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Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic pathogen that can infect many types of cells and establishes latent infections in the neurons of sensory ganglia. In some cases, the virus spreads into the central nervous system, causing encephalitis or meningitis. Cells infected with several different types of viruses may secrete microvesicles (MVs) containing viral proteins and RNAs. In some instances, extracellular microvesicles harboring infectious virus have been found. Here we describe the features of shedding microvesicles released by the human oligodendroglial HOG cell line infected with HSV-1 and their participation in the viral cycle. Using transmission electron microscopy, we detected for the first time microvesicles containing HSV-1 virions. Interestingly, the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line, which is resistant to infection by free HSV-1 virions, was susceptible to HSV-1 infection after being exposed to virus-containing microvesicles. Therefore, our results indicate for the first time that MVs released by infected cells contain virions, are endocytosed by naive cells, and lead to a productive infection. Furthermore, infection of CHO cells was not completely neutralized when virus-containing microvesicles were preincubated with neutralizing anti-HSV-1 antibodies. The lack of complete neutralization and the ability of MVs to infect nectin-1/HVEM-negative CHO-K1 cells suggest a novel way for HSV-1 to spread to and enter target cells. Taken together, our results suggest that HSV-1 could spread through microvesicles to expand its tropism and that microvesicles could shield the virus from neutralizing antibodies as a possible mechanism to escape the host immune response.IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic pathogen that can infect many types of cells and establishes latent infections in neurons. Extracellular vesicles are a heterogeneous group of membrane vesicles secreted by most cell types. Microvesicles, which are extracellular vesicles which derive from the shedding of the plasma membrane, isolated from the supernatant of HSV-1-infected HOG cells were analyzed to find out whether they were involved in the viral cycle. The importance of our investigation lies in the detection, for the first time, of microvesicles containing HSV-1 virions. In addition, virus-containing microvesicles were endocytosed into CHO-K1 cells and were able to actively infect these otherwise nonpermissive cells. Finally, the infection of CHO cells with these virus-containing microvesicles was not completely neutralized by anti-HSV-1 antibodies, suggesting that these extracellular vesicles might shield the virus from neutralizing antibodies as a possible mechanism of immune evasion.
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102
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Webb RL, Kaiser EE, Jurgielewicz BJ, Spellicy S, Scoville SL, Thompson TA, Swetenburg RL, Hess DC, West FD, Stice SL. Human Neural Stem Cell Extracellular Vesicles Improve Recovery in a Porcine Model of Ischemic Stroke. Stroke 2018; 49:1248-1256. [PMID: 29650593 PMCID: PMC5916046 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.117.020353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Recent work from our group suggests that human neural stem cell-derived extracellular vesicle (NSC EV) treatment improves both tissue and sensorimotor function in a preclinical thromboembolic mouse model of stroke. In this study, NSC EVs were evaluated in a pig ischemic stroke model, where clinically relevant end points were used to assess recovery in a more translational large animal model. METHODS Ischemic stroke was induced by permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and either NSC EV or PBS treatment was administered intravenously at 2, 14, and 24 hours post-MCAO. NSC EV effects on tissue level recovery were evaluated via magnetic resonance imaging at 1 and 84 days post-MCAO. Effects on functional recovery were also assessed through longitudinal behavior and gait analysis testing. RESULTS NSC EV treatment was neuroprotective and led to significant improvements at the tissue and functional levels in stroked pigs. NSC EV treatment eliminated intracranial hemorrhage in ischemic lesions in NSC EV pigs (0 of 7) versus control pigs (7 of 8). NSC EV-treated pigs exhibited a significant decrease in cerebral lesion volume and decreased brain swelling relative to control pigs 1-day post-MCAO. NSC EVs significantly reduced edema in treated pigs relative to control pigs, as assessed by improved diffusivity through apparent diffusion coefficient maps. NSC EVs preserved white matter integrity with increased corpus callosum fractional anisotropy values 84 days post-MCAO. Behavior and mobility improvements paralleled structural changes as NSC EV-treated pigs exhibited improved outcomes, including increased exploratory behavior and faster restoration of spatiotemporal gait parameters. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated for the first time that in a large animal model novel NSC EVs significantly improved neural tissue preservation and functional levels post-MCAO, suggesting NSC EVs may be a paradigm changing stroke therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin L Webb
- From the ArunA Biomedical, Athens, GA (R.L.W., S.L. Scoville, T.A.T., R.L.S).,Regenerative Bioscience Center (R.L.W., E.E.K., B.J.J., S.S., F.D.W., S.L. Stice)
| | - Erin E Kaiser
- Regenerative Bioscience Center (R.L.W., E.E.K., B.J.J., S.S., F.D.W., S.L. Stice).,Department of Animal and Dairy Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (E.E.K., F.D.W.)
| | - Brian J Jurgielewicz
- Regenerative Bioscience Center (R.L.W., E.E.K., B.J.J., S.S., F.D.W., S.L. Stice)
| | - Samantha Spellicy
- Regenerative Bioscience Center (R.L.W., E.E.K., B.J.J., S.S., F.D.W., S.L. Stice)
| | - Shelley L Scoville
- From the ArunA Biomedical, Athens, GA (R.L.W., S.L. Scoville, T.A.T., R.L.S)
| | - Tyler A Thompson
- From the ArunA Biomedical, Athens, GA (R.L.W., S.L. Scoville, T.A.T., R.L.S)
| | | | - David C Hess
- University of Georgia, Rhodes Center for Animal and Dairy Science, Athens; and Department of Neurology, Augusta University, GA (D.C.H.)
| | - Franklin D West
- Regenerative Bioscience Center (R.L.W., E.E.K., B.J.J., S.S., F.D.W., S.L. Stice).,Department of Animal and Dairy Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (E.E.K., F.D.W.)
| | - Steven L Stice
- Regenerative Bioscience Center (R.L.W., E.E.K., B.J.J., S.S., F.D.W., S.L. Stice)
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103
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Li Y, Cheng Q, Hu G, Deng T, Wang Q, Zhou J, Su X. Extracellular vesicles in mesenchymal stromal cells: A novel therapeutic strategy for stroke. Exp Ther Med 2018; 15:4067-4079. [PMID: 29725359 PMCID: PMC5920496 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2018.5993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A stroke is a focal cerebral insult that frequently causes severe neurological deficit and mortality. Recent studies have demonstrated that multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) hold great promise for neurovascular remodeling and neurological function recovery following a stroke. Rather than a direct replacement of parenchymal brain cells, the therapeutic mechanism of MSCs is suggested to be the secretion of soluble factors. Specifically, emerging data described MSCs as being able to release extracellular vesicles (EVs), which contain a variety of cargo including proteins, lipids, DNA and various RNA species. The released EVs can target neurocytes and vascular cells and modify the cell's functions by delivering the cargo, which are considered to mediate the neural restoration effects of MSCs. Therefore, EVs may be developed as a novel cell-free therapy for neurological disorders. In the present review, the current advances regarding the components, functions and therapeutic potential of EVs are summarized and the use of MSC-derived EVs as a promising approach in the treatment of stroke are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingchen Li
- Post-doctoral Research Station of Clinical Medicine, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Qilai Cheng
- College of Pharmacy, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi 341000, P.R. China
| | - Guoheng Hu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Hunan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410007, P.R. China
| | - Tianhao Deng
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Hunan Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410006, P.R. China
| | - Qimei Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Hunan Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410006, P.R. China
| | - Jianda Zhou
- Department of Plastic Surgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Xinping Su
- Department of Osteology, The Affiliated Hospital of Hunan Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410006, P.R. China
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104
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Yang L, Niu F, Yao H, Liao K, Chen X, Kook Y, Ma R, Hu G, Buch S. Exosomal miR-9 Released from HIV Tat Stimulated Astrocytes Mediates Microglial Migration. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2018; 13:330-344. [PMID: 29497921 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-9779-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Chronic neuroinflammation still remains a common underlying feature of HIV-infected patients on combined anti-retroviral therapy (cART). Previous studies have reported that despite near complete suppression of virus replication by cART, cytotoxic viral proteins such as HIV trans-activating regulatory protein (Tat) continue to persist in tissues such as the brain and the lymph nodes, thereby contributing, in part, to chronic glial activation observed in HIV-associated neurological disorders (HAND). Understanding how the glial cells cross talk to mediate neuropathology is thus of paramount importance. MicroRNAs (miR) also known as regulators of gene expression, have emerged as key paracrine signaling mediators that regulate disease pathogenesis and cellular crosstalk, through their transfer via the extracellular vesicles (EV). In the current study we have identified a novel function of miR-9, that of mediating microglial migration. We demonstrate that miR-9 released from Tat-stimulated astrocytes can be taken up by microglia resulting in their migratory phenotype. Exposure of human astrocytoma (A172) cells to HIV Tat resulted in induction and release of miR-9 in the EVs, which, was taken up by microglia, leading in turn, increased migration of the latter cells, a process that could be blocked by both an exosome inhibitor GW4869 or a specific target protector of miR-9. Furthermore, it was also demonstrated that EV miR-9 mediated inhibition of the expression of target PTEN, via its binding to the 3'UTR seed sequence of the PTEN mRNA, was critical for microglial migration. To validate the role of miR-9 in this process, microglial cells were treated with EVs loaded with miR-9, which resulted in significant downregulation of PTEN expression with a concomitant increase in microglial migration. These findings were corroborated by transfecting microglia with a specific target protector of PTEN, that blocked miR-9-mediated downregulation of PTEN as well as microglial migration. In vivo studies wherein the miR-9 precursor-transduced microglia were transplanted into the striatum of mice, followed by assessing their migration in response to a stimulus administered distally, further validated the role of miR-9 in mediating microglial migration. Collectively, our findings provide evidence that glial crosstalk via miRs released from EVs play a vital role in mediating disease pathogenesis and could provide new avenues for development of novel therapeutic strategies aimed at dampening neuropathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Yang
- School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610054, China
| | - Fang Niu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Honghong Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.,Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Southeast University, Institute of Life Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Ke Liao
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Xufeng Chen
- The first Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029, China
| | - Yeonhee Kook
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Rong Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430030, China
| | - Guoku Hu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Shilpa Buch
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA.
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105
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Ashley J, Cordy B, Lucia D, Fradkin LG, Budnik V, Thomson T. Retrovirus-like Gag Protein Arc1 Binds RNA and Traffics across Synaptic Boutons. Cell 2018; 172:262-274.e11. [PMID: 29328915 PMCID: PMC5793882 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 272] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Arc/Arg3.1 is required for synaptic plasticity and cognition, and mutations in this gene are linked to autism and schizophrenia. Arc bears a domain resembling retroviral/retrotransposon Gag-like proteins, which multimerize into a capsid that packages viral RNA. The significance of such a domain in a plasticity molecule is uncertain. Here, we report that the Drosophila Arc1 protein forms capsid-like structures that bind darc1 mRNA in neurons and is loaded into extracellular vesicles that are transferred from motorneurons to muscles. This loading and transfer depends on the darc1-mRNA 3' untranslated region, which contains retrotransposon-like sequences. Disrupting transfer blocks synaptic plasticity, suggesting that transfer of dArc1 complexed with its mRNA is required for this function. Notably, cultured cells also release extracellular vesicles containing the Gag region of the Copia retrotransposon complexed with its own mRNA. Taken together, our results point to a trans-synaptic mRNA transport mechanism involving retrovirus-like capsids and extracellular vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Ashley
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Benjamin Cordy
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Diandra Lucia
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Lee G Fradkin
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Vivian Budnik
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Travis Thomson
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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106
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Human Neural Stem Cell Extracellular Vesicles Improve Tissue and Functional Recovery in the Murine Thromboembolic Stroke Model. Transl Stroke Res 2017; 9:530-539. [PMID: 29285679 PMCID: PMC6132936 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-017-0599-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Over 700 drugs have failed in stroke clinical trials, an unprecedented rate thought to be attributed in part to limited and isolated testing often solely in “young” rodent models and focusing on a single secondary injury mechanism. Here, extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanometer-sized cell signaling particles, were tested in a mouse thromboembolic (TE) stroke model. Neural stem cell (NSC) and mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) EVs derived from the same pluripotent stem cell (PSC) line were evaluated for changes in infarct volume as well as sensorimotor function. NSC EVs improved cellular, tissue, and functional outcomes in middle-aged rodents, whereas MSC EVs were less effective. Acute differences in lesion volume following NSC EV treatment were corroborated by MRI in 18-month-old aged rodents. NSC EV treatment has a positive effect on motor function in the aged rodent as indicated by beam walk, instances of foot faults, and strength evaluated by hanging wire test. Increased time with a novel object also indicated that NSC EVs improved episodic memory formation in the rodent. The therapeutic effect of NSC EVs appears to be mediated by altering the systemic immune response. These data strongly support further preclinical development of a NSC EV-based stroke therapy and warrant their testing in combination with FDA-approved stroke therapies.
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107
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Strazielle N, Ghersi-Egea JF. Potential Pathways for CNS Drug Delivery Across the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 22:5463-5476. [PMID: 27464721 PMCID: PMC5421134 DOI: 10.2174/1381612822666160726112115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain interfaces restrict the cerebral bioavailability of pharmacological compounds. Various drug delivery strategies have been developed to improve drug penetration into the brain. Most strategies target the microvascular endothelium forming the blood-brain barrier proper. Targeting the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier formed by the epithelium of the choroid plexuses in addition to the blood-brain barrier may offer added-value for the treatment of central nervous system diseases. For instance, targeting the CSF spaces, adjacent tissue, or the choroid plexuses themselves is of interest for the treatment of neuroinflammatory and infectious diseases, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, selected brain tumors, hydrocephalus or neurohumoral dysregulation. Selected CSF-borne materials seem to reach deep cerebral structures by mechanisms that need to be understood in the context of chronic CSF delivery. Drug delivery through both barriers can reduce CSF sink action towards parenchymal drugs. Finally, targeting the choroid plexus-CSF system can be especially relevant in the context of neonatal and pediatric diseases of the central nervous system. Transcytosis appears the most promising mechanism to target in order to improve drug delivery through brain barriers. The choroid plexus epithelium displays strong vesicular trafficking and secretory activities that deserve to be explored in the context of cerebral drug delivery. Folate transport and exosome release into the CSF, plasma protein transport, and various receptor-mediated endocytosis pathways may prove useful mechanisms to exploit for efficient drug delivery into the CSF. This calls for a clear evaluation of transcytosis mechanisms at the blood-CSF barrier, and a thorough evaluation of CSF drug delivery rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Strazielle
- Blood-Brain Interfaces Exploratory Platform BIP, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, Faculty of medicine Laennec, Rue G Paradin, 69008, Lyon, France.
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108
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Scesa G, Moyano AL, Bongarzone ER, Givogri MI. Port-to-port delivery: Mobilization of toxic sphingolipids via extracellular vesicles. J Neurosci Res 2017; 94:1333-40. [PMID: 27638615 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The discovery that most cells produce extracellular vesicles (EVs) and release them in the extracellular milieu has spurred the idea that these membranous cargoes spread pathogenic mechanisms. In the brain, EVs may have multifold and important physiological functions, from deregulating synaptic activity to promoting demyelination to changes in microglial activity. The finding that small EVs (exosomes) contain α-synuclein and β-amyloid, among other pathogenic proteins, is an example of this notion, underscoring their potential role in the brains of patients with Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Given that they are membranous vesicles, we speculate that EVs also have an intrinsic capacity to incorporate sphingolipids. In conditions under which these lipids are elevated to toxic levels, such as in Krabbe's disease and metachromatic leukodystrophy, EVs may contribute to spread disease from sick to healthy cells. In this essay, we discuss a working hypothesis that brain cells in sphingolipidoses clear some of the accumulated lipid material to attempt restoring cell homeostasis via EV secretion. We hypothesize that secreted sphingolipid-loaded EVs shuttle pathogenic lipids to cells that are not intrinsically affected, contributing to establishing non-cell-autonomous defects. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Scesa
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ana Lis Moyano
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ernesto R Bongarzone
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Maria I Givogri
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
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109
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Di Liegro CM, Schiera G, Di Liegro I. Extracellular Vesicle-Associated RNA as a Carrier of Epigenetic Information. Genes (Basel) 2017; 8:genes8100240. [PMID: 28937658 PMCID: PMC5664090 DOI: 10.3390/genes8100240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-transcriptional regulation of messenger RNA (mRNA) metabolism and subcellular localization is of the utmost importance both during development and in cell differentiation. Besides carrying genetic information, mRNAs contain cis-acting signals (zip codes), usually present in their 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs). By binding to these signals, trans-acting factors, such as RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), and/or non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), control mRNA localization, translation and stability. RBPs can also form complexes with non-coding RNAs of different sizes. The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a conserved process that allows both normal and cancer cells to horizontally transfer molecules, and hence properties, to neighboring cells. By interacting with proteins that are specifically sorted to EVs, mRNAs as well as ncRNAs can be transferred from cell to cell. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the sorting to EVs of different classes of molecules, as well as the role of extracellular RNAs and the associated proteins in altering gene expression in the recipient cells. Importantly, if, on the one hand, RBPs play a critical role in transferring RNAs through EVs, RNA itself could, on the other hand, function as a carrier to transfer proteins (i.e., chromatin modifiers, and transcription factors) that, once transferred, can alter the cell's epigenome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Maria Di Liegro
- Department of Biological Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo (UNIPA), I-90128 Palermo, Italy.
| | - Gabriella Schiera
- Department of Biological Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo (UNIPA), I-90128 Palermo, Italy.
| | - Italia Di Liegro
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences (BIONEC), University of Palermo,I-90127 Palermo,Italy.
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110
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Rufino-Ramos D, Albuquerque PR, Carmona V, Perfeito R, Nobre RJ, Pereira de Almeida L. Extracellular vesicles: Novel promising delivery systems for therapy of brain diseases. J Control Release 2017; 262:247-258. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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111
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Lange S, Gallagher M, Kholia S, Kosgodage US, Hristova M, Hardy J, Inal JM. Peptidylarginine Deiminases-Roles in Cancer and Neurodegeneration and Possible Avenues for Therapeutic Intervention via Modulation of Exosome and Microvesicle (EMV) Release? Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18061196. [PMID: 28587234 PMCID: PMC5486019 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18061196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes and microvesicles (EMVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed structures released from cells and participate in cell-to-cell communication via transport of biological molecules. EMVs play important roles in various pathologies, including cancer and neurodegeneration. The regulation of EMV biogenesis is thus of great importance and novel ways for manipulating their release from cells have recently been highlighted. One of the pathways involved in EMV shedding is driven by peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) mediated post-translational protein deimination, which is calcium-dependent and affects cytoskeletal rearrangement amongst other things. Increased PAD expression is observed in various cancers and neurodegeneration and may contribute to increased EMV shedding and disease progression. Here, we review the roles of PADs and EMVs in cancer and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigrun Lange
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Westminster, 115, New Cavendish Street, London W1W 6UW, UK.
- School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK.
| | - Mark Gallagher
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology Research Centre, School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK.
| | - Sharad Kholia
- Molecular Biotechnology Center, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy.
| | - Uchini S Kosgodage
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology Research Centre, School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK.
| | - Mariya Hristova
- Institute for Women's Health, University College London, 74 Huntley Street, London WC1N 6HX, UK.
| | - John Hardy
- Reta Lila Weston Research Laboratories, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Jameel M Inal
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology Research Centre, School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK.
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112
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Choi JY, Kim S, Kwak HB, Park DH, Park JH, Ryu JS, Park CS, Kang JH. Extracellular Vesicles as a Source of Urological Biomarkers: Lessons Learned From Advances and Challenges in Clinical Applications to Major Diseases. Int Neurourol J 2017; 21:83-96. [PMID: 28673066 PMCID: PMC5497201 DOI: 10.5213/inj.1734961.458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) not only eliminate unwanted molecular components, but also carry molecular cargo essential for specific intercellular communication mechanisms. As the molecular characteristics and biogenetical mechanisms of heterogeneous EVs are different, many studies have attempted to purify and characterize EVs. In particular, exosomal molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, have been suggested as disease biomarkers or therapeutic targets in various diseases. However, several unresolved issues and challenges remain despite these promising results, including source variability before the isolation of exosomes from body fluids, the contamination of proteins during isolation, and methodological issues related to the purification of exosomes. This paper reviews the general characteristics of EVs, particularly microvesicles and exosomes, along with their physiological roles and contribution to the pathogenesis of major diseases, several widely used methods to isolate exosomes, and challenges in the development of disease biomarkers using the molecular contents of EVs isolated from body fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Young Choi
- Department of Pharmacology and Medicinal Toxicology Research Center, Inha University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Hypoxia-related Disease Research Center, Incheon, Korea
| | - Sujin Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Medicinal Toxicology Research Center, Inha University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Hypoxia-related Disease Research Center, Incheon, Korea
- Department of Kinesiology, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
| | - Hyo-Bum Kwak
- Department of Kinesiology, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
| | - Dong-Ho Park
- Department of Kinesiology, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
| | - Jae-Hyoung Park
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jeong-Seon Ryu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Inha University Hospital, Incheon, Korea
| | - Chang-Shin Park
- Department of Pharmacology and Medicinal Toxicology Research Center, Inha University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Hypoxia-related Disease Research Center, Incheon, Korea
| | - Ju-Hee Kang
- Department of Pharmacology and Medicinal Toxicology Research Center, Inha University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Hypoxia-related Disease Research Center, Incheon, Korea
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Pinto S, Cunha C, Barbosa M, Vaz AR, Brites D. Exosomes from NSC-34 Cells Transfected with hSOD1-G93A Are Enriched in miR-124 and Drive Alterations in Microglia Phenotype. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:273. [PMID: 28567000 PMCID: PMC5434170 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder affecting motor neurons (MNs). Evidences indicate that ALS is a non-cell autonomous disease in which glial cells participate in both disease onset and progression. Exosomal transfer of mutant copper-zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (mSOD1) from cell-to-cell was suggested to contribute to disease dissemination. Data from our group and others showed that exosomes from activated cells contain inflammatory-related microRNAs (inflamma-miRNAs) that recapitulate the donor cell. While glia-derived exosomes and their effects in neurons have been addressed by several studies, only a few investigated the influence of motor neuron (MN)-derived exosomes in other cell function, the aim of the present study. We assessed a set of inflamma-miRs in NSC-34 MN-like cells transfected with mutant SOD1(G93A) and extended the study into their derived exosomes (mSOD1 exosomes). Then, the effects produced by mSOD1 exosomes in the activation and polarization of the recipient N9 microglial cells were investigated. Exosomes in coculture with N9 microglia and NSC-34 cells [either transfected with either wild-type (wt) human SOD1 or mutant SOD1(G93A)] showed to be transferred into N9 cells. Increased miR-124 expression was found in mSOD1 NSC-34 cells and in their derived exosomes. Incubation of mSOD1 exosomes with N9 cells determined a sustained 50% reduction in the cell phagocytic ability. It also caused a persistent NF-kB activation and an acute generation of NO, MMP-2, and MMP-9 activation, as well as upregulation of IL-1β, TNF-α, MHC-II, and iNOS gene expression, suggestive of induced M1 polarization. Marked elevation of IL-10, Arginase 1, TREM2, RAGE, and TLR4 mRNA levels, together with increased miR-124, miR-146a, and miR-155, at 24 h incubation, suggest the switch to mixed M1 and M2 subpopulations in the exosome-treated N9 microglial cells. Exosomes from mSOD1 NSC-34 MNs also enhanced the number of senescent-like positive N9 cells. Data suggest that miR-124 is translocated from the mSOD1 MNs to exosomes, which determine early and late phenotypic alterations in the recipient N9-microglial cells. In conclusion, modulation of the inflammatory-associated miR-124, in mSOD1 NSC-34 MNs, with potential benefits in the cargo of their exosomes may reveal a promising therapeutic strategy in halting microglia activation and associated effects in MN degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Pinto
- Neuron Glia Biology in Health and Disease, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
| | - Carolina Cunha
- Neuron Glia Biology in Health and Disease, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
| | - Marta Barbosa
- Neuron Glia Biology in Health and Disease, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana R Vaz
- Neuron Glia Biology in Health and Disease, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal.,Department of Biochemistry and Human Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
| | - Dora Brites
- Neuron Glia Biology in Health and Disease, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal.,Department of Biochemistry and Human Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
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114
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Markovinovic A, Cimbro R, Ljutic T, Kriz J, Rogelj B, Munitic I. Optineurin in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Multifunctional adaptor protein at the crossroads of different neuroprotective mechanisms. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 154:1-20. [PMID: 28456633 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
When optineurin mutations showed up on the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) landscape in 2010, they differed from most other ALS-causing genes. They seemed to act by loss- rather than gain-of-function, and it was unclear how a polyubiquitin-binding adaptor protein, which was proposed to regulate a variety of cellular functions including cell signaling and vesicle trafficking, could mediate neuroprotection. This review discusses the considerable progress that has been made since then. A large number of mutations in optineurin and optineurin-interacting proteins TANK-binding kinase (TBK1) and p62/SQSTM-1 have been found in the ALS patients, suggesting a common neuroprotective pathway. Moreover, functional studies of the ALS-causing optineurin mutations and the recently established optineurin ubiquitin-binding deficient and knockout mouse models helped identify three major mechanisms likely to mediate neuroprotection: regulation of autophagy, mitigation of (chronic) inflammatory signaling, and blockade of necroptosis. These three processes crosstalk, and require multiple levels of control, many of which can be mediated by optineurin. Based on the role of optineurin in multiple processes and the unexpected finding that targeted optineurin deletion in microglia and oligodendrocytes ultimately leads to the same phenotype of axonal degeneration despite different initial defects, we propose that the failure of the weakest link in the optineurin neuroprotective network is sufficient to disturb homeostasis and set-off the domino effect that could ultimately lead to neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Markovinovic
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Raffaello Cimbro
- Division of Rheumatology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Tereza Ljutic
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jasna Kriz
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Research Centre of the Mental Health Institute of Quebec, Laval University, Quebec, Quebec G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Boris Rogelj
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Biomedical Research Institute BRIS, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ivana Munitic
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
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115
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Neurons Export Extracellular Vesicles Enriched in Cysteine String Protein and Misfolded Protein Cargo. Sci Rep 2017; 7:956. [PMID: 28424476 PMCID: PMC5430488 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01115-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The fidelity of synaptic transmission depends on the integrity of the protein machinery at the synapse. Unfolded synaptic proteins undergo refolding or degradation in order to maintain synaptic proteostasis and preserve synaptic function, and buildup of unfolded/toxic proteins leads to neuronal dysfunction. Many molecular chaperones contribute to proteostasis, but one in particular, cysteine string protein (CSPα), is critical for proteostasis at the synapse. In this study we report that exported vesicles from neurons contain CSPα. Extracellular vesicles (EV’s) have been implicated in a wide range of functions. However, the functional significance of neural EV’s remains to be established. Here we demonstrate that co-expression of CSPα with the disease-associated proteins, polyglutamine expanded protein 72Q huntingtinex°n1 or superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1G93A) leads to the cellular export of both 72Q huntingtinex°n1 and SOD-1G93A via EV’s. In contrast, the inactive CSPαHPD-AAA mutant does not facilitate elimination of misfolded proteins. Furthermore, CSPα-mediated export of 72Q huntingtinex°n1 is reduced by the polyphenol, resveratrol. Our results indicate that by assisting local lysosome/proteasome processes, CSPα-mediated removal of toxic proteins via EVs plays a central role in synaptic proteostasis and CSPα thus represents a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Kumar D, Manek R, Raghavan V, Wang KK. Protein Characterization of Extracellular Microvesicles/Exosomes Released from Cytotoxin-Challenged Rat Cerebrocortical Mixed Culture and Mouse N2a Cells. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:2112-2124. [PMID: 28283886 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0474-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A number of neuronal and glial proteins were previously found to be released in free-standing soluble form from cultured brain cells into cell-conditioned media. Here, we sought to examine if similar proteins are also contained in neural and astroglial cell-released extracellular microvesicles/exosomes (MV/E). In this study, MV/E were isolated from cell-conditioned media from control and cytotoxin-challenged rat cerebrocortical mixed culture (CTX) and mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells. Cytotoxin challenges included pro-necrosis calcium ionophore A23187, pro-apoptosis staurosporine (STS), and excitotoxin N-methyl-D-aspartate. Based on established nanoparticle characterization method (dynamic light scattering, NanoTracker, and transmission electron microscopy), we confirmed that these released vesicles are in fact characteristic representation of MV/E by morphology (lipid bilayered vesicles) and by particle size (132-142 nm for CTX and 49-77 nm for N2a cells). We indeed identified neural cell body protein UCH-L1, axonal injury marker αII-spectrin and its breakdown products (SBDPs), astroglial markers GFAP and its breakdown products (GFAP-BDP), dendritic protein BIII-tubulin, synaptic protein synaptophysin, and exosome marker Alix in microvesicles from CTX and/or N2a cells. Furthermore, SBDPs, GFAP-BDP, UCH-L1, and synaptophysin are especially dominant in MV/E isolated from cytotoxin-treated CTX cells. Similarly, SBDPs, βIII-tubulin, and UCH-L1 are more prominently observed in cytotoxin-challenged N2a cells. Lastly, when isolated MV/E from A23187- or STS-challenged N2a cells were introduced to healthy N2a culture, they are capable of evoking cytotoxicity in the latter. Taken together, our study identified that microvesicles/exosomes isolated form healthy and injured brain cells contain certain neural and astroglial proteins, as well as possibly other cytotoxic factors that are capable of propagating cytotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhwani Kumar
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics & Biomarkers Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.,The Departments of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Rachna Manek
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics & Biomarkers Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA. .,The Departments of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA. .,The Departments Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
| | - Vijaya Raghavan
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics & Biomarkers Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.,The Departments of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.,Schizophrenia Research Foundation, R/7A, North Main Road, Anna Nagar West Extension, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600101, India
| | - Kevin K Wang
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics & Biomarkers Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA. .,The Departments of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA. .,The Departments Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
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Faust A, Kandakatla A, van der Merwe Y, Ren T, Huleihel L, Hussey G, Naranjo JD, Johnson S, Badylak S, Steketee M. Urinary bladder extracellular matrix hydrogels and matrix-bound vesicles differentially regulate central nervous system neuron viability and axon growth and branching. J Biomater Appl 2017; 31:1277-1295. [PMID: 28447547 DOI: 10.1177/0885328217698062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Central nervous system neurons often degenerate after trauma due to the inflammatory innate immune response to injury, which can lead to neuronal cell death, scarring, and permanently lost neurologic function. Extracellular matrix bioscaffolds, derived by decellularizing healthy tissues, have been widely used in both preclinical and clinical studies to promote positive tissue remodeling, including neurogenesis, in numerous tissues, with extracellular matrix from homologous tissues often inducing more positive responses. Extracellular matrix hydrogels are liquid at room temperature and enable minimally invasive extracellular matrix injections into central nervous system tissues, before gelation at 37℃. However, few studies have analyzed how extracellular matrix hydrogels influence primary central nervous system neuron survival and growth, and whether central nervous system and non-central nervous system extracellular matrix specificity is critical to neuronal responses. Urinary bladder extracellular matrix hydrogels increase both primary hippocampal neuron survival and neurite growth to similar or even greater extents, suggesting extracellular matrix from non-homologous tissue sources, such as urinary bladder matrix-extracellular matrix, may be a more economical and safer alternative to developing central nervous system extracellular matrices for central nervous system applications. Additionally, we show matrix-bound vesicles derived from urinary bladder extracellular matrix are endocytosed by hippocampal neurons and positively regulate primary hippocampal neuron neurite growth. Matrix-bound vesicles carry protein and RNA cargos, including noncoding RNAs and miRNAs that map to the human genome and are known to regulate cellular processes. Thus, urinary bladder matrix-bound vesicles provide natural and transfectable cargoes which offer new experimental tools and therapeutic applications to study and treat central nervous system neuron injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Faust
- 1 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Apoorva Kandakatla
- 1 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Yolandi van der Merwe
- 1 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,3 Swanson School of Engineering, Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tanchen Ren
- 1 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Luai Huleihel
- 2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,4 Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - George Hussey
- 2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,4 Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Juan Diego Naranjo
- 2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,4 Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Scott Johnson
- 2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,4 Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stephen Badylak
- 2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,4 Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Michael Steketee
- 1 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,5 Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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118
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Jandial R, Choy C, Levy DM, Chen MY, Ansari KI. Astrocyte-induced Reelin expression drives proliferation of Her2 + breast cancer metastases. Clin Exp Metastasis 2017; 34:185-196. [PMID: 28210910 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-017-9839-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer metastasis to the brain develops after a clinical latency of years to even decades, suggesting that colonization of the brain is the most challenging step of the metastatic cascade. However, the underlying mechanisms used by breast cancer cells to successfully colonize the brain's microenvironment remain elusive. Reelin is an archetypal extracellular glycoprotein that regulates migration, proliferation, and lamination of neurons. It is epigenetically silenced in various cancers, and its expression in multiple myelomas is linked to poor patient survival. We found that Reelin expression was low in primary breast cancer tissue. However, its expression was significantly higher in Her2+ breast cancers metastasizing to the brain. In particular, Reelin was highly expressed in the tumor periphery adjacent to surrounding astrocytes. This augmented Reelin expression was seen in Her2+ metastases, but not in triple negative (TN) primary tumors or in TN breast to brain metastasis cells co-cultured with astrocytes. Furthermore, the elevated expression was sustained in Her2+ cells grown in the presence of the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-azacytidine, indicating epigenetic regulation of Reelin expression. The relative growth and rate of spheroids formation derived from Her2+ primary and BBM cells co-cultured with astrocytes were higher than those of TN primary and BBM cells, and knockdown of both Reelin and Her2 suppressed the astrocyte-induced growth and spheroid forming ability of Her2+ cells. Collectively, our results indicate that within the neural niche, astrocytes epigenetically regulate Reelin expression and its interaction with Her2 leading to increased proliferation and survival fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Jandial
- Division of Neurosurgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, 1500 E. Duarte Rd, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA.
| | - Cecilia Choy
- Division of Neurosurgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, 1500 E. Duarte Rd, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Danielle M Levy
- Division of Neurosurgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, 1500 E. Duarte Rd, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Mike Y Chen
- Division of Neurosurgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, 1500 E. Duarte Rd, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Khairul I Ansari
- Division of Neurosurgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, 1500 E. Duarte Rd, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA.
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119
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Colonna M, Butovsky O. Microglia Function in the Central Nervous System During Health and Neurodegeneration. Annu Rev Immunol 2017; 35:441-468. [PMID: 28226226 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-051116-052358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1338] [Impact Index Per Article: 191.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are resident cells of the brain that regulate brain development, maintenance of neuronal networks, and injury repair. Microglia serve as brain macrophages but are distinct from other tissue macrophages owing to their unique homeostatic phenotype and tight regulation by the central nervous system (CNS) microenvironment. They are responsible for the elimination of microbes, dead cells, redundant synapses, protein aggregates, and other particulate and soluble antigens that may endanger the CNS. Furthermore, as the primary source of proinflammatory cytokines, microglia are pivotal mediators of neuroinflammation and can induce or modulate a broad spectrum of cellular responses. Alterations in microglia functionality are implicated in brain development and aging, as well as in neurodegeneration. Recent observations about microglia ontogeny combined with extensive gene expression profiling and novel tools to study microglia biology have allowed us to characterize the spectrum of microglial phenotypes during development, homeostasis, and disease. In this article, we review recent advances in our understanding of the biology of microglia, their contribution to homeostasis, and their involvement in neurodegeneration. Moreover, we highlight the complexity of targeting microglia for therapeutic intervention in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110;
| | - Oleg Butovsky
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115;
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120
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Systemic T Cells Immunosuppression of Glioma Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Is Mediated by Monocytic Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169932. [PMID: 28107450 PMCID: PMC5249124 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A major contributing factor to glioma development and progression is its ability to evade the immune system. Nano-meter sized vesicles, exosomes, secreted by glioma-stem cells (GSC) can act as mediators of intercellular communication to promote tumor immune escape. Here, we investigated the immunomodulatory properties of GCS-derived exosomes on different peripheral immune cell populations. Healthy donor peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with anti-CD3, anti-CD28 and IL-2, were treated with GSC-derived exosomes. Phenotypic characterization, cell proliferation, Th1/Th2 cytokine secretion and intracellular cytokine production were analysed by distinguishing among effector T cells, regulatory T cells and monocytes. In unfractionated PBMCs, GSC-derived exosomes inhibited T cell activation (CD25 and CD69 expression), proliferation and Th1 cytokine production, and did not affect cell viability or regulatory T-cell suppression ability. Furthermore, exosomes were able to enhance proliferation of purified CD4+ T cells. In PBMCs culture, glioma-derived exosomes directly promoted IL-10 and arginase-1 production and downregulation of HLA-DR by unstimulated CD14+ monocytic cells, that displayed an immunophenotype resembling that of monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (Mo-MDSCs). Importantly, the removal of CD14+ monocytic cell fraction from PBMCs restored T-cell proliferation. The same results were observed with exosomes purified from plasma of glioblastoma patients. Our results indicate that glioma-derived exosomes suppress T-cell immune response by acting on monocyte maturation rather than on direct interaction with T cells. Selective targeting of Mo-MDSC to treat glioma should be considered with regard to how immune cells allow the acquirement of effector functions and therefore counteracting tumor progression.
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121
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Peña-Ortega F. Pharmacological Tools to Activate Microglia and their Possible use to Study Neural Network Patho-physiology. Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:595-619. [PMID: 27697040 PMCID: PMC5543677 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x14666160928151546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microglia are the resident immunocompetent cells of the CNS and also constitute a unique cell type that contributes to neural network homeostasis and function. Understanding microglia cell-signaling not only will reveal their diverse functions but also will help to identify pharmacological and non-pharmacological tools to modulate the activity of these cells. METHODS We undertook a search of bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research literature to identify microglial activators and their cell-specificity. We also looked for their effects on neural network function and dysfunction. RESULTS We identified several pharmacological targets to modulate microglial function, which are more or less specific (with the proper control experiments). We also identified pharmacological targets that would require the development of new potent and specific modulators. We identified a wealth of evidence about the participation of microglia in neural network function and their alterations in pathological conditions. CONCLUSION The identification of specific microglia-activating signals provides experimental tools to modulate the activity of this heterogeneous cell type in order to evaluate its impact on other components of the nervous system, and it also helps to identify therapeutic approaches to ease some pathological conditions related to microglial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Peña-Ortega
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Campus Juriquilla, México
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122
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Emerging roles of extracellular vesicles in neurodegenerative disorders: focus on HIV-associated neurological complications. Cell Death Dis 2016; 7:e2481. [PMID: 27882942 PMCID: PMC5260908 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2016.336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-enriched extracellular vesicles with a proposed diameter in the range of 30-100 nm. They are released during both normal homeostasis as well as under pathological conditions by most cell types. In recent years, there has been robust interest in the study of these vesicles as conduits for the delivery of information between cells in both analogous as well as disparate tissues. Their ability to transport specialized cargo including signaling mediators, proteins, messenger RNA and miRNAs characterizes these vesicles as primary facilitators of cell-to-cell communication and regulation. Exosomes have also been demonstrated to have important roles in the field of cancer biology and metastasis. More recently, their role in several neurodegenerative disorders has been gaining increased momentum as these particles have been shown to promote the spread of toxic factors such as amyloid beta and prions, adding further validity to their role as important regulators of disease pathogenesis. This review briefly summarizes current findings and thoughts on exosome biology in the context of neurodegenerative disorders and the manipulation of these particles for the development of potential therapeutic strategies.
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123
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Ti D, Hao H, Fu X, Han W. Mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomal microRNAs contribute to wound inflammation. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2016; 59:1305-1312. [PMID: 27864711 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-016-0240-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Clinical and experimental studies have highlighted the significance of inflammation in coordinating wound repair and regeneration. However, it remains challenging to control the inflammatory response and tolerance at systemic levels without causing toxicity to injured tissues. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess potent immunomodulatory properties and facilitate tissue repair by releasing exosomes, which generate a suitable microenvironment for inflammatory resolution. Exosomes contain several effective bioactive molecules and act as a cell-cell communication vehicle to influence cellular activities in recipient cells. During this process, the horizontal transfer of exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) to acceptor cells, where they regulate target gene expression, is of particular interest for understanding the basic biology of inflammation ablation, tissue homeostasis, and development of therapeutic approaches. In this review, we describe a signature of three specific miRNAs (miR-21, miR-146a, and miR-181) present in human umbilical cord MSC-derived exosomes (MSC-EXO) identified microarray chip analysis and focus on the inflammatory regulatory functions of these immune-related miRNAs. We also discuss the potential mechanisms contributing to the resolution of wound inflammation and tissue healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Ti
- Institute of Basic Medicine, College of Life Sciences, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Haojie Hao
- Institute of Basic Medicine, College of Life Sciences, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Xiaobing Fu
- Institute of Basic Medicine, College of Life Sciences, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China.
| | - Weidong Han
- Institute of Basic Medicine, College of Life Sciences, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China.
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124
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Stem Cell-Released Microvesicles and Exosomes as Novel Biomarkers and Treatments of Diseases. Stem Cells Int 2016; 2016:2417268. [PMID: 27579044 PMCID: PMC4992787 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2417268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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Abstract
Viruses have evolved many mechanisms by which to evade and subvert the immune system to ensure survival and persistence. However, for each method undertaken by the immune system for pathogen removal, there is a counteracting mechanism utilized by pathogens. The new and emerging role of microvesicles in immune intercellular communication and function is no different. Viruses across many different families have evolved to insert viral components in exosomes, a subtype of microvesicle, with many varying downstream effects. When assessed cumulatively, viral antigens in exosomes increase persistence through cloaking viral genomes, decoying the immune system, and even by increasing viral infection in uninfected cells. Exosomes therefore represent a source of viral antigen that can be used as a biomarker for disease and targeted for therapy in the control and eradication of these disorders. With the rise in the persistence of new and reemerging viruses like Ebola and Zika, exploring the role of exosomes become more important than ever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique R Anderson
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Neuroimmunology Branch, Viral Immunology Section, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
- Department of Pathology Molecular and Cellular Basis of Disease Graduate Program, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA.
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- George Mason University, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Disease, Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Manassas, VA, 20110, USA
| | - Steven Jacobson
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Neuroimmunology Branch, Viral Immunology Section, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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