101
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Barth B, Mayer-Carius K, Strehl U, Kelava A, Häußinger FB, Fallgatter AJ, Ehlis AC. Identification of neurophysiological biotypes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2018; 72:836-848. [PMID: 30084523 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIM Findings on neurophysiological alterations in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been proposed to underlie ADHD symptoms, with different etiological pathways for different patient biotypes. We aimed at determining whether neurophysiological deviations confirm distinct neurophysiological profiles in ADHD, thus providing direct evidence for the endophenotype concept. METHODS Neurophysiological biotypes were investigated in 87 adult patients with ADHD using cluster analysis. Parameters fed into the analysis comprised both hemodynamic and electrophysiological data. To validate results, the independent variables of the clusters were compared with healthy controls. RESULTS Cluster analysis yielded three neurophysiologically based ADHD biotypes showing: (i) above-average functioning in attention allocation; (ii) difficulties in attention allocation and inhibitory control but elevated frontal activation during a working memory task; and (iii) functional impairments in state regulation. CONCLUSION Classifying patients with ADHD into neurophysiological biotypes sheds light on etiological pathways, with implications for diagnostics and (individualized) treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrix Barth
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Graduate School of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Mayer-Carius
- Institute for Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ute Strehl
- Institute for Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Florian Benedikt Häußinger
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Jochen Fallgatter
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ann-Christine Ehlis
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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102
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Bonetti LV, Hassan SA, Lau ST, Melo LT, Tanaka T, Patterson KK, Reid WD. Oxyhemoglobin changes in the prefrontal cortex in response to cognitive tasks: a systematic review. Int J Neurosci 2018; 129:195-203. [PMID: 30173620 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2018.1518906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY the aim of this study was to synthesize PFC fNIRS outcomes on the effects of cognitive tasks compared to resting/baseline tasks in healthy adults from studies utilizing a pre/post design. MATERIAL AND METHODS original research studies were searched from seven databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, SCOPUS, PEDro and PubMed). Subsequently, two independent reviewers screened the titles and abstracts followed by full-text reviews to assess the studies' eligibility. RESULTS eleven studies met the inclusion criteria and had data abstracted and quality assessed. Methodology varied considerably and yet cognitive tasks resulted in the ΔO2Hb increasing in 8 of the 11 and ΔHHb decreasing in 8 of 8 studies that reported this outcome. The cognitive tasks from 10 of the 11 studies were classified as "Working Memory" and "Verbal Fluency Tasks". CONCLUSIONS although, the data comparison was challenging provided the heterogeneity in methodology, the results across studies were similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro Viçosa Bonetti
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Toronto , Toronto, ON , Canada.,b Department of Physical Therapy , Universidade de Caxias do Sul , Rio Grande do Sul , Brazil
| | - Syed A Hassan
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Toronto , Toronto, ON , Canada.,c Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - Sin-Tung Lau
- d Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education , Wilfrid Laurier University , Waterloo , ON , Canada.,e Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - Luana T Melo
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Toronto , Toronto, ON , Canada
| | - Takako Tanaka
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Toronto , Toronto, ON , Canada.,f Department of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation Science , Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences , Nagasaki , Japan
| | - Kara K Patterson
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Toronto , Toronto, ON , Canada.,c Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada.,e Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - W Darlene Reid
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Toronto , Toronto, ON , Canada.,c Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada.,e Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network , Toronto , ON , Canada.,g Interdepartmental Division of Critical Care Medicine , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
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103
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Cognitive Load Changes during Music Listening and its Implication in Earcon Design in Public Environments: An fNIRS Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15102075. [PMID: 30248908 PMCID: PMC6210363 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15102075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A key for earcon design in public environments is to incorporate an individual’s perceived level of cognitive load for better communication. This study aimed to examine the cognitive load changes required to perform a melodic contour identification task (CIT). While healthy college students (N = 16) were presented with five CITs, behavioral (reaction time and accuracy) and cerebral hemodynamic responses were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Our behavioral findings showed a gradual increase in cognitive load from CIT1 to CIT3 followed by an abrupt increase between CIT4 (i.e., listening to two concurrent melodic contours in an alternating manner and identifying the direction of the target contour, p < 0.001) and CIT5 (i.e., listening to two concurrent melodic contours in a divided manner and identifying the directions of both contours, p < 0.001). Cerebral hemodynamic responses showed a congruent trend with behavioral findings. Specific to the frontopolar area (Brodmann’s area 10), oxygenated hemoglobin increased significantly between CIT4 and CIT5 (p < 0.05) while the level of deoxygenated hemoglobin decreased. Altogether, the findings indicate that the cognitive threshold for young adults (CIT5) and appropriate tuning of the relationship between timbre and pitch contour can lower the perceived cognitive load and, thus, can be an effective design strategy for earcon in a public environment.
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104
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Fishburn FA, Ludlum RS, Vaidya CJ, Medvedev AV. Temporal Derivative Distribution Repair (TDDR): A motion correction method for fNIRS. Neuroimage 2018; 184:171-179. [PMID: 30217544 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an optical neuroimaging technique of growing interest as a tool for investigation of cortical activity. Due to the on-head placement of optodes, artifacts arising from head motion are relatively less severe than for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). However, it is still necessary to remove motion artifacts. We present a novel motion correction procedure based on robust regression, which effectively removes baseline shift and spike artifacts without the need for any user-supplied parameters. Our simulations show that this method yields better activation detection performance than 5 other current motion correction methods. In our empirical validation on a working memory task in a sample of children 7-15 years, our method produced stronger and more extensive activation than any of the other methods tested. The new motion correction method enhances the viability of fNIRS as a functional neuroimaging modality for use in populations not amenable to fMRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank A Fishburn
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Ruth S Ludlum
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Chandan J Vaidya
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA; Children's Research Institute, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
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105
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Witmer JS, Aeschlimann EA, Metz AJ, Troche SJ, Rammsayer TH. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Recordings of Visuospatial Working Memory Processes. Part II: A Replication Study in Children on Sensitivity and Mental-Ability-Induced Differences in Functional Activation. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E152. [PMID: 30103538 PMCID: PMC6119993 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8080152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In a previous study in young adults, we showed that hemodynamic changes as measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) were sensitive for identifying visuospatial working memory (WM)-related functional brain activation in the prefrontal cortex. This functional activation, however, could not be verified for participants with far-above-average mental ability, suggesting different cognitive processes adopted by this group. The present study was designed to confirm these findings in 11- to 13-year-old children by applying the same study design, experimental task, fNIRS setup, and statistical approach. We successfully replicated the earlier findings on sensitivity of fNIRS with regard to visuospatial WM-specific task demands in our children sample. Likewise, mental-ability-induced differences in functional activation were even more pronounced in the children compared with in the young adults. By testing a children sample, we were able to not only replicate our previous findings based on adult participants but also generalize the validity of these findings to children. This latter aspect seems to be of particular significance considering the relatively large number of fNIRS studies on WM performance in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle S Witmer
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Eva A Aeschlimann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Andreas J Metz
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Stefan J Troche
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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106
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Fairclough SH, Burns C, Kreplin U. FNIRS activity in the prefrontal cortex and motivational intensity: impact of working memory load, financial reward, and correlation-based signal improvement. NEUROPHOTONICS 2018; 5:035001. [PMID: 30035151 PMCID: PMC6041856 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.5.3.035001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated changes in neurovascular activation of the prefrontal cortex to increased working memory load. The primary purpose of the current paper was to investigate overload of working memory capacity using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) within the framework of motivational intensity theory. A secondary goal was to explore the influence of the correlation-based signal improvement (CBSI) as a method for correcting the influence of systemic variables. In study one, 30 participants (15 female, mean age = 21.09 years, s.d. = 2.9 years) performed a verbal version of the n -back working memory task under four levels of demand (easy, hard, very hard, and impossible). In contrast to the raw data, CBSI-transformed fNIRS data indicated that neurovascular coupling was highest at hard demand when the task was challenging but success was possible. The second study ( N=30 ; 15 female, mean age = 22.4 years, s.d. = 5.3) replicated the working memory manipulation with the addition of low versus high levels of financial reward. Analyses of CBSI-transformed levels of oxygenated (HbO) and deoxygenated (HHb) hemoglobin replicated the first study at right lateral regions of the prefrontal cortex (BA46). HHb_CBSI data were significantly reduced at impossible demand for participants receiving the higher level of financial reward. The study is the first to support predictions from the motivational intensity model using neurovascular data. In addition, the application of CBSI to fNIRS data was found to improve the sensitivity of HbO and Hbb to the independent variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen H. Fairclough
- Liverpool John Moores University, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom
- Address all correspondence to: Stephen H. Fairclough, E-mail:
| | - Christopher Burns
- University of Warwick, Warwick Manufacturing Group, Experiential Engineering, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Ute Kreplin
- Massey University, School of Psychology, Auckland, New Zealand
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107
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Keshmiri S, Sumioka H, Yamazaki R, Ishiguro H. Differential Entropy Preserves Variational Information of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Time Series Associated With Working Memory. Front Neuroinform 2018; 12:33. [PMID: 29922144 PMCID: PMC5996097 DOI: 10.3389/fninf.2018.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroscience research shows a growing interest in the application of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) in analysis and decoding of the brain activity of human subjects. Given the correlation that is observed between the Blood Oxygen Dependent Level (BOLD) responses that are exhibited by the time series data of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and the hemoglobin oxy/deoxy-genation that is captured by NIRS, linear models play a central role in these applications. This, in turn, results in adaptation of the feature extraction strategies that are well-suited for discretization of data that exhibit a high degree of linearity, namely, slope and the mean as well as their combination, to summarize the informational contents of the NIRS time series. In this article, we demonstrate that these features are inefficient in capturing the variational information of NIRS data, limiting the reliability and the adequacy of the conclusion on their results. Alternatively, we propose the linear estimate of differential entropy of these time series as a natural representation of such information. We provide evidence for our claim through comparative analysis of the application of these features on NIRS data pertinent to several working memory tasks as well as naturalistic conversational stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soheil Keshmiri
- Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hidenubo Sumioka
- Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryuji Yamazaki
- School of Social Sciences, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ishiguro
- Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, Kyoto, Japan
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
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108
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Anderson AA, Parsa K, Geiger S, Zaragoza R, Kermanian R, Miguel H, Dashtestani H, Chowdhry FA, Smith E, Aram S, Gandjbakhche AH. Exploring the role of task performance and learning style on prefrontal hemodynamics during a working memory task. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198257. [PMID: 29870536 PMCID: PMC5988299 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing literature outlines the quality and location of activation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during working memory (WM) tasks. However, the effects of individual differences on the underlying neural process of WM tasks are still unclear. In this functional near infrared spectroscopy study, we administered a visual and auditory n-back task to examine activation in the PFC while considering the influences of task performance, and preferred learning strategy (VARK score). While controlling for age, results indicated that high performance (HP) subjects (accuracy > 90%) showed task dependent lower activation compared to normal performance subjects in PFC region Specifically HP groups showed lower activation in left dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) region during performance of auditory task whereas during visual task they showed lower activation in the right DLPFC. After accounting for learning style, we found a correlation between visual and aural VARK score and level of activation in the PFC. Subjects with higher visual VARK scores displayed lower activation during auditory task in left DLPFC, while those with higher visual scores exhibited higher activation during visual task in bilateral DLPFC. During performance of auditory task, HP subjects had higher visual VARK scores compared to NP subjects indicating an effect of learning style on the task performance and activation. The results of this study show that learning style and task performance can influence PFC activation, with applications toward neurological implications of learning style and populations with deficits in auditory or visual processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afrouz A. Anderson
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Kian Parsa
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Sydney Geiger
- St. Olaf College, Northfield, MN, United States of America
| | - Rachel Zaragoza
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Riley Kermanian
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Helga Miguel
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Hadis Dashtestani
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Fatima A. Chowdhry
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Smith
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Siamak Aram
- Analytics Department, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, PA, United States of America
| | - Amir H. Gandjbakhche
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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109
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Witmer JS, Aeschlimann EA, Metz AJ, Troche SJ, Rammsayer TH. The Validity of Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Recordings of Visuospatial Working Memory Processes in Humans. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E62. [PMID: 29621179 PMCID: PMC5924398 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8040062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is increasingly used for investigating cognitive processes. To provide converging evidence for the validity of fNIRS recordings in cognitive neuroscience, we investigated functional activation in the frontal cortex in 43 participants during the processing of a visuospatial working memory (WM) task and a sensory duration discrimination (DD) task functionally unrelated to WM. To distinguish WM-related processes from a general effect of increased task demand, we applied an adaptive approach, which ensured that subjective task demand was virtually identical for all individuals and across both tasks. Our specified region of interest covered Brodmann Area 8 of the left hemisphere, known for its important role in the execution of WM processes. Functional activation, as indicated by an increase of oxygenated and a decrease of deoxygenated hemoglobin, was shown for the WM task, but not in the DD task. The overall pattern of results indicated that hemodynamic responses recorded by fNIRS are sensitive to specific visuospatial WM capacity-related processes and do not reflect a general effect of increased task demand. In addition, the finding that no such functional activation could be shown for participants with far above-average mental ability suggested different cognitive processes adopted by this latter group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle S Witmer
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Eva A Aeschlimann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Andreas J Metz
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Stefan J Troche
- Department of Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Witten/Herdecke, 58455 Witten, Germany.
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110
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Willemsen-Dunlap AM, Binstadt ES, Nguyen MC, Elliott NC, Cheney AR, Stevens RH, Dooley-Hash S. Alternative Markers of Performance in Simulation: Where We Are and Where We Need To Go. Acad Emerg Med 2018; 25:250-254. [PMID: 28949428 DOI: 10.1111/acem.13321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This article on alternative markers of performance in simulation is the product of a session held during the 2017 Academic Emergency Medicine Consensus Conference "Catalyzing System Change Through Health Care Simulation: Systems, Competency, and Outcomes." There is a dearth of research on the use of performance markers other than checklists, holistic ratings, and behaviorally anchored rating scales in the simulation environment. Through literature review, group discussion, and consultation with experts prior to the conference, the working group defined five topics for discussion: 1) establishing a working definition for alternative markers of performance, 2) defining goals for using alternative performance markers, 3) implications for measurement when using alternative markers, identifying practical concerns related to the use of alternative performance markers, and 5) identifying potential for alternative markers of performance to validate simulation scenarios. Five research propositions also emerged and are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael C. Nguyen
- Department of Emergency Medicine; Lehigh Valley Healthcare System; Allentown PA
| | - Nicole C. Elliott
- Department of Emergency Medicine; Lehigh Valley Healthcare System; Allentown PA
| | - Alan R. Cheney
- Department of Emergency Medicine; Thomas Jefferson University; Philadelphia PA
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111
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Akın A. Partial correlation-based functional connectivity analysis for functional near-infrared spectroscopy signals. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2017; 22:1-10. [PMID: 29243416 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.22.12.126003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A theoretical framework, a partial correlation-based functional connectivity (PC-FC) analysis to functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) data, is proposed. This is based on generating a common background signal from a high passed version of fNIRS data averaged over all channels as the regressor in computing the PC between pairs of channels. This approach has been employed to real data collected during a Stroop task. The results show a strong significance in the global efficiency (GE) metric computed by the PC-FC analysis for neutral, congruent, and incongruent stimuli (NS, CS, IcS; GEN=0.10±0.009, GEC=0.11±0.01, GEIC=0.13±0.015, p=0.0073). A positive correlation (r=0.729 and p=0.0259) is observed between the interference of reaction times (incongruent-neutral) and interference of GE values (GEIC-GEN) computed from [HbO] signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ata Akın
- Acibadem University, Department of Medical Engineering, Atasehir, Istanbul, Turkey
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112
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Xu G, Zhang M, Wang Y, Liu Z, Huo C, Li Z, Huo M. Functional connectivity analysis of distracted drivers based on the wavelet phase coherence of functional near-infrared spectroscopy signals. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188329. [PMID: 29176895 PMCID: PMC5703451 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to evaluate the functional connectivity (FC) in relevant cortex areas during simulated driving with distraction based on functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) method. Twelve subjects were recruited to perform three types of driving tasks, namely, straight driving, straight driving with secondary auditory task, and straight driving with secondary visual vigilance task, on a driving simulator. The wavelet amplitude (WA) and wavelet phase coherence (WPCO) of the fNIRS signals were calculated in six frequency intervals: I, 0.6-2 Hz; II, 0.145-0.6 Hz; III, 0.052-0.145 Hz; IV, 0.021-0.052 Hz; and V, 0.0095-0.021 Hz, VI, 0.005-0.0095Hz. Results showed that secondary tasks during driving led to worse driving performance, brain activity changes, and dynamic configuration of the connectivity. The significantly lower WA value in the right motor cortex in interval IV, and higher WPCO values in intervals II, V, and VI were found with additional auditory task. Significant standard deviation of speed and lower WA values in the left prefrontal cortex and right prefrontal cortex in interval VI, and lower WPCO values in intervals I, IV, V, and VI were found under the additional visual vigilance task. The results suggest that the changed FC levels in intervals IV, V, and VI were more likely to reflect the driver's distraction condition. The present study provides new insights into the relationship between distracted driving behavior and brain activity. The method may be used for the evaluation of drivers' attention level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gongcheng Xu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P.R. China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, SAR, P.R. China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, SAR, P.R. China
| | - Zhian Liu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P.R. China
| | - Congcong Huo
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P.R. China
| | - Zengyong Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Rehabilitation Technical Aids for Old-Age Disability, National Research Center for Rehabilitation Technical Aids, Beijing, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Rehabilitation Aids Technology and System of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Mengyou Huo
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P.R. China
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113
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McHugh MJ, Gu H, Yang Y, Adinoff B, Stein EA. Executive control network connectivity strength protects against relapse to cocaine use. Addict Biol 2017; 22:1790-1801. [PMID: 27600492 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine addiction is characterized by notoriously high relapse rates following treatment. Recent efforts to address poor treatment outcomes have turned to potential neural markers of relapse risk. Accordingly, the present study examined resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) within and between three large-scale cortical networks: the default mode network (DMN), salience network (SN) and executive control network (ECN). All three have been implicated in relapse-related phenomena including craving, withdrawal and executive control deficits. Forty-five cocaine-dependent individuals and 22 healthy controls completed 6-min resting fMRI scans, The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, Continuous Performance Test and Cocaine Craving Questionnaire. Cocaine-dependent individuals completed all measures in the final week of a residential treatment episode. Ten control and 9 abstinent cocaine-dependent individuals returned for 3-6 month follow-up scan visits. A group-level independent component analysis was employed to generate ECN, DMN and SN components. For individuals abstinent up to day 30 post-treatment (n = 21), we found enhanced pre-discharge rsFC between the left ECN and both the right ECN and SN as well as between the right ECN and left ECN. Left ECN rsFC effects remained elevated 3-6 months later among abstinent cocaine-dependent individuals. Relapse was related to fewer years of education and more years smoking but no other demographic, clinical, treatment and neurocognitive characteristics. Findings suggest that interhemispheric ECN and ECN-SN connectivity strength may protect against relapse to cocaine use following treatment. These patterns of enhanced interhemispheric network connectivity may reflect a greater capacity to engage executive control processes when faced with opportunities to use cocaine post-treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith J. McHugh
- Neuroimaging Research Branch; National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program; Baltimore MD USA
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health; Melbourne VIC Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne VIC Australia
| | - Hong Gu
- Neuroimaging Research Branch; National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Yihong Yang
- Neuroimaging Research Branch; National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Bryon Adinoff
- Department of Psychiatry; UT Southwestern Medical Center; Dallas TX USA
- VA North Texas Health Care System; Dallas TX USA
| | - Elliot A. Stein
- Neuroimaging Research Branch; National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program; Baltimore MD USA
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114
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Agbangla NF, Audiffren M, Albinet CT. Use of near-infrared spectroscopy in the investigation of brain activation during cognitive aging: A systematic review of an emerging area of research. Ageing Res Rev 2017; 38:52-66. [PMID: 28755870 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The cognitive neuroscience of aging is a growing and stimulating research area. The development of neuroimaging techniques in the past two decades has considerably increased our understanding of the brain mechanisms that might underlie cognitive performance and resulting changes due to normal aging. Beside traditional metabolic neuroimaging techniques, such as Positron Emission Tomography and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), an optical imaging technique allowing to monitor real-time cerebral blood oxygenation, has gained recent interest in this field. The aim of the present review paper, after briefly presenting the NIRS technique, is to review and to summarize the recent results of neuroimaging studies using this technique in the field of cognitive aging. The reviewed literature shows that, despite low spatial resolution and cerebral depth penetration, this technique provides consistent findings on the reduced hemodynamic activity as a function of chronological age, mainly in the prefrontal cortex. Important moderators of brain hemodynamics, such as cognitive load, subjects' characteristics and experimental conditions, for which the NIRS technique is sensitive, are discussed. Strengths and weaknesses of functional NIRS in the field of cognitive aging are presented and finally, novel perspectives of research are proposed.
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115
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Liu Y, Ayaz H, Shewokis PA. Multisubject "Learning" for Mental Workload Classification Using Concurrent EEG, fNIRS, and Physiological Measures. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:389. [PMID: 28798675 PMCID: PMC5529418 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An accurate measure of mental workload level has diverse neuroergonomic applications ranging from brain computer interfacing to improving the efficiency of human operators. In this study, we integrated electroencephalogram (EEG), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and physiological measures for the classification of three workload levels in an n-back working memory task. A significantly better than chance level classification was achieved by EEG-alone, fNIRS-alone, physiological alone, and EEG+fNIRS based approaches. The results confirmed our previous finding that integrating EEG and fNIRS significantly improved workload classification compared to using EEG-alone or fNIRS-alone. The inclusion of physiological measures, however, does not significantly improves EEG-based or fNIRS-based workload classification. A major limitation of currently available mental workload assessment approaches is the requirement to record lengthy calibration data from the target subject to train workload classifiers. We show that by learning from the data of other subjects, workload classification accuracy can be improved especially when the amount of data from the target subject is small.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichuan Liu
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States.,Cognitive Neuroengineering and Quantitative Experimental Research Collaborative, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Hasan Ayaz
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States.,Cognitive Neuroengineering and Quantitative Experimental Research Collaborative, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States.,Department of Family and Community Health, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA, United States.,Division of General Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Patricia A Shewokis
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States.,Cognitive Neuroengineering and Quantitative Experimental Research Collaborative, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States.,Nutrition Sciences Department, College of Nursing and Health Professions, Drexel UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
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116
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Aghajani H, Garbey M, Omurtag A. Measuring Mental Workload with EEG+fNIRS. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:359. [PMID: 28769775 PMCID: PMC5509792 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We studied the capability of a Hybrid functional neuroimaging technique to quantify human mental workload (MWL). We have used electroencephalography (EEG) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) as imaging modalities with 17 healthy subjects performing the letter n-back task, a standard experimental paradigm related to working memory (WM). The level of MWL was parametrically changed by variation of n from 0 to 3. Nineteen EEG channels were covering the whole-head and 19 fNIRS channels were located on the forehead to cover the most dominant brain region involved in WM. Grand block averaging of recorded signals revealed specific behaviors of oxygenated-hemoglobin level during changes in the level of MWL. A machine learning approach has been utilized for detection of the level of MWL. We extracted different features from EEG, fNIRS, and EEG+fNIRS signals as the biomarkers of MWL and fed them to a linear support vector machine (SVM) as train and test sets. These features were selected based on their sensitivity to the changes in the level of MWL according to the literature. We introduced a new category of features within fNIRS and EEG+fNIRS systems. In addition, the performance level of each feature category was systematically assessed. We also assessed the effect of number of features and window size in classification performance. SVM classifier used in order to discriminate between different combinations of cognitive states from binary- and multi-class states. In addition to the cross-validated performance level of the classifier other metrics such as sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values were calculated for a comprehensive assessment of the classification system. The Hybrid (EEG+fNIRS) system had an accuracy that was significantly higher than that of either EEG or fNIRS. Our results suggest that EEG+fNIRS features combined with a classifier are capable of robustly discriminating among various levels of MWL. Results suggest that EEG+fNIRS should be preferred to only EEG or fNIRS, in developing passive BCIs and other applications which need to monitor users' MWL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haleh Aghajani
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of HoustonHouston, TX, United States
| | - Marc Garbey
- Center for Computational Surgery, Department of Surgery, Research Institute, Houston MethodistHouston, TX, United States
| | - Ahmet Omurtag
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of HoustonHouston, TX, United States
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117
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Causse M, Chua Z, Peysakhovich V, Del Campo N, Matton N. Mental workload and neural efficiency quantified in the prefrontal cortex using fNIRS. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5222. [PMID: 28701789 PMCID: PMC5507990 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05378-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An improved understanding of how the brain allocates mental resources as a function of task difficulty is critical for enhancing human performance. Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a field-deployable optical brain monitoring technology that provides a direct measure of cerebral blood flow in response to cognitive activity. We found that fNIRS was sensitive to variations in task difficulty in both real-life (flight simulator) and laboratory settings (tests measuring executive functions), showing increased concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2) and decreased concentration of deoxygenated hemoglobin (HHb) in the prefrontal cortex as the tasks became more complex. Intensity of prefrontal activation (HbO2 concentration) was not clearly correlated to task performance. Rather, activation intensity shed insight on the level of mental effort, i.e., how hard an individual was working to accomplish a task. When combined with performance, fNIRS provided an estimate of the participants' neural efficiency, and this efficiency was consistent across levels of difficulty of the same task. Overall, our data support the suitability of fNIRS to assess the mental effort related to human operations and represents a promising tool for the measurement of neural efficiency in other contexts such as training programs or the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mickaël Causse
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace (ISAE-SUPAERO), Toulouse, France.
- Ecole de psychologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada.
| | - Zarrin Chua
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace (ISAE-SUPAERO), Toulouse, France
| | - Vsevolod Peysakhovich
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace (ISAE-SUPAERO), Toulouse, France
| | - Natalia Del Campo
- Centre of Excellence in Neurodegeneration of Toulouse, NeuroToul, CHU Toulouse, France
- Toulouse NeuroImaging Center, ToNIC, University of Toulouse, Inserm, UPS, Toulouse, France
- University of Cambridge, Department of Psychiatry, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Nadine Matton
- Ecole Nationale de l'Aviation Civile, Toulouse, 31055, France
- Laboratoire CLLE-LTC, 5 Allée Antonio Machado, 31100, Toulouse, France
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118
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Smith E, Anderson A, Thurm A, Shaw P, Maeda M, Chowdhry F, Chernomordik V, Gandjbakhche A. Prefrontal Activation During Executive Tasks Emerges Over Early Childhood: Evidence From Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy. Dev Neuropsychol 2017. [PMID: 28622028 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2017.1318391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a brain imaging technique that is well-suited for use in young children, making it particularly useful for investigating the neural bases of the development of executive functions. In the present study, children (ages 4-10) underwent fNIRS while completing response inhibition and working memory tasks. While both tasks were associated with increases in oxyhemoglobin and decreases in deoxyhemoglobin, we found that strength of activation increased with age and with improvements in task performance. These findings support the relation between emerging executive functions and maturation of the prefrontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Smith
- a Department of Human Development , National Institute of Child Health and Human Development , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Afrouz Anderson
- a Department of Human Development , National Institute of Child Health and Human Development , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Audrey Thurm
- b Pediatrics and Developmental Neuroscience Branch, National Institute of Mental Health , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Philip Shaw
- b Pediatrics and Developmental Neuroscience Branch, National Institute of Mental Health , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Mika Maeda
- b Pediatrics and Developmental Neuroscience Branch, National Institute of Mental Health , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Fatima Chowdhry
- a Department of Human Development , National Institute of Child Health and Human Development , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Victor Chernomordik
- a Department of Human Development , National Institute of Child Health and Human Development , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Amir Gandjbakhche
- a Department of Human Development , National Institute of Child Health and Human Development , Bethesda , Maryland
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119
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Role of fNIRS technology in observing the effect of needling Hegu (LI 4) on the functions of prefrontal cortex in healthy volunteers. JOURNAL OF ACUPUNCTURE AND TUINA SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11726-017-0982-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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120
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Wijeakumar S, Huppert TJ, Magnotta VA, Buss AT, Spencer JP. Validating an image-based fNIRS approach with fMRI and a working memory task. Neuroimage 2017; 147:204-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2015] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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121
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Xu L, Wang B, Xu G, Wang W, Liu Z, Li Z. Functional connectivity analysis using fNIRS in healthy subjects during prolonged simulated driving. Neurosci Lett 2017; 640:21-28. [PMID: 28087436 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Noninvasive and accurate assessment of driving fatigue in relation to brain activity during long-term driving can contribute to traffic safety and accident prevention. This study evaluated functional connectivity (FC) in relevant brain regions. Synergistic mechanisms in different brain regions were detected by a novel simulator, which combined semi-immersive virtual reality technology and functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Each subject was instructed to complete driving tasks coupled with a mental calculation task. Wavelet coherence (WCO) and wavelet phase coherence (WPCO) were calculated and assessed in frequency intervals (I) 0.6-2 and (II) 0.145-0.6Hz as global connectivity measures; (III) 0.052-0.145, (IV) 0.021-0.052, (V) 0.0095-0.021 and (VI) 0.005-0.0095Hz as FC. WCO and WPCO revealed the strength and synchronization of cerebral connectivity, respectively. Significantly low WCO levels were found in intervals I and III in prefrontal cortex (PFC) and IV in motor cortex (MC) at the end of the driving task. Furthermore, significantly low WPCO were found in intervals I, and III in PFC and interval IV in MC. Experimental findings suggested that progressive mental fatigue adversely influences the cognitive function in the PFC and the cooperative mechanism between the PFC and MC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwei Xu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250061, PR China
| | - Bitian Wang
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250061, PR China
| | - Gongcheng Xu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250061, PR China
| | - Wei Wang
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250061, PR China
| | - Zhian Liu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250061, PR China
| | - Zengyong Li
- Key Laboratory of Rehabilitation Aids Technology and System of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, National Research Center for Rehabilitation Technical Aids, Beijing, 100176, PR China.
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122
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Wolff W. Funktionelle Nahinfrarotspektroskopie in der sportpsychologischen Forschung. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR SPORTPSYCHOLOGIE 2017. [DOI: 10.1026/1612-5010/a000184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Ziel des Beitrags ist die Vorstellung der funktionellen Nahinfrarotspektroskopie (fNIRS) als bildgebendes Verfahren, welches zur Messung kortikaler Prozesse während sportlicher Aktivität eingesetzt werden kann. Im Vergleich mit anderen bildgebenden Verfahren ist fNIRS sehr portabel und weniger anfällig für Bewegungsartefakte. Daher ist fNIRS potentiell eine vielversprechende Ergänzung zu bereits in der sportpsychologischen Forschung genutzten neurowissenschaftlichen Methoden. Dieser Beitrag konzentriert sich auf eine kurze Darstellung der grundlegenden physikalischen Prinzipien von fNIRS und eine Analyse der relativen Stärken und Schwächen von fNIRS mit Blick auf den Einsatz in der sportpsychologischen Forschung. Anschließend werden einige fNIRS basierte Forschungsergebnisse erörtert, die sportpsychologische Forschungsfragen betreffen. Abschließend wird beispielhaft eine mögliche sportpsychologische Forschungsfrage vorgestellt, zu deren Untersuchung fNIRS eingesetzt werden kann.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanja Wolff
- Fachgruppe Sportwissenschaft, Universität Konstanz
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123
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Barth B, Strehl U, Fallgatter AJ, Ehlis AC. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy based Neurofeedback of Prefrontal Cortex Activity: A Proof-of-Concept Study. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:633. [PMID: 28018199 PMCID: PMC5159415 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurofeedback is a promising tool for treatment and rehabilitation of several patient groups. In this proof of principle study, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) based neurofeedback of frontal cortical areas was investigated in healthy adults. Main aims were the assessment of learning, the effects on performance in a working memory (n-back) task and the impact of applied strategies on regulation. 13 healthy participants underwent eight sessions of NIRS based neurofeedback within 2 weeks to learn to voluntarily up-regulate hemodynamic activity in prefrontal areas. An n-back task in pre-/post measurements was used to monitor neurocognitive changes. Mean oxygenated hemoglobin (O2Hb) amplitudes over the course of the sessions as well as during the n-back task were evaluated. 12 out of 13 participants were able to regulate their frontal hemodynamic response via NIRS neurofeedback. However, no systematic learning effects were observed in frontal O2Hb amplitudes over the training course in our healthy sample. We found an impact of applied strategies in only 5 out of 13 subjects. Regarding the n-back task, neurofeedback appeared to induce more focused and specific brain activation compared to pre-training measurement. NIRS based neurofeedback is a feasible and potentially effective method, with an impact on activation patterns in a working memory task. Ceiling effects might explain the lack of a systematic learning pattern in healthy subjects. Clinical studies are needed to show effects in patients exhibiting pathological deviations in prefrontal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrix Barth
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
- Graduate School of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
| | - Ute Strehl
- Institute for Medical Psychology and Behavioural Neurobiology, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
| | - Andreas J. Fallgatter
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Neuroscience, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
| | - Ann-Christine Ehlis
- Psychophysiology and Optical Imaging, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
- Graduate School LEAD, University of TuebingenTuebingen, Germany
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124
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Miura N, Shirasawa N, Kanoh S. Left Lateral Prefrontal Activity Reflects a Change of Behavioral Tactics to Cope with a Given Rule: An fNIRS Study. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:558. [PMID: 27847475 PMCID: PMC5088193 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rules prescribe human behavior and our attempts to choose appropriate behavior under a given rule. Cognitive control, a mechanism to choose and evaluate actions under a rule, is required to determine the appropriate behavior within the limitations of that rule. Consequently, such cognitive control increases mental workload. However, the workload caused by a cognitive task might be different when an additional rule must be considered in choosing the action. The present study was a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) investigation of an experimental task, in which the difficulty of an operation and existence of an additional rule were manipulated to dissociate the influence of that additional rule on cognitive processing. Twenty healthy Japanese volunteers participated. The participants performed an experimental task, in which the player caught one of five colored balls from the upper part of a computer screen by operating a mouse. Four task conditions were prepared to manipulate the task difficulty, which was defined in terms of operational difficulty. In turn, operational difficulty was determined by the width of the playable space and the existence of an additional rule, which reduced the score when a red ball was not caught. The 52-channel fNIRS data were collected from the forehead. Two regions of interest (ROIs) associated with the bilateral lateral prefrontal cortices (LPFCs) were determined, and a three-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the task-related signal changes from each ROI. The fNIRS results revealed that bilateral LPFCs showed large signal changes with the increase in mental workload. The ANOVA showed a significant interaction between the existence of an additional rule and the location of the ROIs; that is, the left lateral prefrontal area showed a significant increase in signal intensity when the additional rule existed, and the participant occasionally decided to avoid catching a ball to successfully catch the red-colored ball. Thus, activation of the left LPFC corresponded more closely to the increase in cognitive control underlying the behavioral change made to cope with the additional rule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Miura
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku Institute of Technology Sendai, Japan
| | - Naoko Shirasawa
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku Institute of Technology Sendai, Japan
| | - Shin'ichiro Kanoh
- Department of Electronic Engineering, College of Engineering, Shibaura Institute of Technology Tokyo, Japan
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125
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Mandrick K, Peysakhovich V, Rémy F, Lepron E, Causse M. Neural and psychophysiological correlates of human performance under stress and high mental workload. Biol Psychol 2016; 121:62-73. [PMID: 27725244 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In our anxiogenic and stressful world, the maintenance of an optimal cognitive performance is a constant challenge. It is particularly true in complex working environments (e.g. flight deck, air traffic control tower), where individuals have sometimes to cope with a high mental workload and stressful situations. Several models (i.e. processing efficiency theory, cognitive-energetical framework) have attempted to provide a conceptual basis on how human performance is modulated by high workload and stress/anxiety. These models predict that stress can reduce human cognitive efficiency, even in the absence of a visible impact on the task performance. Performance may be protected under stress thanks to compensatory effort, but only at the expense of a cognitive cost. Yet, the psychophysiological cost of this regulation remains unclear. We designed two experiments involving pupil diameter, cardiovascular and prefrontal oxygenation measurements. Participants performed the Toulouse N-back Task that intensively engaged both working memory and mental calculation processes under the threat (or not) of unpredictable aversive sounds. The results revealed that higher task difficulty (higher n level) degraded the performance and induced an increased tonic pupil diameter, heart rate and activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex, and a decreased phasic pupil response and heart rate variability. Importantly, the condition of stress did not impact the performance, but at the expense of a psychophysiological cost as demonstrated by lower phasic pupil response, and greater heart rate and prefrontal activity. Prefrontal cortex seems to be a central region for mitigating the influence of stress because it subserves crucial functions (e.g. inhibition, working memory) that can promote the engagement of coping strategies. Overall, findings confirmed the psychophysiological cost of both mental effort and stress. Stress likely triggered increased motivation and the recruitment of additional cognitive resources that minimize its aversive effects on task performance (effectiveness), but these compensatory efforts consumed resources that caused a loss of cognitive efficiency (ratio between performance effectiveness and mental effort).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Mandrick
- ISAE (Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace), Toulouse, France
| | | | - Florence Rémy
- Centre de recherche Cerveau et Cognition, Université de Toulouse UPS and CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Evelyne Lepron
- Centre de recherche Cerveau et Cognition, Université de Toulouse UPS and CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Mickaël Causse
- ISAE (Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace), Toulouse, France.
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126
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Wang W, Wang B, Bu L, Xu L, Li Z, Fan Y. Vigilance Task-Related Change in Brain Functional Connectivity as Revealed by Wavelet Phase Coherence Analysis of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Signals. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:400. [PMID: 27547182 PMCID: PMC4974280 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to assess the vigilance task-related change in connectivity in healthy adults using wavelet phase coherence (WPCO) analysis of near-infrared spectroscopy signals (NIRS). NIRS is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique for assessing brain activity. Continuous recordings of the NIRS signals were obtained from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and sensorimotor cortical areas of 20 young healthy adults (24.9 ± 3.3 years) during a 10-min resting state and a 20-min vigilance task state. The vigilance task was used to simulate driving mental load by judging three random numbers (i.e., whether odd numbers). The task was divided into two sessions: the first 10 min (Task t1) and the second 10 min (Task t2). The WPCO of six channel pairs were calculated in five frequency intervals: 0.6–2 Hz (I), 0.145–0.6 Hz (II), 0.052–0.145 Hz (III), 0.021–0.052 Hz (IV), and 0.0095–0.021 Hz (V). The significant WPCO formed global connectivity (GC) maps in intervals I and II and functional connectivity (FC) maps in intervals III to V. Results show that the GC levels in interval I and FC levels in interval III were significantly lower in the Task t2 than in the resting state (p < 0.05), particularly between the left PFC and bilateral sensorimotor regions. Also, the reaction time (RT) shows an increase in Task t2 compared with that in Task t1. However, no significant difference in WPCO was found between Task t1 and resting state. The results showed that the change in FC at the range of 0.6–2 Hz was not attributed to the vigilance task per se, but the interaction effect of vigilance task and time factors. The findings suggest that the decreased attention level might be partly attributed to the reduced GC levels between the left prefrontal region and sensorimotor area. The present results provide a new insight into the vigilance task-related brain activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University Jinan, China
| | - Bitian Wang
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University Jinan, China
| | - Lingguo Bu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University Jinan, China
| | - Liwei Xu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University Jinan, China
| | - Zengyong Li
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong UniversityJinan, China; National Research Center for Rehabilitation Technical AidsBeijing, China
| | - Yubo Fan
- National Research Center for Rehabilitation Technical Aids Beijing, China
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127
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Jeong E, Ryu H. Melodic Contour Identification Reflects the Cognitive Threshold of Aging. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 8:134. [PMID: 27378907 PMCID: PMC4904015 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cognitive decline is a natural phenomenon of aging. Although there exists a consensus that sensitivity to acoustic features of music is associated with such decline, no solid evidence has yet shown that structural elements and contexts of music explain this loss of cognitive performance. This study examined the extent and the type of cognitive decline that is related to the contour identification task (CIT) using tones with different pitches (i.e., melodic contours). Both younger and older adult groups participated in the CIT given in three listening conditions (i.e., focused, selective, and alternating). Behavioral data (accuracy and response times) and hemodynamic reactions were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Our findings showed cognitive declines in the older adult group but with a subtle difference from the younger adult group. The accuracy of the melodic CITs given in the target-like distraction task (CIT2) was significantly lower than that in the environmental noise (CIT1) condition in the older adult group, indicating that CIT2 may be a benchmark test for age-specific cognitive decline. The fNIRS findings also agreed with this interpretation, revealing significant increases in oxygenated hemoglobin (oxyHb) concentration in the younger (p < 0.05 for Δpre - on task; p < 0.01 for Δon – post task) rather than the older adult group (n.s for Δpre - on task; n.s for Δon – post task). We further concluded that the oxyHb difference was present in the brain regions near the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Taken together, these findings suggest that CIT2 (i.e., the melodic contour task in the target-like distraction) is an optimized task that could indicate the degree and type of age-related cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunju Jeong
- Department of Arts and Technology, Hanyang University Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hokyoung Ryu
- Department of Arts and Technology, Hanyang University Seoul, South Korea
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Mandrick K, Chua Z, Causse M, Perrey S, Dehais F. Why a Comprehensive Understanding of Mental Workload through the Measurement of Neurovascular Coupling Is a Key Issue for Neuroergonomics? Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:250. [PMID: 27303284 PMCID: PMC4885869 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Mandrick
- Département Conception et conduite des véhicules Aéronautiques et Spatiaux, Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace Toulouse, France
| | - Zarrin Chua
- Département Conception et conduite des véhicules Aéronautiques et Spatiaux, Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace Toulouse, France
| | - Mickaël Causse
- Département Conception et conduite des véhicules Aéronautiques et Spatiaux, Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace Toulouse, France
| | | | - Frédéric Dehais
- Département Conception et conduite des véhicules Aéronautiques et Spatiaux, Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace Toulouse, France
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Abstract
In this article we review recent and potential applications of optical neuroimaging to human factors and usability research. We focus specifically on functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) because of its cost-effectiveness and ease of implementation. Researchers have used fNIRS to assess a range of psychological phenomena relevant to human factors, such as cognitive workload, attention, motor activity, and more. It offers the opportunity to measure hemodynamic correlates of mental activity during task completion in human factors and usability studies. We also consider some limitations and future research directions.
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130
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Jeong E, Ryu H. Nonverbal auditory working memory: Can music indicate the capacity? Brain Cogn 2016; 105:9-21. [PMID: 27031677 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Different working memory (WM) mechanisms that underlie words, tones, and timbres have been proposed in previous studies. In this regard, the present study developed a WM test with nonverbal sounds and compared it to the conventional verbal WM test. A total of twenty-five, non-music major, right-handed college students were presented with four different types of sounds (words, syllables, pitches, timbres) that varied from two to eight digits in length. Both accuracy and oxygenated hemoglobin (oxyHb) were measured. The results showed significant effects of number of targets on accuracy and sound type on oxyHb. A further analysis showed prefrontal asymmetry with pitch being processed by the right hemisphere (RH) and timbre by the left hemisphere (LH). These findings suggest a potential for employing musical sounds (i.e., pitch and timbre) as a complementary stimuli for conventional nonverbal WM tests, which can additionally examine its asymmetrical roles in the prefrontal regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunju Jeong
- Department of Arts & Technology, Hanyang University, Republic of Korea
| | - Hokyoung Ryu
- Department of Arts & Technology, Hanyang University, Republic of Korea.
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131
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Moro SB, Carrieri M, Avola D, Brigadoi S, Lancia S, Petracca A, Spezialetti M, Ferrari M, Placidi G, Quaresima V. A novel semi-immersive virtual reality visuo-motor task activates ventrolateral prefrontal cortex: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. J Neural Eng 2016; 13:036002. [PMID: 27001948 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2560/13/3/036002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In the last few years, the interest in applying virtual reality systems for neurorehabilitation is increasing. Their compatibility with neuroimaging techniques, such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), allows for the investigation of brain reorganization with multimodal stimulation and real-time control of the changes occurring in brain activity. The present study was aimed at testing a novel semi-immersive visuo-motor task (VMT), which has the features of being adopted in the field of neurorehabilitation of the upper limb motor function. APPROACH A virtual environment was simulated through a three-dimensional hand-sensing device (the LEAP Motion Controller), and the concomitant VMT-related prefrontal cortex (PFC) response was monitored non-invasively by fNIRS. Upon the VMT, performed at three different levels of difficulty, it was hypothesized that the PFC would be activated with an expected greater level of activation in the ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC), given its involvement in the motor action planning and in the allocation of the attentional resources to generate goals from current contexts. Twenty-one subjects were asked to move their right hand/forearm with the purpose of guiding a virtual sphere over a virtual path. A twenty-channel fNIRS system was employed for measuring changes in PFC oxygenated-deoxygenated hemoglobin (O2Hb/HHb, respectively). MAIN RESULTS A VLPFC O2Hb increase and a concomitant HHb decrease were observed during the VMT performance, without any difference in relation to the task difficulty. SIGNIFICANCE The present study has revealed a particular involvement of the VLPFC in the execution of the novel proposed semi-immersive VMT adoptable in the neurorehabilitation field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Basso Moro
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
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132
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Masataka N, Perlovsky L, Hiraki K. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in functional research of prefrontal cortex. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:274. [PMID: 26029090 PMCID: PMC4428134 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nobuo Masataka
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University Inuyama, Japan
| | | | - Kazuo Hiraki
- Department of General Systems Studies and Center for Evolutionary Cognitive Sciences, The University of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan
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133
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McKendrick R, Parasuraman R, Ayaz H. Wearable functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): expanding vistas for neurocognitive augmentation. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:27. [PMID: 25805976 PMCID: PMC4353303 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2014] [Accepted: 02/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Contemporary studies with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) provide a growing base of evidence for enhancing cognition through the non-invasive delivery of weak electric currents to the brain. The main effect of tDCS is to modulate cortical excitability depending on the polarity of the applied current. However, the underlying mechanism of neuromodulation is not well understood. A new generation of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) systems is described that are miniaturized, portable, and include wearable sensors. These developments provide an opportunity to couple fNIRS with tDCS, consistent with a neuroergonomics approach for joint neuroimaging and neurostimulation investigations of cognition in complex tasks and in naturalistic conditions. The effects of tDCS on complex task performance and the use of fNIRS for monitoring cognitive workload during task performance are described. Also explained is how fNIRS + tDCS can be used simultaneously for assessing spatial working memory. Mobile optical brain imaging is a promising neuroimaging tool that has the potential to complement tDCS for realistic applications in natural settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan McKendrick
- Center of Excellence in Neuroergonomics, Technology, and Cognition (CENTEC), George Mason University Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Raja Parasuraman
- Center of Excellence in Neuroergonomics, Technology, and Cognition (CENTEC), George Mason University Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Hasan Ayaz
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Jones KT, Gözenman F, Berryhill ME. The strategy and motivational influences on the beneficial effect of neurostimulation: a tDCS and fNIRS study. Neuroimage 2014; 105:238-47. [PMID: 25462798 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Working memory (WM) capacity falls along a spectrum with some people demonstrating higher and others lower WM capacity. Efforts to improve WM include applying transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), in which small amounts of current modulate the activity of underlying neurons and enhance cognitive function. However, not everyone benefits equally from a given tDCS protocol. Recent findings revealed tDCS-related WM benefits for individuals with higher working memory (WM) capacity. Here, we test two hypotheses regarding those with low WM capacity to see if they too would benefit under more optimal conditions. We tested whether supplying a WM strategy (Experiment 1) or providing greater extrinsic motivation through incentives (Experiment 2) would restore tDCS benefit to the low WM capacity group. We also employed functional near infrared spectroscopy to monitor tDCS-induced changes in neural activity. Experiment 1 demonstrated that supplying a WM strategy improved the high WM capacity participants' accuracy and the amount of oxygenated blood levels following anodal tDCS, but it did not restore tDCS-linked WM benefits to the low WM capacity group. Experiment 2 demonstrated that financial motivation enhanced performance in both low and high WM capacity groups, especially after anodal tDCS. Here, only the low WM capacity participants showed a generalized increase in oxygenated blood flow across both low and high motivation conditions. These results indicate that ensuring that participants' incentives are high may expand cognitive benefits associated with tDCS. This finding is relevant for translational work using tDCS in clinical populations, in which motivation can be a concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Jones
- Department of Psychology, Program in Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 North Virginia Street, NV 89557, USA; Department of Neurology, Center for Aphasia Research and Rehabilitation, Georgetown University Medical Center, 4000 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA.
| | - Filiz Gözenman
- Department of Psychology, Program in Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 North Virginia Street, NV 89557, USA
| | - Marian E Berryhill
- Department of Psychology, Program in Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 North Virginia Street, NV 89557, USA
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