Protective effects of ginseng on neurological disorders

The efficacy and safety of Jiedu Tongluo granules for treating post-stroke depression with qi deficiency and blood stasis syndrome: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Post-stroke depression (PSD) is the most common psychiatric complication after a stroke. The most frequently used antidepressants are selective serotonin receptor inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), however, these exhibit a series of side effects. Traditional Chinese medicine has been used to treat PSD with few side effects. The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Jiedu Tongluo granules for treating PSD with qi deficiency and blood stasis syndrome.

METHODS

The planned study is a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot trial. Eighty participants will be randomly assigned to receive either treatment or placebo. The treatment group will receive Jiedu Tongluo granules (JDTLG) with conventional treatment, and the placebo group will receive placebo with conventional treatment for 8 weeks. The primary outcome is the effectiveness of JDTLG on depression after 8 weeks treatment, which is defined as a decrease of 50% or more in 17-item Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD-17) score or clinical recovery (score < 7). Secondary outcomes are improvement in neurological function, degree of independence, activities of daily living, and TCM syndrome at each visit, which will be measured with National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), modified Rankin Scale (mRS), Barthel Index (BI) and TCM scale, respectively. Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and small-molecule metabolites will be monitored to explore the mechanism of action of JDTLG on PSD. Safety measures include vital signs, results of electrocardiography, laboratory index (full blood count, kidney and liver function tests) and adverse events.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this trial is to evaluate the therapeutic effects and safety of JDTLG in individuals with PSD with concomitant qi deficiency and blood stasis syndrome. If successful, the outcome of this trial will provide a viable treatment option for PSD patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT03147053 . Registered on 27 April 2017.

Ameliorative effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on rheumatic diseases

Background

Inflammation is a host-defensive innate immune response to protect the body from pathogenic agents and danger signals induced by cellular changes. Although inflammation is a host-defense mechanism, chronic inflammation is considered a major risk factor for the development of a variety of inflammatory autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatic diseases. Rheumatic diseases are systemic inflammatory and degenerative diseases that primarily affect connective tissues and are characterized by severe chronic inflammation and degeneration of connective tissues. Ginseng and its bioactive ingredients, genocides, have been demonstrated to have antiinflammatory activity and pharmacological effects on various rheumatic diseases by inhibiting the expression and production of inflammatory mediators.

Methods

Literature in this review was searched in a PubMed site of National Center for Biotechnology Information.

Results

The studies reporting the preventive and therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on the pathogenesis of rheumatic diseases were discussed and summarized.

Conclusion

Ginseng and ginsenosides play an ameliorative role on rheumatic diseases, and this review provides new insights into ginseng and ginsenosides as promising agents to prevent and treat rheumatic diseases.

Qi Fu Yin-a Ming Dynasty Prescription for the Treatment of Dementia

The Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) theory that “kidneys give rise to marrow, and the brain is the sea of marrow” has been a guide for the clinical application of kidney, qi and blood tonics for prevention and treatment of dementia and improvement in memory. As low resistance end-organs, both the brain and the kidneys are subjected to blood flow of high volumes throughout the cardiac cycle. Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia are two common causes of dementia, and it is increasingly recognized that many older adults with dementia have both AD and vascular pathologies. The underlying molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood, but may involve atherosclerosis, vascular dysfunction, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, history of cardiac disease and possibly, kidney dysfuntion, leading to reduced erythropoietin production, anemia, brain energy deficit and slow excitotoxicity. During the Ming Dynasty, Zhang Jing-Yue used Qi Fu Yin (seven blessings decoction), comprising Panax ginseng, Rehmannia glutinosa, Angelica polymorpha, Atractylodes macrocephala, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Ziziphus jujube, and Polygala tenuifolia to boost qi and blood circulation, strengthen the heart, and calm the spirit—skillfully linking heart, spleen, kidney, qi, blood and brain as a whole to treat age-related dementia. The purpose of this review is to outline TCM concepts for the treatment of dementia and illustrated with a historical prescription for the treatment of the condition, with the hope that this description may lead to advances in its management.

Mania Associated With Herbal Medicines, Other Than Cannabis: A Systematic Review and Quality Assessment of Case Reports

Background: DSM-5 introduced the diagnostic category of substance/medication-induced bipolar and related disorder. This systematic review examines published reports linking mania with the consumption of herbal medicines (HM), excluding cannabis. Putative pathophysiological mechanisms that may account for the reported HM being associated with mania are discussed. Methods: A systematic search of EMBASE, CINAHL, Health Source, PsychINFO, and PubMed. The quality of case reports meeting inclusion criteria was assessed using the modified Quality Assessment Scale by Agbabiaka. Results: Nineteen single and seven multiple-case reports met inclusion criteria. These yielded a study sample of 35 case reports, 28 of herbal medicine associated mania, 5 of hypomania, and two mixed states, in 17 females [age in years M(SD) = 43.1(13.2)] and 18 males [40.7(18.1)]. A total of 11 herbal medicines were implicated. Case reports by herbal medicine (number of reports) comprised: St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) (14); Ginseng (Panax ginseng) (5); brindleberry (Garcinia cambogia) (4); ma-huang (Ephedra sinica) (3); "herbal slimming pills" (2); Herbalife products (2); Hydroxycut (1); horny goat weed (Epimedium grandiflorum) (1); "herbal body tonic" (1); celery root (Apium graveolans) (1), and a "herbal mixture" (1). All case reports were associated with use rather than withdrawal of herbal medicines. Only one case report was rated for probability of association using a standardized algorithm. Laboratory assays to confirm composition of the herbal preparation were reported in only one article describing two cases and indicating admixture of a likely causal pharmaceutical in the herbal preparation. Conclusions: Causal attributions are problematic given the limited number of reports, antidepressant co-prescribing in 7 cases, insufficient data regarding pattern and type of herbal medicine use, and lack of a reference frequency for spontaneous mania.The quality assessment scores across the 26 papers (35 case reports) were as follows: low quality (0), lower-medium quality (9), upper-medium quality (10) and high quality (7). Putative pathophysiological mechanisms were postulated for nine of the 11 herbal medicines and centered on HPA-axis activation and increased monoamine activity. Systematic study of the association between herbal medicines and the course of bipolar disorder may contribute to defining targets for pathophysiological research.

Involvement of N-Methyl-D-Aspartic Acid Receptor and DL-α-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5- Methyl-4-Isoxazole Propionic Acid Receptor in Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rb3 against Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation-Induced Injury in Hippocampal Slices from Rat

OBJECTIVE

Ginsenosides, Rb1 and Rb3, are the major protopanaxadiol components of ginseng saponin. In the present study, the influences of ginsenosides Rb1 and Rb3 on N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor or DL-α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) receptor-mediated synaptic transmission after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) were investigated.

METHODS

NMDA receptor population spike (NMDA-PS) or AMPA receptor-mediated population spike (AMPA-PS) was recorded in the CA1 pyramidal cell layer of rat hippocampal slices by electrophysiological techniques.

RESULTS

Under normal conditions, ginsenosides Rb3 and Rb1 depressed glutamate receptors-mediated synaptic transmission. Fourteen min of OGD resulted in a poor recovery amplitude of NMDA-PS or AMPA-PS after reoxygenation. Ginsenoside Rb3 significantly delayed the appearance of transient recovery of PS during OGD, and improved the recovery amplitudes of NMDA-PS and AMPA-PS after reoxygenation. However, the similar protective effects of ginsenoside Rb1 were observed only on NMDA-PS but not AMPA-PS.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that ginsenosides Rb1 and Rb3 have the different inhibitions on NMDA and AMPA receptors-mediated response, which may partially explain the different protective effects of these agents on ischemic neuronal death.

Ginseng: An Nonnegligible Natural Remedy for Healthy Aging

Aging is an irreversible physiological process that affects all humans. Numerous theories have been proposed to regarding the process from a Western medicine perspective; however, ancient Chinese medicine practices and theories have increasingly gained attention, particularly ginseng, a grass that has been studied for the anti-aging properties of its active constituents. This review seeks to analyze current data on ginseng and its anti-aging properties. The plant species, characteristics, and active ingredients will be introduced. The main part of this review is focused on ginseng and its active components with regards to their effects on prolonging lifespan, the regulation of multiple organ systems including cardiovascular, nervous, immune, and skin, as well as the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The molecular mechanisms of these properties elucidated via various studies are summarized as further evidence of the anti-aging effects of ginseng.

The Effect of Traditional Chinese Medicine on Neural Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are special types of cells with the potential for self-renewal and multi-directional differentiation. NSCs are regulated by multiple pathways and pathway related transcription factors during the process of proliferation and differentiation. Numerous studies have shown that the compound medicinal preparations, single herbs, and herb extracts in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have specific roles in regulating the proliferation and differentiation of NSCs. In this study, we investigate the markers of NSCs in various stages of differentiation, the related pathways regulating the proliferation and differentiation, and the corresponding transcription factors in the pathways. We also review the influence of TCM on NSC proliferation and differentiation, to facilitate the development of TCM in neural regeneration and neurodegenerative diseases.

Estrogenic Potentials of Traditional Chinese Medicine

Estrogen, a steroid hormone, is associated with several human activities, including environmental, industrial, agricultural, pharmaceutical and medical fields. In this review paper, estrogenic activity associated with traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) is discussed first by focusing on the assays needed to detect estrogenic activity (animal test, cell assay, ligand-binding assay, protein assay, reporter-gene assay, transcription assay and yeast two-hybrid assay), and then, their sources, the nature of activities (estrogenic or anti-estrogenic, or other types), and pathways/functions, along with the assay used to detect the activity, which is followed by a summary of effective chemicals found in or associated with TCM. Applications of estrogens in TCM are then discussed by a comprehensive search of the literature, which include basic study/pathway analysis, cell functions, diseases/symptoms and medicine/supplements. Discrepancies and conflicting cases about estrogenicity of TCM among assays or between TCM and their effective chemicals, are focused on to enlarge estrogenic potentials of TCM by referring to omic knowledge such as transcriptome, proteome, glycome, chemome, cellome, ligandome, interactome and effectome.

Evaluation of the adaptogenic potential exerted by ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 against oxidative stress-mediated neurotoxicity in an in vitro neuronal model

Background

Ginseng (Panax sp.) is a drug with multiple pharmacological actions that has been largely used in traditional medicines for the treatment of many health problems. In the therapy of neurodegenerative disorders, it has been employed due to its capacity to strengthen mental processes by enhancing cognitive performance and psychological function. Current work aimed at evaluating the adaptogenic potential of Rb1 and Rg1 against oxidative-stress mediated degeneration in a model of nervous cells.

Methods

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction were achieved by exposing SH-SY5Y cells to the mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone. The cytoprotective activity of pre-treatments with ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 against rotenone was assessed by determining biochemical markers regarding oxidative stress (ROS scavenging, glutathione and lipid peroxidation levels, SOD activity and Nrf2 activation) and apoptosis-related alterations (mitochondrial membrane potential, calcium levels, aconitase activity and pro/antiapoptotic proteins). Their capacity to cross the blood brain barrier was also estimated.

Results

At their optimal doses, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 significantly ameliorated redox status within the cells; they reduced ROS and TBARS levels and improved the glutathione system, as well as they enhanced SOD activity and Nrf2 pathway activation. They protected neuronal cells against MMP loss, calcium homeostasis disruption and aconitase inhibition. Consequently, apoptotic cell death was attenuated by the pre-treatment with ginsenosides, as evidenced by the reduction in caspase-3 and Bax, and the increase in Bcl-2 expressions; also, lower levels of cytochrome C were found in the cytosol. Poor BBB permeation was demonstrated for both ginsenosides.

Conclusions

In conclusion, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 exhibit neuroprotective potential which is achieved, at least in part, via mitochondrial protection and the plausible involvement of Nrf2 pathway activation. Our results contribute to validate the traditional use of ginseng for cognitive-enhancing purposes and provide basis to encourage further research on the potential of ginsenosides in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Nutrition Supplements to Stimulate Lipolysis: A Review in Relation to Endurance Exercise Capacity

Athletes make great efforts to increase their endurance capacity in many ways. Using nutrition supplements for stimulating lipolysis is one such strategy to improve endurance performance. These supplements contain certain ingredients that affect fat metabolism; furthermore, in combination with endurance training, they tend to have additive effects. A large body of scientific evidence shows that nutrition supplements increase fat metabolism; however, the usefulness of lipolytic supplements as ergogenic functional foods remains controversial. The present review will describe the effectiveness of lipolytic supplements in fat metabolism and as an ergogenic aid for increasing endurance exercise capacity. There are a number of lipolytic supplements available on the market, but this review focuses on natural ingredients such as caffeine, green tea extract, L-carnitine, Garcinia cambogia (hydroxycitric acid), capsaicin, ginseng, taurine, silk peptides and octacosanol, all of which have shown scientific evidence of enhancing fat metabolism associated with improving endurance performance. We excluded some other supplements owing to lack of data on fat metabolism or endurance capacity. Based on the data in this review, we suggest that a caffeine and green tea extract improves endurance performance and enhances fat oxidation. Regarding other supplements, the data on their practical implications needs to be gathered, especially for athletes.

A proteomic approach reveals the differential protein expression in Drosophila melanogaster treated with red ginseng extract (Panax ginseng)

Background

Red ginseng is a popularly used traditional medicine with antiaging effects in Asian countries. The present study aimed to explore the changes in protein expression underlying the mechanisms of life span extension and antiaging caused by red ginseng extract (RGE) in Drosophila melanogaster.

Methods

A proteomic approach of two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-DE) was used to identify the differential abundance of possible target proteins of RGE in D. melanogaster. The reliability of the 2-DE results was confirmed via Western blotting to measure the expression levels of selected proteins. Proteins altered at the expression level after RGE treatment (1 mg/mL) were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight tandem mass spectrometry and by searching against the National Center for Biotechnology nonredundant and Uniprot protein databases. The differentially expressed proteins were analyzed using bioinformatics methods.

Results

The average survival life span of D. melanogaster was significantly extended by 12.60% with RGE treatment (1 mg/mL) compared to untreated flies. This followed increased superoxide dismutase level and decreased methane dicarboxylic aldehyde content. Based on the searching strategy, 23 differentially expressed proteins were identified (16 up-regulated and 7 down-regulated) in the RGE-treated D. melanogaster. Transduction pathways were identified using the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database, and included the hippo and oxidative phosphorylation pathways that play important roles in life span extension and antiaging process of D. melanogaster.

Conclusion

Treatment with RGE in D. melanogaster demonstrated that mechanisms of life span extension and antiaging are regulated by multiple factors and complicated signal pathways.

Beneficial effects of Panax ginseng for the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases: past findings and future directions

In recent years, several therapeutic drugs have been rationally designed and synthesized based on the novel knowledge gained from investigating the actions of biologically active chemicals derived from foods, plants, and medicinal herbs. One of the major advantages of these naturalistic chemicals is their ability to interact with multiple targets in the body resulting in a combined beneficial effect. Ginseng is a perennial herb (Araliaceae family), a species within the genus Panax, and a highly valued and popular medicinal plant. Evidence for the medicinal and health benefits of Panax ginseng and its components in preventing neurodegeneration has increased significantly in the past decade. The beneficial effects of P. ginseng on neurodegenerative diseases have been attributed primarily to the antioxidative and immunomodulatory activities of its ginsenoside components. Mechanistic studies on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides revealed that they act not only as antioxidants but also as modulators of intracellular neuronal signaling and metabolism, cell survival/death genes, and mitochondrial function. The goal of the present paper is to provide a brief review of recent knowledge and developments concerning the beneficial effects as well as the mechanism of action of P. ginseng and its components in the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Ginsenoside Rg1 modulates medial prefrontal cortical firing and suppresses the hippocampo-medial prefrontal cortical long-term potentiation

Background

Panax ginseng is one of the most commonly used medicinal herbs worldwide for a variety of therapeutic properties including neurocognitive effects. Ginsenoside Rg1 is one of the most abundant active chemical constituents of this herb with known neuroprotective, anxiolytic, and cognition improving effects.

Methods

We investigated the effects of Rg1 on the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a key brain region involved in cognition, information processing, working memory, and decision making. In this study, the effects of systemic administration of Rg1 (1 mg/kg, 3 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg) on (1) spontaneous firing of the medial prefrontal cortical neurons and (2) long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampal–medial prefrontal cortical (HP–mPFC) pathway were investigated in male Sprague–Dawley rats.

Results

The spontaneous neuronal activity of approximately 50% the recorded pyramidal cells in the mPFC was suppressed by Rg1. In addition, Rg1 attenuated LTP in the HP–mPFC pathway. These effects were not dose-dependent.

Conclusion

This report suggests that acute treatment of Rg1 impairs LTP in the HP–mPFC pathway, perhaps by suppressing the firing of a subset of mPFC neurons that may contribute to the neurocognitive effects of Rg1.

Anti-adipogenic Effects and Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg3 in Pre-adipocytes and Obese Mice

Red or black ginseng has been reported more powerful than white/fresh ginseng in dealing with various diseases/conditions including obesity. The major reason is that heating/steaming, the process of making red or black ginseng, produces large amount of bioactive compounds including ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), which are trace in fresh or white ginseng. In the present study, Rg3 was applied both in pre-adipocytes and obese mice to investigate the anti-adipogenic effects and relevant mechanisms. Our results show that Rg3 dose-dependently inhibited cell differentiation both in 3T3-L1 cells (30, 50, and 100 μM) and human primary pre-adipocytes (10, 20, and 30 μM). This inhibitory effect is accompanied by the attenuation of the expressions of adipogenic markers including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha (C/EBP-α), fatty acid synthase (FAS), fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4) and perilipin. Although dietary intake of Rg3 (0.1 mg Rg3/kg diet, 8 weeks) did not significantly affect body weight gain, fat pads and food intake as well as of PPAR-γ expression in fat tissues, we found that hepatic PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α protein expressions and hepatic glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase, two major antioxidants molecules were significantly reduced by Rg3. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rg3 may be a potential agent in reducing/preventing obesity.

Neurogenic Traditional Chinese Medicine as a Promising Strategy for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Hippocampal neurogenesis plays a critical role in the formation of new neurons during learning and memory development. Attenuation of neurogenesis in the brain is one of the primary causes of dementia in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and, conversely, modulating the process of hippocampal neurogenesis benefit patients with AD. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), particularly herbal medicine, has been in use for thousands of years in Asia and many regions of the world for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarize the role of neurotrophic factors, signal transducing factors, epigenetic modulators and neurotransmitters in neurogenesis, and we also discuss the functions of several Chinese herbs and their active molecules in activating multiple pathways involved in neurogenesis. TCM herbs target pathways such as Notch, Wnt, Sonic Hedgehog and receptor tyrosine kinase pathway, leading to activation of a signaling cascade that ultimately enhances the transcription of several important genes necessary for neurogenesis. Given these pathway activating effects, the use of TCM herbs could be an effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of AD.

Microglia in Physiology and Disease

As the immune-competent cells of the brain, microglia play an increasingly important role in maintaining normal brain function. They invade the brain early in development, transform into a highly ramified phenotype, and constantly screen their environment. Microglia are activated by any type of pathologic event or change in brain homeostasis. This activation process is highly diverse and depends on the context and type of the stressor or pathology. Microglia can strongly influence the pathologic outcome or response to a stressor due to the release of a plethora of substances, including cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. They are the professional phagocytes of the brain and help orchestrate the immunological response by interacting with infiltrating immune cells. We describe here the diversity of microglia phenotypes and their responses in health, aging, and disease. We also review the current literature about the impact of lifestyle on microglia responses and discuss treatment options that modulate microglial phenotypes.

Morinda citrifolia mitigates rotenone-induced striatal neuronal loss in male Sprague-Dawley rats by preventing mitochondrial pathway of intrinsic apoptosis

OBJECTIVES

Parkinson disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting mainly the motor system, as a result of death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The present scenario of research in PD is directed to identify novel molecules that can be administered individually or co-administered with L-Dopa to prevent the L-Dopa-Induced Dyskinesia (LID) like states that arise during chronic L-Dopa administration. Hence, in this study, we investigated whether Morinda citrifolia has therapeutic effects in rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) with special reference to mitochondrial dysfunction mediated intrinsic apoptosis.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were stereotaxically infused with rotenone (3 µg in both SNPc and VTA) and co-treated with the ethyl acetate extract of Morinda citrifolia and levodopa.

RESULTS

The results revealed that rotenone-induced cell death was reduced by MCE treatment as measured by decline in the levels of pro-apoptotic proteins. Moreover, MCE treatment significantly augmented the levels of anti-apoptotic Bcl2 and blocks the release of cytochrome c, thereby alleviating the rotenone-induced dopaminergic neuronal loss, as evidenced by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunostaining in the striatum.

DISCUSSION

Taken together, the results suggest that Morinda citrifolia may be beneficial for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases like PD.

Ginsenoside-Rb1 ameliorates lithium-induced nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity: Differential regulation of COX-2/PGE2 pathway

To investigate the effect of Ginsenoside-Rb1 (GRb1) on lithium (Li⁺)-induced toxicity, GRb1 was given to rats orally (100mg/kg) for 14days. In independent groups, lithium chloride (4meq/kg/day i.p.) was administered at day 4 of the experiment for 10days, with or without GRb1. Li⁺ caused significant deterioration of behavioral responses including righting reflex, spontaneous motor activity and catalepsy. Li⁺ also caused distortion in normal renal, cerebral and cerebellum architecture and significantly worsened all kidney functional parameters tested compared to control. In addition, Li caused oxidative stress in both kidney and brain, evident by significant increase in malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels, with decrease in reduced glutathione and catalase activity. Administration of GRb1 prior to Li⁺ significantly improved behavioral responses, renal and brain histopathological picture, kidney function tests and oxidative stress markers compared to sole Li⁺-treated group. Concomitant administration of GRb1 decreased Li⁺ levels by about 50% in serum, urine and brain and by 35% in the kidney. Interestingly, Li⁺ had a differential effect on cyclooxygenase (COX)-2/prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) pathway, as it significantly increased COX-2 expression and PGE₂ level in the kidney, while decreasing them in the brain compared to control. On the other hand, administering GRb1 with Li⁺ suppressed COX-2/PGE₂ pathway in both kidney and brain compared to Li⁺ alone. In conclusion, GRb1 can alter Li⁺ pharmacokinetics resulting in extensively decreasing its serum and tissue concentrations. Furthermore, COX-2/PGE₂ pathway has a mechanistic role in the nephro- and neuro-protective effects of GRb1 against Li⁺-induced toxicity.

Neuroprotective Effect of Several Phytochemicals and Its Potential Application in the Prevention of Neurodegenerative Diseases

The detrimental effects of oxidative stress and chronic neuroinflammation on neuronal cell death have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). The nutritional neuroscience is quickly growing, and phytochemicals or phytobioactive compounds such as curcumin, resveratrol, propolis, ginsenoside, and ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been extensively applied to potential therapeutic purposes for numerous neurodegenerative diseases for their anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. However, their administration as food supplements in the daily diet of the elderly is normally a voluntary and less-organized behavior, indicating the uncertainty of therapeutic effects in this sporadic population; specifically, the effective physiological dosages and the real positive effects in preserving brain health have not yet been fully elucidated. In this review, we collect several lines of evidence on these compounds, which constitute a major type of nutraceuticals and are widely integrated into the daily anti-aging caring of elderly patients, and discuss the underlying anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of these phytochemicals. In conclusion, we highlight the implications of these compounds in the prevention and treatment of geriatric diseases, and of the potential supplementation procedures used as a dietary therapeutic program in clinical nursing services for patients with neurodegenerative diseases or for the elderly in certain communities, which we hope will lead to more beneficial health outcomes with respect to brain function, innate immunity, and gastrointestinal function, as well as more economic and social benefits.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Protects against Oxidative Stress-induced Neuronal Apoptosis through Myosin IIA-actin Related Cytoskeletal Reorganization

Oxidative stress-induced cytoskeletal dysfunction of neurons has been implicated as a crucial cause of cell apoptosis or death in the central nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. The application of neuroprotectants rescuing the neurons from cytoskeletal damage and apoptosis can be a potential treatment for these CNS diseases. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1), one of the major active components of ginseng, has been reported possessing notable neuroprotective activities. However, there is rare report about its effect on cytoskeleton and its undergoing mechanism. The current study is to reveal the regulatory effects of Rg1 on cytoskeletal and morphological lesion in oxidative stress-induced neuronal apoptosis. The results demonstrated that pre-treatment with Rg1 (0.1-10 μM) attenuated hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced neuronal apoptosis and oxidative stress through reducing the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) level. The Rg1 treatment also abolished H₂O₂-induced morphological changes, including cell rounding, membrane blebbing, neurite retraction and nuclei condensation, which were generated by myosin IIA-actin interaction. These effects were mediated via the down-regulation of caspase-3, ROCK1 (Rho-associated kinase1) activation and myosin light chain (MLC, Ser-19) phosphorylation. Furthermore, inhibiting myosin II activity with blebbistatin partly blocked the neuroprotective effects of Rg1. The computer-aided homology modelling revealed that Rg1 preferentially positioned in the actin binding cleft of myosin IIA and might block the binding of myosin IIA to actin filaments. Accordingly, the neuroprotective mechanism of Rg1 is related to the activity that inhibits myosin IIA-actin interaction and the caspase-3/ROCK1/MLC signaling pathway. These findings put some insights into the unique neuroprotective properties of Rg1 associated with the regulation of myosin IIA-actin cytoskeletal structure under oxidative stress and provide experimental evidence for Rg1 in CNS diseases.

Morphine dependence is attenuated by red ginseng extract and ginsenosides Rh2, Rg3, and compound K

BACKGROUND

Red ginseng and ginsenosides have shown plethoric effects against various ailments. However, little is known regarding the effect of red ginseng on morphine-induced dependence and tolerance. We therefore investigated the effect of red ginseng extract (RGE) and biotransformed ginsenosides Rh2, Rg3, and compound K on morphine-induced dependence in mice and rats.

METHODS

While mice were pretreated with RGE and then morphine was injected intraperitoneally, rats were infused with ginsenosides and morphine intracranially for 7 days. Naloxone-induced morphine withdrawal syndrome was estimated and conditioned place preference test was performed for physical and psychological dependence, respectively. Western blotting was used to measure protein expressions.

RESULTS

Whereas RGE inhibited the number of naloxone-precipitated jumps and reduced conditioned place preference score, it restored the level of glutathione in mice. Likewise, ginsenosides Rh2, Rg3, and compound K attenuated morphine-dependent behavioral patterns such as teeth chattering, grooming, wet-dog shake, and escape behavior in rats. Moreover, activated N-methyl-D-aspartate acid receptor subunit 1 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase in the frontal cortex of rats, and cultured cortical neurons from mice were downregulated by ginsenosides Rh2, Rg3, and compound K despite their differential effects.

CONCLUSION

RGE and biotransformed ginsenosides could be considered as potential therapeutic agents against morphine-induced dependence.

Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng Attenuates Phencyclidine-Induced Abnormal Behaviors in Mice by Positive Modulation of Glutathione in the Prefrontal Cortex of Mice

Escalating evidence indicates that ginseng treatment protects against psychotoxic behaviors and memory impairment. Although the underlying mechanism of schizophrenia remains elusive, recent investigations proposed that downregulation of glutathione (GSH) can be involved in the pathogenesis of this disorder. Since little is known about the effects of ginseng in a schizophrenia-like animal model, we selected mountain-cultivated ginseng (MG) from a variety of ginseng extracts to investigate the effect of ginseng on the psychosis induced by phencyclidine (PCP) in mice. PCP (10 mg/kg/day, s.c.) was administered for 14 consecutive days. Novel object recognition, forced swimming, and social interaction tests were performed during the withdrawal period of 7 days. In addition, behavioral sensitization to an acute challenge of PCP was evaluated. The parameters of the GSH-dependent system in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) were examined. MG (200 mg/kg, i.p./day) or antipsychotic clozapine (10 mg/kg, p.o./day) was administered for seven consecutive days after the final PCP treatment. PCP significantly produced abnormal behaviors, followed by increases in Nrf2 nuclear translocation, its DNA binding activity, and glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL) mRNA expression in the PFC. PCP treatment significantly decreased GSH/glutathione disulfide (GSSG) ratio and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity. MG significantly attenuated abnormal behaviors and the decreases in GSH/GSSG ratio and GPx activity induced by PCP. MG attenuated the increases in Nrf2 activity and GCL expression caused by PCP. The protective potentials of MG were comparable to those of clozapine. MG ameliorates PCP-induced schizophrenia-like psychosis in mice through the positive modulation of the glutathione system.

BACE1 molecular docking and anti-Alzheimer's disease activities of ginsenosides

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginsenosides are natural product steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins obtained from the Panax species. Panax ginseng has been widely used as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for around a thousand years, especially in East Asian countries. Ginseng, the root and rhizome of the most popular species P. ginseng, used as tonic, prophylactic agent and restorative. In TCM, ginseng is highly valued herb and has been applied to a variety of pathological conditions and illnesses such as hypodynamia, anorexia, shortness of breath, palpitation, insomnia, impotence, hemorrhage and diabetes.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The basic aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-Alzheimer's disease activities of selected ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Re, Rg1, and Rg3) according to peroxynitrite (ONOO(‒)) scavenging activity and inhibitory activity of ONOO(-)-mediated nitrotyrosine formation as a measure of changes in oxidative stress. In addition, molecular docking simulation studies were performed to predict binding energies of the ginsenosides with β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1, β-secretase) and identify the interacting residues.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro cholinesterase enzyme assays by using acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and BACE1 were performed. In vitro authentic peroxynitrite scavenging activity and inhibitory activity against ONOO(-)-mediated nitrotyrosine formation were also performed. Molecular docking simulation studies were performed with Autodock Vina software and Discovery studio 4.1.

RESULTS

In vitro enzyme assays demonstrated that ginsenosides have significant inhibitory potential against AChE, BChE, and BACE1, as well as ONOO(-) and nitrotyrosine formation. Most importantly, significant AChE inhibitory activities were observed for Re; BChE for Rg3; and BACE1 for Rc, with IC50 values of 29.86±3.20, 16.80±0.36, and 59.81±2.74μg/mL, respectively. Among the tested ginsenosides, Rb1 exhibited a higher scavenging activity against ONOO(-) with an IC50 value of 27.86±1.34μg/mL, while Rc and Rg3 exhibited impressive inhibitory activity against the formation of nitrotyrosine. In addition, molecular docking studies revealed potential BACE1 inhibitory activity of ginsenosides, especially Rb1 and Rb2, which exhibited good binding affinities towards BACE1, with docking scores of -10kcal/mol.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study suggest the potential of ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Re, Rg1, and Rg3) for use in the development of therapeutic or preventive agents for Alzheimer's disease, especially through inhibition of AChE, BChE and BACE1 activities, as well as scavenging of ONOO(-) and inhibition of nitrotyrosine formation.

Fast quantitative analysis of ginsenosides in Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mayer) by using solid-phase methylation coupled to direct analysis in real time

RATIONAL

A fast quantitative method for ginsenosides is essential to minimize analysis time; direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) has the potential to be used for this purpose.

METHODS

However, in order to produce ginsenosides, a derivatization such as methylation is required because the strong polarity of ginsenosides makes it difficult to desorp and ionize them in DART-MS. The main objectives of this study were to achieve fast detection and quantitative analysis of ginsenosides by using DART-MS; solid-phase methylation of ginsenosides has been accomplished in a reaction column; methylated products of ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, Re, Rf and Rg1 were analyzed by applying DART-MS where samples could be detected after methylation without the need for further purification. For quantitative analysis, deuterated methylated ginsenosides were prepared by using the solid-phase methylation method and used as internal standards to improve repeatability in DART-MS.

RESULTS

Methylated ginsenosides produced protonated molecules [M + H](+) and fragment ions in DART-MS. Two pairs of ginsenoside isomers, Rd/Re (C48 H82 O18 , MW 946) and Rf/Rg1(C42 H72 O14 , MW 800), could be discriminated based on their characteristic fragments in tandem mass spectrometry. By using deuterated methylated ginsenosides as internal standards, fast quantitative analysis of ginsenosides Rb1, Re and Rg1 in Asian ginseng was achieved by DART-MS.

CONCLUSIONS

DART-MS is a feasible technique for fast quantitative analysis of ginsenosides by assisted methylation and the deuterated internal standard technique. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Proteomic analysis of ginsenoside Re attenuates hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Ginsenoside Re is an active component in ginseng that has attracted much attention because of its evident therapeutic effects on the cardiovascular system. However, little basic information is available on the mechanisms and pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Re. The potential mechanisms and protective effects of Re on H2O2-induced oxidative injury in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were investigated in this study. An oxidative injury model was established using H2O2. The anti-oxidative effects of Re were determined using a series of experiments, such as MTT and anti-oxidative indicator assays. The potential protective mechanisms of Re were explored at the proteomic level, and differentially expressed proteins were validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Results indicated that Re could be a potential anti-oxidant to protect HUVECs against oxidative stress damage. Proteomic analysis showed that the expression of 23 protein spots was upregulated in Re and H2O2 groups to resist oxidative stress, 15 of which were identified by their mass spectrum. These upregulated proteins were involved in stress response, anti-oxidative systems, protein synthesis, regulation of transcription and post-translational modifications, and repair of mitochondrial functions. This study may provide new insights into the mechanisms of ginsenoside Re in protecting the cardiovascular system.

Black ginseng-enriched Chong-Myung-Tang extracts improve spatial learning behavior in rats and elicit anti-inflammatory effects in vitro

Background

Chong-Myung-Tang (CMT) extract is widely used in Korea as a traditional herbal tonic for increasing memory capacity in high-school students and also for numerous body ailments since centuries. The use of CMT to improve the learning capacity has been attributed to various plant constituents, especially black ginseng, in it. Therefore, in this study, we have first investigated whether black ginseng-enriched CMT extracts affected spatial learning using the Morris water maze (MWM) test. Their molecular mechanism of action underlying improvement of learning and memory was examined in vitro.

Methods

We used two types of black ginseng-enriched CMT extracts, designated as CM-1 and CM-2, and evaluated their efficacy in the MWM test for spatial learning behavior and their anti-inflammatory effects in BV2 microglial cells.

Results

Our results show that both black ginseng-enriched CMT extracts improved the learning behavior in scopolamine-induced impairment in the water maze test. Moreover, these extracts also inhibited nitric oxide production in BV2 cells, with significant suppression of expression of proinflammatory cytokines, especially inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, and interleukin-1β. The protein expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB pathway factors was also diminished by black ginseng-enriched CMT extracts, indicating that it not only improves the memory impairment, but also acts a potent anti-inflammatory agent for neuroinflammatory diseases.

Conclusion

Our research for the first time provides the scientific evidence that consumption of black ginseng-enriched CMT extract as a brain tonic improves memory impairment. Thus, our study results can be taken as a reference for future neurobehavioral studies.

Neuroprotective effects of ginseng protein on PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in the hippocampus of D-galactose/AlCl3 inducing rats model of Alzheimer's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, with progressive memory loss, cognitive deterioration, and behavioral disorders. Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is widely used in China to treat various kinds of nervous system disorders. The study aimed to explore the therapeutic effect of ginseng protein (GP) on Alzheimer's disease and its correlation with the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway to understand the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effect of ginseng.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The AD rat model was established by intraperitoneally injecting D-galactose [60mg/(kgd)] followed by intragastrically administering AlCl3 [40mg/(kgd)] for 90 days. From day 60, the GP groups were intragastrically administered with GP 0.05 or 0.1g/kg twice daily for 30 days. The ethology of rats was tested by Morris water maze test. The content of Aβ1-42 and p-tau in the hippocampus of rats was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The expression of mRNAs and proteins of PI3K, Akt, phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt), Bcl-2, and Bax in the hippocampus was detected by real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot assay.

RESULTS

GP was found to significantly improve the memory ability of AD rats and prolong the times of crossing the platform and the percentage of residence time in the original platform quadrant of spatial probe test. GP also reduced the content of Aβ1-42 and p-tau and improved the mRNA and protein expression of PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, and Bcl-2/Bax in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

GP could improve the memory ability and reduce the content of Aβ1-42 and p-tau in AD rats. The anti-AD effects of GP were in part mediated by PI3K/Akt signaling pathway activation.

Studies on medicinal herbs for cognitive enhancement based on the text mining of Dongeuibogam and preliminary evaluation of its effects

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In literature on Korean medicine, Dongeuibogam (Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine), published in 1613, represents the overall results of the traditional medicines of North-East Asia based on prior medicinal literature of this region. We utilized this medicinal literature by text mining to establish a list of candidate herbs for cognitive enhancement in the elderly and then performed an evaluation of their effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Text mining was performed for selection of candidate herbs. Cell viability was determined in HT22 hippocampal cells and immunohistochemistry and behavioral analysis was performed in a kainic acid (KA) mice model in order to observe alterations of hippocampal cells and cognition.

RESULTS

Twenty four herbs for cognitive enhancement in the elderly were selected by text mining of Dongeuibogam. In HT22 cells, pretreatment with 3 candidate herbs resulted in significantly reduced glutamate-induced cell death. Panax ginseng was the most neuroprotective herb against glutamate-induced cell death. In the hippocampus of a KA mice model, pretreatment with 11 candidate herbs resulted in suppression of caspase-3 expression. Treatment with 7 candidate herbs resulted in significantly enhanced expression levels of phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein. Number of proliferated cells indicated by BrdU labeling was increased by treatment with 10 candidate herbs. Schisandra chinensis was the most effective herb against cell death and proliferation of progenitor cells and Rehmannia glutinosa in neuroprotection in the hippocampus of a KA mice model. In a KA mice model, we confirmed improved spatial and short memory by treatment with the 3 most effective candidate herbs and these recovered functions were involved in a higher number of newly formed neurons from progenitor cells in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

These established herbs and their combinations identified by text-mining technique and evaluation for effectiveness may have value in further experimental and clinical applications for cognitive enhancement in the elderly.