances. The dominant contribution to the error was found to be the head curvature in neonates and infants, and the extra-cerebral tissues in adults.

Optical system based on time-gated, intensified charge-coupled device camera for brain imaging studies

An imaging system for brain oxygenation based on a time-gated, intensified charge-coupled device camera was developed. It allows one to image diffusely reflected light from an investigated medium at defined time windows delayed with respect to the laser pulse. Applying a fast optomechanical switch to deliver the light at a wavelength of 780 nm to nine source fibers allowed one to acquire images in times as short as 4 s. Thus, the system can be applied in in vivo studies. The system was validated in phantom experiments, in which absorbing inclusions were localized at different depths and different lateral positions. Then, the decrease in absorption of the brain tissue related to increase in oxygenation was visualized in the motor cortex area during finger tapping by a healthy volunteer.

Validation of diffuse correlation spectroscopy measurements of rodent cerebral blood flow with simultaneous arterial spin labeling MRI; towards MRI-optical continuous cerebral metabolic monitoring

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) during stepped hypercapnia was measured simultaneously in the rat brain using near-infrared diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) and arterial spin labeling MRI (ASL). DCS and ASL CBF values agree very well, with high correlation (R=0.86, p< 10(-9)), even when physiological instability perturbed the vascular response. A partial volume effect was evident in the smaller magnitude of the optical CBF response compared to the MRI values (averaged over the cortical area), primarily due to the inclusion of white matter in the optically sampled volume. The 8.2 and 11.7 mm mid-separation channels of the multi-distance optical probe had the lowest partial volume impact, reflecting ~75 % of the MR signal change. Using a multiplicative correction factor, the ASL CBF could be predicted with no more than 10% relative error, affording an opportunity for real-time relative cerebral metabolism monitoring in conjunction with MR measurement of cerebral blood volume using super paramagnetic contrast agents.

Dissociation of processing of featural and spatiotemporal information in the infant cortex

A great deal is known about the development of visual object processing capacities and the neural structures that mediate these capacities in the mature observer. In contrast, little is known about the neural structures that mediate these capacities in the infant or how these structures eventually give rise to mature processing. The present research used near-infrared spectroscopy to investigate neural activation in visual, temporal, and parietal cortex during object processing tasks. Infants aged 5-7 months viewed visual events that required processing of the featural (Experiment 1) or the spatiotemporal (Experiment 2) properties of objects. In Experiment 1, different patterns of neural were obtained in temporal cortex in response to shape than color information. In Experiment 2, different patterns of neural activation were obtained in parietal cortex in response to spatiotemporal (speed and path of motion) than featural (shape and color) information. These results suggest a dissociation of processing of featural and spatiotemporal information in the infant cortex and provide evidence for early functional specification of the human brain. The outcome of these studies informs brain-behavior models of cognitive development and lays the foundation for systematic investigation of the functional maturation of object processing systems in the infant brain.

Optical measurement of cerebral hemodynamics and oxygen metabolism in neonates with congenital heart defects

We employ a hybrid diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) monitor for neonates with congenital heart disease (n=33). The NIRS-DCS device measured changes during hypercapnia of oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, and total hemoglobin concentrations; cerebral blood flow (rCBF(DCS)); and oxygen metabolism (rCMRO(2)). Concurrent measurements with arterial spin-labeled magnetic resonance imaging (rCBF(ASL-MRI), n=12) cross-validate rCBF(DCS) against rCBF(ASL-MRI), showing good agreement (R=0.7, p=0.01). The study demonstrates use of NIRS-DCS on a critically ill neonatal population, and the results indicate that the optical technology is a promising clinical method for monitoring this population.

Neonatal hemodynamic response to visual cortex activity: high-density near-infrared spectroscopy study

The neurodevelopmental outcome of neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) infants is a major clinical concern with many infants displaying neurobehavioral deficits in childhood. Functional neuroimaging may provide early recognition of neural deficits in high-risk infants. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has the advantage of providing functional neuroimaging in infants at the bedside. However, limitations in traditional NIRS have included contamination from superficial vascular dynamics in the scalp. Furthermore, controversy exists over the nature of normal vascular, responses in infants. To address these issues, we extend the use of novel high-density NIRS arrays with multiple source-detector distances and a superficial signal regression technique to infants. Evaluations of healthy term-born infants within the first three days of life are performed without sedation using a visual stimulus. We find that the regression technique significantly improves brain activation signal quality. Furthermore, in six out of eight infants, both oxy- and total hemoglobin increases while deoxyhemoglobin decreases, suggesting that, at term, the neurovascular coupling in the visual cortex is similar to that found in healthy adults. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using high-density NIRS arrays in infants to improve signal quality through superficial signal regression, and provide a foundation for further development of high-density NIRS as a clinical tool.

Noninvasive optical measures of CBV, StO(2), CBF index, and rCMRO(2) in human premature neonates' brains in the first six weeks of life

With the causes of perinatal brain injuries still unclear and the probable role of hemodynamic instability in their etiology, bedside monitoring of neonatal cerebral hemodynamics with standard values as a function of age are needed. In this study, we combined quantitative frequency domain near infrared spectroscopy (FD-NIRS) measures of cerebral tissue oxygenation (StO(2)) and cerebral blood volume (CBV) with diffusion correlation spectroscopy (DCS) measures of a cerebral blood flow index (CBF(ix)) to test the validity of the CBV-CBF relationship in premature neonates and to estimate cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (rCMRO(2)) with or without the CBF(ix) measurement. We measured 11 premature neonates (28-34 weeks gestational age) without known neurological issues, once a week from one to six weeks of age. In nine patients, cerebral blood velocities from the middle cerebral artery were collected by transcranial Doppler (TCD) and compared with DCS values. Results show a steady decrease in StO(2) during the first six weeks of life while CBV remains stable, and a steady increase in CBF(ix). rCMRO(2) estimated from FD-NIRS remains constant but shows wide interindividual variability. rCMRO(2) calculated from FD-NIRS and DCS combined increased by 40% during the first six weeks of life with reduced interindividual variability. TCD and DCS values are positively correlated. In conclusion, FD-NIRS combined with DCS offers a safe and quantitative bedside method to assess CBV, StO(2), CBF, and rCMRO(2) in the premature brain, facilitating individual follow-up and comparison among patients. A stable CBV-CBF relationship may not be valid for premature neonates.

Polymorphisms in dopamine system genes are associated with individual differences in attention in infancy

Knowledge about the functional status of the frontal cortex in infancy is limited. This study investigated the effects of polymorphisms in four dopamine system genes on performance in a task developed to assess such functioning, the Freeze-Frame task, at 9 months of age. Polymorphisms in the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) genes are likely to impact directly on the functioning of the frontal cortex, whereas polymorphisms in the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) and dopamine transporter (DAT1) genes might influence frontal cortex functioning indirectly via strong frontostriatal connections. A significant effect of the COMT valine(1)methionine (Val 158 Met) polymorphism was found. Infants with the Met/Met genotype were significantly less distractible than infants with the Val/Val genotype in Freeze-Frame trials presenting an engaging central stimulus. In addition, there was an interaction with the DAT1 3; variable number of tandem repeats polymorphism; the COMT effect was present only in infants who did not have two copies of the DAT1 10-repeat allele. These findings indicate that dopaminergic polymorphisms affect selective aspects of attention as early as infancy and further validate the Freeze-Frame task as a frontal cortex task.

Increased cerebral blood volume and oxygen consumption in neonatal brain injury

With the increasing interest in treatments for neonatal brain injury, bedside methods for detecting and assessing injury status and evolution are needed. We aimed to determine whether cerebral tissue oxygenation (StO(2)), cerebral blood volume (CBV), and estimates of relative cerebral oxygen consumption (rCMRO(2)) determined by bedside frequency-domain near-infrared spectroscopy (FD-NIRS) have the potential to distinguish neonates with brain injury from those with non-brain issues and healthy controls. We recruited 43 neonates < or =15 days old and >33 weeks gestational age (GA): 14 with imaging evidence of brain injury, 29 without suspicion of brain injury (4 unstable, 6 stable, and 19 healthy). A multivariate analysis of variance with Newman-Keuls post hoc comparisons confirmed group similarity for GA and age at measurement. StO(2) was significantly higher in brain injured compared with unstable neonates, but not statistically different from stable or healthy neonates. Brain-injured neonates were distinguished from all others by significant increases in CBV and rCMRO(2). In conclusion, although NIRS measures of StO(2) alone may be insensitive to evolving brain injury, increased CBV and rCMRO(2) seem to be useful for detecting neonatal brain injury and suggest increased neuronal activity and metabolism occurs acutely in evolving brain injury.

What's new in neuroimaging methods?

The rapid advancement of neuroimaging methodology and its growing availability has transformed neuroscience research. The answers to many questions that we ask about how the brain is organized depend on the quality of data that we are able to obtain about the locations, dynamics, fluctuations, magnitudes, and types of brain activity and structural changes. In this review an attempt is made to take a snapshot of the cutting edge of a small component of the very rapidly evolving field of neuroimaging. For each area covered, a brief context is provided along with a summary of a few of the current developments and issues. Then, several outstanding papers, published in the past year or so, are described, providing an example of the directions in which each area is progressing. The areas covered include functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), voxel-based morphometry (VBM), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), optical imaging, and positron emission tomography (PET). More detail is included on fMRI; its subsections include fMRI interpretation, new fMRI contrasts, MRI technology, MRI paradigms and processing, and endogenous oscillations in fMRI.

Identifying cortical lateralization of speech processing in infants using near-infrared spectroscopy

We investigate the utility of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) as an alternative technique for studying infant speech processing. NIRS is an optical imaging technology that uses relative changes in total hemoglobin concentration and oxygenation as an indicator of neural activation. Procedurally, NIRS has the advantage over more common methods (e.g., fMRI) in that it can be used to study the neural responses of behaviorally active infants. Older infants (aged 6-9 months) were allowed to sit on their caretakers' laps during stimulus presentation to determine relative differences in focal activity in the temporal region of the brain during speech processing. Results revealed a dissociation of sensory-specific processing in two cortical regions, the left and right temporal lobes. These findings are consistent with those obtained using other neurophysiological methods and point to the utility of NIRS as a means of establishing neural correlates of language development in older (and more active) infants.

Significance of background optical properties, time-resolved information and optode arrangement in diffuse optical imaging of term neonates

The significance of accurate knowledge of background optical properties and time-resolved information in reconstructing images of hemodynamic changes in the neonatal brain from diffuse optical imaging data was studied using Monte Carlo (MC) simulation. A segmented anatomical magnetic resonance (MR) image and literature-derived optical properties for each tissue type were used to create a voxel-based anatomical model. Small absorbing perturbations were introduced into the anatomical model to simulate localized hemodynamic responses related to brain activation. Perturbation MC (pMC) was used as the primary method of image reconstruction. For comparison, reconstructions were also performed using the finite element method (FEM) to solve the diffusion approximation (DA) to the radiative transfer equation (RTE). The effect of optode layout was investigated using three different grids. Of the factors studied, the density of the optode grid was found to have the greatest effect on image quality. The use of time-resolved information significantly improved the spatial accuracy with all optode grids. Adequate knowledge and modeling of the optical properties of the background was found to significantly improve the spatial accuracy of the reconstructed images and make the recovery of contrast of absorption changes more consistent over simplified modeling. Localization accuracy of small perturbations was found to be 2-3 mm with accurate a priori knowledge of the background optical properties, when a grid with high optode density (>1 optode cm(-2)) was used.

Estimating a modified Grubb's exponent in healthy human brains with near infrared spectroscopy and transcranial Doppler

The relationship between cerebral blood volume (CBV) and flow (CBF) has been widely studied. One of the most significant early studies was by Grubb et al (1974 Stroke 5 630-9), who conducted hypercapnia studies in primates with positron emission tomography (PET) and empirically found CBV = 0.8 CBF(0.38). The exponent used here has since been known as the Grubb's exponent. In this paper, we define a similar exponent known as the modified Grubb's exponent, G', which is based on CBV and cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) estimated by near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and transcranial Doppler respectively, i.e. G' = log(CBV/CBV(0))/log(CBFV/CBFV(0)), where CBV(0) and CBFV(0) are baseline values. The aim of this study was to estimate the nominal value of the modified Grubb's exponent in healthy human brains. We conducted hypercapnia and hypocapnia studies on 14 healthy adult subjects. The correlation coefficient between log(CBV/CBV(0)) and log(CBFV/CBFV(0)) is 0.71 (p < 0.0001). We found a modified Grubb's exponent of 0.13 (the 95% confidence bounds are 0.10 and 0.17) which is expectedly lower than the conventional Grubb's exponents estimated by other techniques. The modified Grubb's exponent is a simple measure to quantify the hemodynamics between local CBV and global CBFV in the brain and as such may provide insight on brain physiology. Both NIRS and transcranial Doppler techniques are non-invasive and portable, facilitating future studies in other population groups such as brain-injured patients.

Hemodynamic changes in the infant cortex during the processing of featural and spatiotemporal information

Over the last 20 years neuroscientists have learned a great deal about the ventral and dorsal object processing pathways in the adult brain, yet little is known about the functional development of these pathways. The present research assessed the extent to which different patterns of neural activation, as measured by changes in blood volume and oxygenation, are observed in infant visual and temporal cortex in response to events that involve processing of featural differences or spatiotemporal discontinuities. Infants aged 6.5 months were tested. Increased neural activation was observed in visual cortex in response to a featural-difference and a spatiotemporal-discontinuity event. In addition, increased neural activation was observed in temporal cortex in response to the featural-difference but not the spatiotemporal-discontinuity event. The outcome of this experiment reveals early functional specialization of temporal cortex and lays the foundation for future investigation of the maturation of object processing pathways in humans.

Oxygen advection and diffusion in a three- dimensional vascular anatomical network

There is an increasing need for quantitative and computationally affordable models for analyzing tissue metabolism and hemodynamics in microvascular networks. In this work, we develop a hybrid model to solve for the time-varying oxygen advection-diffusion equation in the vessels and tissue. To obtain a three-dimensional temporal evolution of tissue oxygen concentration for realistic complex vessel networks, we used a graph-based advection model combined with a finite-element based diffusion model and an implicit time-advancing scheme. We validated this algorithm for both static and dynamic conditions. We also applied it to a complex vascular network obtained from a rodent somatosensory cortex. Qualitative agreement was found with in-vivo experiments.

Oxygen advection and diffusion in a three- dimensional vascular anatomical network

There is an increasing need for quantitative and computationally affordable models for analyzing tissue metabolism and hemodynamics in microvascular networks. In this work, we develop a hybrid model to solve for the time-varying oxygen advection-diffusion equation in the vessels and tissue. To obtain a three-dimensional temporal evolution of tissue oxygen concentration for realistic complex vessel networks, we used a graph-based advection model combined with a finite-element based diffusion model and an implicit time-advancing scheme. We validated this algorithm for both static and dynamic conditions. We also applied it to a complex vascular network obtained from a rodent somatosensory cortex. Qualitative agreement was found with in-vivo experiments.

Optical brain imaging in vivo: techniques and applications from animal to man

Optical brain imaging has seen 30 years of intense development, and has grown into a rich and diverse field. In-vivo imaging using light provides unprecedented sensitivity to functional changes through intrinsic contrast, and is rapidly exploiting the growing availability of exogenous optical contrast agents. Light can be used to image microscopic structure and function in vivo in exposed animal brain, while also allowing noninvasive imaging of hemodynamics and metabolism in a clinical setting. This work presents an overview of the wide range of approaches currently being applied to in-vivo optical brain imaging, from animal to man. Techniques include multispectral optical imaging, voltage sensitive dye imaging and speckle-flow imaging of exposed cortex, in-vivo two-photon microscopy of the living brain, and the broad range of noninvasive topography and tomography approaches to near-infrared imaging of the human brain. The basic principles of each technique are described, followed by examples of current applications to cutting-edge neuroscience research. In summary, it is shown that optical brain imaging continues to grow and evolve, embracing new technologies and advancing to address ever more complex and important neuroscience questions.