Number, density, and surface/cytoplasmic distribution of GABA transporters at presynaptic structures of knock-in mice carrying GABA transporter subtype 1-green fluorescent protein fusions

In vivo mammalian brain imaging using one- and two-photon fluorescence microendoscopy

One of the major limitations in the current set of techniques available to neuroscientists is a dearth of methods for imaging individual cells deep within the brains of live animals. To overcome this limitation, we developed two forms of minimally invasive fluorescence microendoscopy and tested their abilities to image cells in vivo. Both one- and two-photon fluorescence microendoscopy are based on compound gradient refractive index (GRIN) lenses that are 350-1,000 microm in diameter and provide micron-scale resolution. One-photon microendoscopy allows full-frame images to be viewed by eye or with a camera, and is well suited to fast frame-rate imaging. Two-photon microendoscopy is a laser-scanning modality that provides optical sectioning deep within tissue. Using in vivo microendoscopy we acquired video-rate movies of thalamic and CA1 hippocampal red blood cell dynamics and still-frame images of CA1 neurons and dendrites in anesthetized rats and mice. Microendoscopy will help meet the growing demand for in vivo cellular imaging created by the rapid emergence of new synthetic and genetically encoded fluorophores that can be used to label specific brain areas or cell classes.

An immunogold investigation of the distribution of GABA and glycine in nerve terminals on the somata of spherical bushy cells in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus of guinea pig

Spherical bushy neurons in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus receive glutamatergic primary terminals from the cochlear nerve and terminals of noncochlear (i.e. nonprimary) origin, many of which colocalize gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine. Here the relationship between GABA and glycine in these terminals has been investigated using postembedding immunogold labelling. A significant negative correlation was found between the density of terminal labelling for GABA and for glycine in four guinea pigs. Terminals could be divided into three categories, GABA-only, glycine-only, or colocalizing depending on whether they had a significantly higher labelling density for either amino acid than the primary terminals. The overall labelling density in all four animals was significantly greater for GABA in GABA-only terminals than colocalizing ones but similar for glycine in both. Within the terminals, the labelling density over synaptic vesicles, nonvesicular regions of cytoplasm and mitochondria was also investigated. No significant difference was detected in the labelling density of vesicles compared with nonvesicular regions for either amino acid. However, a significant difference was found between the overall labelling density over mitochondria and nonvesicular regions for both. There was also significantly more mitochondrial GABA labelling in GABA-only terminals compared to colocalizing terminals but mitochondrial glycine labelling was similar in glycine-only and colocalizing terminals. Thus the level of GABA is higher in single than in colocalizing terminals, particularly in the mitochondria, but similar for glycine in both. It is possible therefore that the presence of glycine affects the level of GABA in the nonprimary terminals but that the presence of GABA does not affect the level of glycine.

Lamina-specific differences in GABA(B) autoreceptor-mediated regulation of spontaneous GABA release in rat entorhinal cortex

Spontaneous synaptic inhibition plays an important role in regulating the excitability of cortical networks. Here we have investigated the role of GABA(B) autoreceptors in regulating spontaneous GABA release in the entorhinal cortex (EC), a region associated with temporal lobe epilepsies. We have previously shown that the level of spontaneous inhibition in superficial layers of the EC is much greater than that seen in deeper layers. In the present study, using intracellular and whole cell patch clamp recordings in rat EC slices, we have demonstrated that evoked GABA responses are controlled by feedback inhibition via GABA(B) autoreceptors. Furthermore, recordings of spontaneous, activity-independent inhibitory postsynaptic currents in layer II and layer V neurones showed that the GABA(B) receptor agonist, baclofen, reduced the frequency of GABA-mediated currents indicating the presence of presynaptic GABA(B) receptors in both layers. Application of the antagonist, CGP55845, blocked the effects of baclofen and also increased the frequency of GABA-mediated events above baseline, but the latter effect was restricted to layer V. This demonstrates that GABA(B) autoreceptors are tonically activated by synaptically released GABA in layer V, and this may partly explain the lower level of spontaneous GABA release in the deep layer.

Regulation of a γ-Aminobutyric Acid Transporter by Reciprocal Tyrosine and Serine Phosphorylation

A feature of the rat brain gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter GAT1, and other members of the neurotransmitter transporter family, is its regulated redistribution between intracellular locations and the plasma membrane. Recent studies have focused upon defining the signaling molecules that facilitate this redistribution. Agents that promote direct tyrosine phosphorylation of GAT1 promote a relative increase in surface GAT1 levels, and this results from a slowing of the transporter internalization rate. Agents that act to increase protein kinase C (PKC) activity promote a relative decrease in surface GAT1 levels; whether this effect is caused by direct transporter phosphorylation is unknown. The opposing actions of tyrosine kinase activity and PKC activity raise the possibility that the subcellular distribution of GAT1 is associated with mutually exclusive transporter phosphorylation events. The present experiments show that GAT1 is phosphorylated on serine residues in a PKC-dependent manner, but this state is only revealed when GAT1 tyrosine phosphorylation is eliminated or greatly reduced. The relative levels of serine phosphorylation and tyrosine phosphorylation are negatively correlated. The amount of serine phosphorylation is regulated by agents that affect tyrosine phosphorylation, and vice versa. In addition, the ability of agents that affect tyrosine kinase activity to regulate GAT1 serine phosphorylation requires a change in its tyrosine phosphorylation state. These data support the ideas that GAT1 can exist in either of two mutually exclusive phosphorylation states and that the relative abundance of these states determines in part the relative subcellular distribution of the transporter.

Synaptic uptake and beyond: the sodium- and chloride-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family SLC6

The SLC6 family is a diverse set of transporters that mediate solute translocation across cell plasma membranes by coupling solute transport to the cotransport of sodium and chloride down their electrochemical gradients. These transporters probably have 12 transmembrane domains, with cytoplasmic N- and C-terminal tails, and at least some may function as homo-oligomers. Family members include the transporters for the inhibitory neurotransmitters GABA and glycine, the aminergic transmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine, the osmolytes betaine and taurine, the amino acid proline, and the metabolic compound creatine. In addition, this family includes a system B(0+) cationic and neutral amino acid transporter, and two transporters for which the solutes are unknown. In general, SLC6 transporters act to regulate the level of extracellular solute concentrations. In the central and the peripheral nervous system, these transporters can regulate signaling among neurons, are the sites of action of various drugs of abuse, and naturally occurring mutations in several of these proteins are associated with a variety of neurological disorders. For example, transgenic animals lacking specific aminergic transporters show profoundly disturbed behavioral phenotypes and probably represent excellent systems for investigating psychiatric disease. SLC6 transporters are also found in many non-neural tissues, including kidney, intestine, and testis, consistent with their diverse physiological roles. Transporters in this family represent attractive therapeutic targets because they are subject to multiple forms of regulation by many different signaling cascades, and because a number of pharmacological agents have been identified that act specifically on these proteins.

Green fluorescent protein expression and colocalization with calretinin, parvalbumin, and somatostatin in the GAD67-GFP knock-in mouse

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurons in the central nervous system regulate the activity of other neurons and play a crucial role in information processing. To assist an advance in the research of GABAergic neurons, here we produced two lines of glutamic acid decarboxylase-green fluorescence protein (GAD67-GFP) knock-in mouse. The distribution pattern of GFP-positive somata was the same as that of the GAD67 in situ hybridization signal in the central nervous system. We encountered neither any apparent ectopic GFP expression in GAD67-negative cells nor any apparent lack of GFP expression in GAD67-positive neurons in the two GAD67-GFP knock-in mouse lines. The timing of GFP expression also paralleled that of GAD67 expression. Hence, we constructed a map of GFP distribution in the knock-in mouse brain. Moreover, we used the knock-in mice to investigate the colocalization of GFP with NeuN, calretinin (CR), parvalbumin (PV), and somatostatin (SS) in the frontal motor cortex. The proportion of GFP-positive cells among NeuN-positive cells (neocortical neurons) was approximately 19.5%. All the CR-, PV-, and SS-positive cells appeared positive for GFP. The CR-, PV, and SS-positive cells emitted GFP fluorescence at various intensities characteristics to them. The proportions of CR-, PV-, and SS-positive cells among GFP-positive cells were 13.9%, 40.1%, and 23.4%, respectively. Thus, the three subtypes of GABAergic neurons accounted for 77.4% of the GFP-positive cells. They accounted for 6.5% in layer I. In accord with unidentified GFP-positive cells, many medium-sized spherical somata emitting intense GFP fluorescence were observed in layer I.

Assembly of alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors assessed with functional fluorescently labeled subunits: effects of localization, trafficking, and nicotine-induced upregulation in clonal mammalian cells and in cultured midbrain neurons

Fura-2 recording of Ca2+ influx was used to show that incubation in 1 microm nicotine (2-6 d) upregulates several pharmacological components of acetylcholine (ACh) responses in ventral midbrain cultures, including a MLA-resistant, DHbetaE-sensitive component that presumably corresponds to alpha4beta2 receptors. To study changes in alpha4beta2 receptor levels and assembly during this upregulation, we incorporated yellow and cyan fluorescent proteins (YFPs and CFPs) into the alpha4 or beta2 M3-M4 intracellular loops, and these subunits were coexpressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293T cells and cultured ventral midbrain neurons. The fluorescent receptors resembled wild-type receptors in maximal responses to ACh, dose-response relations, ACh-induced Ca2+ influx, and somatic and dendritic distribution. Transfected midbrain neurons that were exposed to nicotine (1 d) displayed greater levels of fluorescent alpha4 and beta2 nicotinic ACh receptor (nAChR) subunits. As expected from the hetero-multimeric nature of alpha4beta2 receptors, coexpression of the alpha4-YFP and beta2-CFP subunits resulted in robust fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), with a FRET efficiency of 22%. In midbrain neurons, dendritic alpha4beta2 nAChRs displayed greater FRET than receptors inside the soma, and in HEK293T cells, a similar increase was noted for receptors that were translocated to the surface during PKC stimulation. When cultured transfected midbrain neurons were incubated in 1 microm nicotine, there was increased FRET in the cell body, denoting increased assembly of alpha4beta2 receptors. Thus, changes in alpha4beta2 receptor assembly play a role in the regulation of alpha4beta2 levels and responses in both clonal cell lines and midbrain neurons, and the regulation may result from Ca2+-stimulated pathways.

GABA transporter-1 (GAT1)-deficient mice: differential tonic activation of GABAA versus GABAB receptors in the hippocampus

After its release from interneurons in the CNS, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA is taken up by GABA transporters (GATs). The predominant neuronal GABA transporter GAT1 is localized in GABAergic axons and nerve terminals, where it is thought to influence GABAergic synaptic transmission, but the details of this regulation are unclear. To address this issue, we have generated a strain of GAT1-deficient mice. We observed a large increase in a tonic postsynaptic hippocampal GABAA receptor-mediated conductance. There was little or no change in the waveform or amplitude of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) or miniature IPSCs. In contrast, the frequency of quantal GABA release was one-third of wild type (WT), although the densities of GABAA receptors, GABAB receptors, glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 kDa, and vesicular GAT were unaltered. The GAT1-deficient mice lacked a presynaptic GABAB receptor tone, present in WT mice, which reduces the frequency of spontaneous IPSCs. We conclude that GAT1 deficiency leads to enhanced extracellular GABA levels resulting in an overactivation of GABAA receptors responsible for a postsynaptic tonic conductance. Chronically elevated GABA levels also downregulate phasic GABA release and reduce presynaptic signaling via GABAB receptors thus causing an enhanced tonic and a diminished phasic inhibition.

Dynamic equilibrium of neurotransmitter transporters: not just for reuptake anymore

Many electrophysiologists view neurotransmitter transporters as tiny vacuum cleaners, operating continuously to lower extracellular neurotransmitter concentration to zero. However, this is not consistent with their known behavior, instead only reducing extracellular neurotransmitter concentration to a finite, nonzero value at which an equilibrium is reached. In addition, transporters are equally able to go in either the forward or reverse direction, and when they reverse, they release their substrate in a calcium-independent manner. Transporter reversal has long been recognized to occur in response to pathological stimuli, but new data demonstrate that some transporters can also reverse in response to physiologically relevant stimuli. This is consistent with theoretical calculations that indicate that the reversal potentials of GABA and glycine transporters are close to the resting potential of neurons under normal conditions and that the extracellular concentration of GABA is sufficiently high when the GABA transporter is at equilibrium to tonically activate high-affinity extrasynaptic GABAA receptors. The equilibrium for the GABA transporter is not static but instead varies continuously as the driving force for the transporter changes. We propose that the GABA transporter plays a dynamic role in control of brain excitability by modulating the level of tonic inhibition in response to neuronal activity.

ATP modulation of excitatory synapses onto interneurons

Inhibitory interneurons play important roles in neuronal circuits, but the synaptic mechanisms that regulate excitatory input onto interneurons remain to be fully understood. We show that ATP-gated presynaptic P2X2 channels facilitate excitatory transmission onto stratum radiatum interneurons but not onto CA1 pyramidal neurons. ATP released endogenously during carbachol-induced oscillations facilitates excitatory synapses onto interneurons. Overall, these data provide evidence for the molecular identity, synaptic function, and interneuron synapse specificity of a presynaptic neurotransmitter-gated cation channel. The findings highlight a novel form of presynaptic facilitation for hippocampal interneurons and suggest a role for extracellular ATP in neuronal networks.

GABA uptake regulates cortical excitability via cell type-specific tonic inhibition

GABA(A) receptors can mediate both 'phasic' synaptic inhibition and a persistent 'tonic' form of signaling. We show that, in the presence of intact GABA uptake, guinea pig hippocampal interneurons, but not pyramidal cells, express a tonic GABA(A) receptor-mediated conductance. This conductance was pharmacologically distinct from spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). Inhibiting GABA uptake resulted in the expression of a comparable GABA(A) receptor-mediated tonic conductance in pyramidal cells. Reducing the tonic conductance in interneurons enhanced their excitability and the inhibitory drive to pyramidal cells. These results point to a role for cell type-dependent tonic inhibition in regulating cortical excitability.

WNK kinases regulate thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransport

Pseudohypoaldosteronism type II (PHAII) is an autosomal dominant disorder of hyperkalemia and hypertension. Mutations in two members of the WNK kinase family, WNK1 and WNK4, cause the disease. WNK1 mutations are believed to increase WNK1 expression; the effect of WNK4 mutations remains unknown. The clinical phenotype of PHAII is opposite to Gitelman syndrome, a disease caused by dysfunction of the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter. We tested the hypothesis that WNK kinases regulate the mammalian thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC). Mouse WNK4 was cloned and expressed in Xenopus oocytes with or without NCC. Coexpression with WNK4 suppressed NCC activity by more than 85%. This effect did not result from defects in NCC synthesis or processing, but was associated with an 85% reduction in NCC abundance at the plasma membrane. Unlike WNK4, WNK1 did not affect NCC activity directly. WNK1, however, completely prevented WNK4 inhibition of NCC. Some WNK4 mutations that cause PHAII retained NCC-inhibiting activity, but the Q562E WNK4 demonstrated diminished activity, suggesting that some PHAII mutations lead to loss of NCC inhibition. Gain-of-function WNK1 mutations would be expected to inhibit WNK4 activity, thereby activating NCC, contributing to the PHAII phenotype. Together, these results identify WNK kinases as a previously unrecognized sodium regulatory pathway of the distal nephron. This pathway likely contributes to normal and pathological blood pressure homeostasis.

Vigabatrin induces tonic inhibition via GABA transporter reversal without increasing vesicular GABA release

Two forms of GABAergic inhibition coexist: fast synaptic neurotransmission and tonic activation of GABA receptors due to ambient GABA. The mechanisms regulating ambient GABA have not been well defined. Here we examined the role of the GABA transporter in the increase in ambient [GABA] induced by the anticonvulsant vigabatrin. Pretreatment of cultured rat hippocampal neurons with vigabatrin (100 microM) for 2-5 days led to a large increase in ambient [GABA] that was measured as the change in holding current induced by bicuculline during patch-clamp recordings. In contrast, there was a decrease in the frequency of spontaneous miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents mIPSCs with no change in their amplitude distribution, and a decrease in the magnitude of IPSCs evoked by presynaptic stimulation during paired recordings. The increase in ambient [GABA] was not prevented by blockade of vesicular GABA release with tetanus toxin or removal of extracellular calcium. During perforated patch recordings, the increase in ambient [GABA] was prevented by blocking the GABA transporter, indicating that the GABA transporter was continuously operating in reverse and releasing GABA. In contrast, blocking the GABA transporter increased ambient [GABA] during whole cell patch-clamp recordings unless GABA and Na(+) were added to the recording electrode solution, indicating that whole cell recordings can lead to erroneous conclusions about the role of the GABA transporter in control of ambient GABA. We conclude that the equilibrium for the GABA transporter is a major determinant of ambient [GABA] and tonic GABAergic inhibition. We propose that fast GABAergic neurotransmission and tonic inhibition can be independently modified and play complementary roles in control of neuronal excitability.