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Ohashi W, Kimura S, Iwanaga T, Furusawa Y, Irié T, Izumi H, Watanabe T, Hijikata A, Hara T, Ohara O, Koseki H, Sato T, Robine S, Mori H, Hattori Y, Watarai H, Mishima K, Ohno H, Hase K, Fukada T. Zinc Transporter SLC39A7/ZIP7 Promotes Intestinal Epithelial Self-Renewal by Resolving ER Stress. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1006349. [PMID: 27736879 PMCID: PMC5065117 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Zinc transporters play a critical role in spatiotemporal regulation of zinc homeostasis. Although disruption of zinc homeostasis has been implicated in disorders such as intestinal inflammation and aberrant epithelial morphology, it is largely unknown which zinc transporters are responsible for the intestinal epithelial homeostasis. Here, we show that Zrt-Irt-like protein (ZIP) transporter ZIP7, which is highly expressed in the intestinal crypt, is essential for intestinal epithelial proliferation. Mice lacking Zip7 in intestinal epithelium triggered endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in proliferative progenitor cells, leading to significant cell death of progenitor cells. Zip7 deficiency led to the loss of Olfm4+ intestinal stem cells and the degeneration of post-mitotic Paneth cells, indicating a fundamental requirement for Zip7 in homeostatic intestinal regeneration. Taken together, these findings provide evidence for the importance of ZIP7 in maintenance of intestinal epithelial homeostasis through the regulation of ER function in proliferative progenitor cells and maintenance of intestinal stem cells. Therapeutic targeting of ZIP7 could lead to effective treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Intestinal epithelium undergoes continuous self-renewal to maintain intestinal homeostasis. Given that dysregulation of zinc flux causes intestinal disorders, appropriate spatiotemporal regulation of zinc in the intracellular compartments should be a prerequisite for the intestinal epithelial self-renewal process. Zinc transporters such as Zrt-Irt-like proteins (ZIPs) are essential to fine-tune intracellular zinc flux. However, the link between specific zinc transporter(s) and intestinal epithelial self-renewal remains to be elucidated. Here, we found that ZIP7 is highly expressed in the intestinal crypts. The finding motivated us to further analyze the role of ZIP7 in intestinal homeostasis. ZIP7 deficiency greatly enhanced ER stress response in proliferative progenitor cells, which induced apoptotic cell death. This abnormality disrupted epithelial proliferation and intestinal stemness. Based on these observations, we reason that ZIP7-dependent zinc transport facilitates the vigorous epithelial proliferation in the intestine by ameliorating ER stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wakana Ohashi
- RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani, Toyama, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Kimura
- Laboratory of Histology and Cytology, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Iwanaga
- Laboratory of Histology and Cytology, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Furusawa
- Division of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Mucosal Barriology, International Research and Development Center for Mucosal Vaccines, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tarou Irié
- Division of Pathology, Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, School of Dentistry, Showa University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hironori Izumi
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani, Toyama, Japan
| | - Takashi Watanabe
- Laboratory for Integrative Genomics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Atsushi Hijikata
- Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga, Japan
| | - Takafumi Hara
- Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Osamu Ohara
- Laboratory for Integrative Genomics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Department of Technology Development, Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Kisarazu, Chiba, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Koseki
- Laboratory for Developmental Genetics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Toshiro Sato
- Department of Gastroenterology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sylvie Robine
- Equipe de Morphogenese et Signalisation cellulaires UMR 144 CNRS/Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Hisashi Mori
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani, Toyama, Japan
| | - Yuichi Hattori
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani, Toyama, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Watarai
- Division of Stem Cell Cellomics, Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenji Mishima
- Division of Pathology, Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, School of Dentistry, Showa University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ohno
- Laboratory for Intestinal Ecosystem, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Koji Hase
- Division of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Mucosal Barriology, International Research and Development Center for Mucosal Vaccines, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (KH); (TF)
| | - Toshiyuki Fukada
- RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
- Division of Pathology, Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, School of Dentistry, Showa University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro, Tokushima, Japan
- * E-mail: (KH); (TF)
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Yu KN, Kim HJ, Kim S, Dawaadamdin O, Lee AY, Hong SH, Chang SH, Choi SJ, Shim SM, Lee K, Cho MH. Cigarette Smoking Condensate Disrupts Endoplasmic Reticulum-Golgi Network Homeostasis Through GOLPH3 Expression in Normal Lung Epithelial Cells. Nicotine Tob Res 2016; 18:1877-1885. [PMID: 27611309 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntw079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cigarette smoke (CS) is associated with a broad range of diseases including lung cancer. Many researchers have suggested that cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) may be more toxic compared to cigarette smoke extract (CSE) because CSC contains the lipid-soluble faction of smoke while CSE contains the hydrophilic or gas phase. The aim of this research is to investigate the effects of CSC on the disruption of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi homeostasis in normal lung epithelial cells. METHODS CS was generated according to the ISO 3308 method. To ascertain the mechanistic effects of CSC on lung toxicity, normal lung epithelial cells of the cell line 16HBE14o- were treated with CSC (0.1mg/mL) for 48 hours. The toxic effects of CSC on ER-Golgi homeostasis and GOLPH3 expression were observed through diverse molecular tools including transmission electron microscope analysis. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that CSC treatment increased reactive oxygen species generation in lung cells and led to the alteration of ER-Golgi homeostasis in conjunction with increased autophagy. In particular, GOLPH3, known as an oncogene and a marker protein for the trans-Golgi network, was upregulated in CSC-treated cells. GOLPH3 protein overexpression was also confirmed in the lungs of human lung cancer patients as well as NNK-treated mice. CONCLUSION Our study revealed that CSC caused lung damage through the disruption of ER-Golgi homeostasis and autophagy induction. The expression level of the trans-Golgi marker protein GOLPH3 could serve as a reliable bio-indicator for CS-related lung cancer. IMPLICATIONS CS is a harmful factor in the development of many diseases including cancer. In this research, we demonstrated that CSC treatment led to malfunction of the ER-Golgi network, with the disrupted ER and Golgi causing GOLPH3 overexpression and abnormal autophagy accumulation. In addition, although the value of GOLPH3 as a predictor remains to be fully elucidated, our data suggest that GOLPH3 levels may be a novel prognostic biomarker of tobacco related lung disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyeong-Nam Yu
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH
| | - Hyeon-Jeong Kim
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Sanghwa Kim
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Graduate Group of Tumor Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | | | - Ah-Young Lee
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Sung-Ho Hong
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Seung-Hee Chang
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Seong-Jin Choi
- Inhalation Toxicology Research Center, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jeongeup, Korea
- Human and Environment Toxicology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Soon-Mi Shim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Sejong University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Kyuhong Lee
- Inhalation Toxicology Research Center, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jeongeup, Korea
- Human and Environment Toxicology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Myung-Haing Cho
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Graduate Group of Tumor Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Suwon, Korea
- Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Seoul National University, Suwon, Korea
- Institute of GreenBio Science Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Korea
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103
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Roberts NB, Wadajkar AS, Winkles JA, Davila E, Kim AJ, Woodworth GF. Repurposing platinum-based chemotherapies for multi-modal treatment of glioblastoma. Oncoimmunology 2016; 5:e1208876. [PMID: 27757301 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2016.1208876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a fatal brain cancer for which new treatment options are sorely needed. Platinum-based drugs have been investigated extensively for GBM treatment but few have shown significant efficacy without major central nervous system (CNS) and systemic toxicities. The relative success of platinum drugs for treatment of non-CNS cancers indicates great therapeutic potential when effectively delivered to the tumor region(s). New insights into the broad anticancer effects of platinum drugs, particularly immunomodulatory effects, and innovative delivery strategies that can maximize these multi-modal effects and minimize toxicities may promote the re-purposing of this chemotherapeutic drug class for GBM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan B Roberts
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Aniket S Wadajkar
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Winkles
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Center for Vascular and Inflammatory Diseases, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Eduardo Davila
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Anthony J Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD, USA; Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Graeme F Woodworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Fang B, Zhang M, Fan X, Ren F. The targeted proteins in tumor cells treated with the α-lactalbumin–oleic acid complex examined by descriptive and quantitative liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:5991-6004. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-10971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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105
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The attenuation of chlorogenic acid on oxidative stress for renal injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy rats. Arch Pharm Res 2016; 39:989-97. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-016-0771-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Chemical Genomics Identifies the PERK-Mediated Unfolded Protein Stress Response as a Cellular Target for Influenza Virus Inhibition. mBio 2016; 7:e00085-16. [PMID: 27094326 PMCID: PMC4850254 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00085-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses generate annual epidemics and occasional pandemics of respiratory disease with important consequences for human health and the economy. Therefore, a large effort has been devoted to the development of new anti-influenza virus drugs directed to viral targets, as well as to the identification of cellular targets amenable to anti-influenza virus therapy. Here we have addressed the identification of such potential cellular targets by screening collections of drugs approved for human use. We reasoned that screening with a green fluorescent protein-based recombinant replicon system would identify cellular targets involved in virus transcription/replication and/or gene expression and hence address an early stage of virus infection. By using such a strategy, we identified Montelukast (MK) as an inhibitor of virus multiplication. MK inhibited virus gene expression but did not alter viral RNA synthesis in vitro or viral RNA accumulation in vivo. The low selectivity index of MK prevented its use as an antiviral, but it was sufficient to identify a new cellular pathway suitable for anti-influenza virus intervention. By deep sequencing of RNA isolated from mock- and virus-infected human cells, treated with MK or left untreated, we showed that it stimulates the PERK-mediated unfolded protein stress response. The phosphorylation of PERK was partly inhibited in virus-infected cells but stimulated in MK-treated cells. Accordingly, pharmacological inhibition of PERK phosphorylation led to increased viral gene expression, while inhibition of PERK phosphatase reduced viral protein synthesis. These results suggest the PERK-mediated unfolded protein response as a potential cellular target to modulate influenza virus infection. Influenza A viruses are responsible for annual epidemics and occasional pandemics with important consequences for human health and the economy. The unfolded protein response is a defense mechanism fired by cells when the demand of protein synthesis and folding is excessive, for instance, during an acute virus infection. In this report, we show that influenza virus downregulates the unfolded protein response mediated by the PERK sensor, while Montelukast, a drug used to treat asthma in humans, specifically stimulated this response and downregulated viral protein synthesis and multiplication. Accordingly, we show that PERK phosphorylation was reduced in virus-infected cells and increased in cells treated with Montelukast. Hence, our studies suggest that modulation of the PERK-mediated unfolded protein response is a target for influenza virus inhibition.
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107
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Zeng H, Zhang JM, Du Y, Wang J, Ren Y, Li M, Li H, Cai Z, Chu Q, Yang C. Crosstalk between ATF4 and MTA1/HDAC1 promotes osteosarcoma progression. Oncotarget 2016; 7:7329-42. [PMID: 26797758 PMCID: PMC4872789 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The stress response gene activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is involved in metastatic behavior and cellular protection. Here we show that ATF4 is upregulated in osteosarcoma (OS) cell lines and patient clinical samples as compared to matched non-tumor tissue. Overexpression of ATF4 in OS cells promoted cell proliferation, migration and lung metastasis. Furthermore, the expression of ATF4 was markedly reduced in metastasis associated protein (MTA1) or histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) knockdown OS cells, but MTA1 overexpression increased the stability and activity of ATF4 protein via ATF4 deacetylation by HDAC1. ATF4 in turn enhanced the expression of MTA1 and HDAC1 at the transcription level, suggesting a positive feedback loop between ATF4 and MTA1/HDAC1. Clinically, the level of ATF4 was positively correlated with that of MTA1 in OS. Mice injected with ATF4-overexpressing cells exhibited a higher rate of tumor growth, and the average weight of these tumors was ~90% greater than the controls. Taken together, these data establish a direct correlation between ATF4-induced OS progression and MTA1/HDAC1-associated metastasis, and support the potential therapeutic value of targeting ATF4 in the treatment of OS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Zeng
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Jin-ming Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yu Du
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Jiang Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Ye Ren
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Mi Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Hao Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Zhuo Cai
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Qian Chu
- Department of Oncology, Tongji Hospital of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Caihong Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
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Vazquez G, Solanki S, Dube P, Smedlund K, Ampem P. On the Roles of the Transient Receptor Potential Canonical 3 (TRPC3) Channel in Endothelium and Macrophages: Implications in Atherosclerosis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 898:185-99. [PMID: 27161230 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-26974-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In the cardiovascular and hematopoietic systems the Transient Receptor Potential Canonical 3 (TRPC3) channel has a well-recognized role in a number of signaling mechanisms that impact the function of diverse cells and tissues in physiology and disease. The latter includes, but is not limited to, molecular and cellular mechanisms associated to the pathogenesis of cardiac hypertrophy, hypertension and endothelial dysfunction. Despite several of these functions being closely related to atherorelevant mechanisms, the potential roles of TRPC3 in atherosclerosis, the major cause of coronary artery disease, have remained largely unexplored. Over recent years, a series of studies from the authors' laboratory revealed novel functions of TRPC3 in mechanisms related to endothelial inflammation, monocyte adhesion to endothelium and survival and apoptosis of macrophages. The relevance of these new TRPC3 functions to atherogenesis has recently began to receive validation through studies in mouse models of atherosclerosis with conditional gain or loss of TRPC3 function. This chapter summarizes these novel findings and provides a discussion of their impact in the context of atherosclerosis, in an attempt to delineate a framework for further exploration of this terra incognita in the TRPC field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Vazquez
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and Center for Hypertension and Personalized Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, 3000 Transverse Dr., UTHSC Mail stop 1008, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA.
| | - Sumeet Solanki
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and Center for Hypertension and Personalized Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, 3000 Transverse Dr., UTHSC Mail stop 1008, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA
| | - Prabhatachandra Dube
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and Center for Hypertension and Personalized Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, 3000 Transverse Dr., UTHSC Mail stop 1008, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA
| | - Kathryn Smedlund
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and Center for Hypertension and Personalized Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, 3000 Transverse Dr., UTHSC Mail stop 1008, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA
| | - Prince Ampem
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and Center for Hypertension and Personalized Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, 3000 Transverse Dr., UTHSC Mail stop 1008, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA
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Murugan D, Lau YS, Lau WC, Mustafa MR, Huang Y. Angiotensin 1-7 Protects against Angiotensin II-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Endothelial Dysfunction via Mas Receptor. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145413. [PMID: 26709511 PMCID: PMC4692500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiotensin 1–7 (Ang 1–7) counter-regulates the cardiovascular actions of angiotensin II (Ang II). The present study investigated the protective effect of Ang 1–7 against Ang II-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and endothelial dysfunction. Ex vivo treatment with Ang II (0.5 μM, 24 hours) impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation in mouse aortas; this harmful effect of Ang II was reversed by co-treatment with ER stress inhibitors, l4-phenylbutyric acid (PBA) and tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) as well as Ang 1–7. The Mas receptor antagonist, A779, antagonized the effect of Ang 1–7. The elevated mRNA expression of CHOP, Grp78 and ATF4 or protein expression of p-eIF2α and ATF6 (ER stress markers) in Ang II-treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and mouse aortas were blunted by co-treatment with Ang 1–7 and the latter effect was reversed by A779. Furthermore, Ang II-induced reduction in both eNOS phosphorylation and NO production was inhibited by Ang 1–7. In addition, Ang 1–7 decreased the levels of ER stress markers and augmented NO production in HUVECs treated with ER stress inducer, tunicamycin. The present study provides new evidence for functional antagonism between the two arms of the renin-angiotensin system in endothelial cells by demonstrating that Ang 1–7 ameliorates Ang II-stimulated ER stress to raise NO bioavailability, and subsequently preserves endothelial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dharmani Murugan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- * E-mail: (YH); (DM)
| | - Yeh Siang Lau
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Wai Chi Lau
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Mohd Rais Mustafa
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Yu Huang
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- * E-mail: (YH); (DM)
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Soni KK, Zhang LT, You JH, Lee SW, Kim CY, Cui WS, Chae HJ, Kim HK, Park JK. The effects of MOTILIPERM on cisplatin induced testicular toxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats. Cancer Cell Int 2015; 15:121. [PMID: 26691229 PMCID: PMC4683964 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-015-0274-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background
Cisplatin causes male infertility but the exact mechanism have not been clarified, yet. MOTILIPERM has been implicated in alleviation of infertility in Sprague–Dawley rats caused by cisplatin. We evaluated recovery effect of MOTILIPERM on cisplatin (CIS)-induced testicular toxicity in Sprague–Dawley rats. Methods
Five groups were included. The groups are control (CTR), CTR + MOTILIPERM 200 mg/kg/day per oral, CIS 10 mg/kg i.v., CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 100 mg/kg/day, CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 200 mg/kg/day. CIS 10 mg/kg i.v. single dose was given before 100 mg/kg, or 200 mg/kg MOTILIPERM per oral daily for 28 days. Body and genital organs weight, epididymis sperm count, sperm motility, sperm apoptosis, testosterone level, MDA of testis tissue, spermatogenic cell density, and Johnsen’s score were evaluated. Steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein, and Glucose-regulated protein-78 (GRP-78), phosphorylated Inositol-Requiring Transmembrane Kinase/Endoribonuclease 1 (IRE1) and phosphorylated c-jun-N-terminal kinase (p-JNK) were quantitated by western blot to show its signaling pathway. Results The body weight was decreased significantly in CIS 10 mg/kg, CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 100 mg/kg/day, CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 200 mg/kg/day compared with CTR (p < 0.001) however, it was increased in CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 100 mg/kg/day, CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 200 mg/kg/day compared with CIS 10 mg/kg. The decreased weight of epididymis and prostate were increased significantly in CIS 10 mg/kg + MOTILIPERM 100 mg/kg/day compared with CIS 10 mg/kg. Sperm count, sperm motility, sperm apoptosis, MDA of testis tissue, spermatogenic cell density, Johnsen’s score, and total testosterone were also significantly improved by MOTILIPERM treatment. The levels of decreased StAR protein was significantly improved by MOTILIPERM administration, increased GRP-78 protein p-IRE1and p-JNK was also significantly decreased with MOTILIPREM treatment. Conclusion The MOTILIPERM could be an effective medicine to reduce the toxic effect caused ER stress by CIS in the testis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Kumar Soni
- Department of Urology, Institute for Medical Sciences, Chonbuk National University of Medical School, Jeonju, 561-712 Republic of Korea
| | - Li Tao Zhang
- Department of Urology, Institute for Medical Sciences, Chonbuk National University of Medical School, Jeonju, 561-712 Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Hyung You
- Department of Urology, Institute for Medical Sciences, Chonbuk National University of Medical School, Jeonju, 561-712 Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Won Lee
- Department of Urology, Samsung Medical Center, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University Medical School, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul Young Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Hangyang University, Ansan, 426-791 Republic of Korea
| | - Wan Shou Cui
- Andrology Center, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, 100034 China
| | - Han Jung Chae
- Department of Pharmacology, Chonbuk University Medical School, Jeonju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Kyung Kim
- Department of Urology, Institute for Medical Sciences, Chonbuk National University of Medical School, Jeonju, 561-712 Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Kwan Park
- Department of Urology, Institute for Medical Sciences, Chonbuk National University of Medical School, Jeonju, 561-712 Republic of Korea ; Biomedical Research Institute and Clinical Trial Center for Medical Devices of Chonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, 561-712 Republic of Korea
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Broekgaarden M, Weijer R, van Gulik TM, Hamblin MR, Heger M. Tumor cell survival pathways activated by photodynamic therapy: a molecular basis for pharmacological inhibition strategies. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2015; 34:643-90. [PMID: 26516076 PMCID: PMC4661210 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-015-9588-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional cancer therapies such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. PDT comprises the administration of a photosensitizer, its accumulation in tumor tissue, and subsequent irradiation of the photosensitizer-loaded tumor, leading to the localized photoproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The resulting oxidative damage ultimately culminates in tumor cell death, vascular shutdown, induction of an antitumor immune response, and the consequent destruction of the tumor. However, the ROS produced by PDT also triggers a stress response that, as part of a cell survival mechanism, helps cancer cells to cope with the PDT-induced oxidative stress and cell damage. These survival pathways are mediated by the transcription factors activator protein 1 (AP-1), nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2), hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), and those that mediate the proteotoxic stress response. The survival pathways are believed to render some types of cancer recalcitrant to PDT and alter the tumor microenvironment in favor of tumor survival. In this review, the molecular mechanisms are elucidated that occur post-PDT to mediate cancer cell survival, on the basis of which pharmacological interventions are proposed. Specifically, pharmaceutical inhibitors of the molecular regulators of each survival pathway are addressed. The ultimate aim is to facilitate the development of adjuvant intervention strategies to improve PDT efficacy in recalcitrant solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mans Broekgaarden
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Weijer
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas M van Gulik
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences & Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michal Heger
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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112
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Hassan M, Selimovic D, Hannig M, Haikel Y, Brodell RT, Megahed M. Endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated pathways to both apoptosis and autophagy: Significance for melanoma treatment. World J Exp Med 2015; 5:206-217. [PMID: 26618107 PMCID: PMC4655250 DOI: 10.5493/wjem.v5.i4.206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer. Disrupted intracellular signaling pathways are responsible for melanoma's extraordinary resistance to current chemotherapeutic modalities. The pathophysiologic basis for resistance to both chemo- and radiation therapy is rooted in altered genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that, in turn, result in the impairing of cell death machinery and/or excessive activation of cell growth and survival-dependent pathways. Although most current melanoma therapies target mitochondrial dysregulation, there is increasing evidence that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-associated pathways play a role in the potentiation, initiation and maintenance of cell death machinery and autophagy. This review focuses on the reliability of ER-associated pathways as therapeutic targets for melanoma treatment.
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113
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Rint1 inactivation triggers genomic instability, ER stress and autophagy inhibition in the brain. Cell Death Differ 2015; 23:454-68. [PMID: 26383973 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2015.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, defective autophagy and genomic instability in the central nervous system are often associated with severe developmental defects and neurodegeneration. Here, we reveal the role played by Rint1 in these different biological pathways to ensure normal development of the central nervous system and to prevent neurodegeneration. We found that inactivation of Rint1 in neuroprogenitors led to death at birth. Depletion of Rint1 caused genomic instability due to chromosome fusion in dividing cells. Furthermore, Rint1 deletion in developing brain promotes the disruption of ER and Cis/Trans Golgi homeostasis in neurons, followed by ER-stress increase. Interestingly, Rint1 deficiency was also associated with the inhibition of the autophagosome clearance. Altogether, our findings highlight the crucial roles of Rint1 in vivo in genomic stability maintenance, as well as in prevention of ER stress and autophagy.
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Rose M, Schubert C, Dierichs L, Gaisa NT, Heer M, Heidenreich A, Knüchel R, Dahl E. OASIS/CREB3L1 is epigenetically silenced in human bladder cancer facilitating tumor cell spreading and migration in vitro. Epigenetics 2015; 9:1626-40. [PMID: 25625847 DOI: 10.4161/15592294.2014.988052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
CREB3L1 has been recently proposed as a novel metastasis suppressor gene in breast cancer. Our current study highlights CREB3L1 expression, regulation, and function in bladder cancer. We demonstrate a significant downregulation of CREB3L1 mRNA expression (n = 64) in primary bladder cancer tissues caused by tumor-specific CREB3L1 promoter hypermethylation (n = 51). Based on pyrosequencing CREB3L1 methylation was shown to be potentially associated with a more aggressive phenotype of bladder cancer. These findings were verified by an independent public data set containing data from 184 bladder tumors. In addition, immunohistochemical evaluation showed that CREB3L1 protein expression is decreased in bladder cancer tissues as well. Interestingly, protein loss is predominately observed in the nuclei of aggressive tumor cells. Based on in vitro models we clearly show that CREB3L1 re-expression mediates suppression of tumor cell migration and colony growth of high grade and invasive bladder cancer cells. The candidate tumor suppressor and TGF-β signaling inhibitor HTRA3 was furthermore identified as putative target gene of CREB3L1 in both invasive J82 bladder cells and primary bladder tumors. Hence, our data provide for the first time evidence that the transcription factor CREB3L1 may have an important role as a putative tumor suppressor in bladder cancer.
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Key Words
- ATCC, American Type Culture Collection
- BMP-2, bone morphogenetic protein 2
- CA, California
- CIS, Carcinoma in situ
- CREB3L1, element binding protein 3-like 1
- DAB, 3-3′ diaminobenzidine
- DAC, 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine
- DNA, desoxyribonucleic acid
- EK, ethics committee
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- FC, fold change
- FFPE, formalin fixed paraffin embedded
- G1, well differentiated
- G2, moderately differentiated
- G3, poorly differentiated
- GAPDH, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- HCV, Hepatitis C virus
- HPV, human papilloma virus
- HTRA (1-4), high-temperature requirement factor A (1-4)
- HTRA3
- IQR, interquartile range
- IRS, immunoreactive score
- LMU, Ludwig-Maximilians-University
- M, methylated
- MIBC, muscle invasive bladder cancer
- MSP, methylation specific PCR
- NMIBC, non-muscle invasive bladder cancer
- NU, normal urothelium
- OASIS / CREB3L1
- OASIS, old astrocyte specifically-induced substance
- PCR, polymerase chain reaction
- RIP, regulated intramembrane proteolysis
- RWTH, Rheinisch Westfälisch Technische Hochschule
- SP1, site 1 protease
- SP2, site 2 protease
- TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas
- TGF-β, transforming growth factor beta
- TSA, trichostatin A
- TSS, transcription start site
- U, unmethylated
- UC, urothelial cell cancer
- UPR, unfold protein response
- USA, United States of America
- WHO, World Health Organization
- WI, Wisconsin
- bladder cancer
- cDNA, copy number desoxyribonucleic acid
- mRNA, messenger ribo nucleic acid
- n, number
- ns, not significant
- pTa, papillary non-invasive tumors
- promoter methylation
- s.e.m., standard error of the margin
- tumor cell migration
- tumor suppressor gene
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Rose
- a Molecular Oncology Group; Institute of Pathology ; RWTH Aachen University ; Aachen , Germany
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Acedo P, Zawacka-Pankau J. p53 family members - important messengers in cell death signaling in photodynamic therapy of cancer? Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015. [PMID: 26202022 DOI: 10.1039/c5pp00251f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
TP53 is one of the genes most frequently inactivated in cancers. Mutations in TP53 gene are linked to worse prognosis and shorter overall survival of cancer patients. TP53 encodes a critical tumor suppressor, which dictates cell fate decisions upon stress stimuli. As a sensor of cellular stress, p53 is a relevant messenger of cell death signaling in ROS-driven photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer. The significant role of p53 in response to PDT has been reported for several clinically approved photosensitizers. Multiple reports described that wild-type p53 contributes to cell killing upon photodynamic therapy with clinically approved photosensitizers but the mechanism is still not fully understood. This work outlines the diverse functions of p53 family members in cancer cells' susceptibility and resistance to PDT. In summary p53 and p53 family members are emerging as important mediators of cell death signaling in photodynamic therapy of cancer, however the mechanism of cell death provoked during PDT might differ depending on the tissue type and the photosensitizer applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Acedo
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell biology, Karolinska Institutet, Nobels väg 16, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Kikuchi H, Kuribayashi F, Mimuro H, Imajoh-Ohmi S, Nakayama M, Takami Y, Nishitoh H, Nakayama T. Lack of GCN5 remarkably enhances the resistance against prolonged endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis through up-regulation of Bcl-2 gene expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 463:870-5. [PMID: 26086109 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a complex membrane structure, has important roles in all eukaryotic cells. Catastrophe of its functions would lead to ER stress that causes various diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes and so on. Prolonged ER stress could trigger apoptosis via activation of various signal transduction pathways. To investigate physiological roles of histone acetyltransferase GCN5 in regulation of ER stress, we analyzed responses of homozygous GCN5-deficient DT40 mutants, ΔGCN5, against ER stress. GCN5-deficiency in DT40 caused drastic resistance against apoptosis induced by pharmacological ER stress agents (thapsigargin and tunicamycin). Pharmaceutical analysis using specific Bcl-2 inhibitors showed that the drastic resistance against prolonged ER stress-induced apoptosis is, in part, due to up-regulation of Bcl-2 gene expression in ΔGCN5. These data revealed that GCN5 is involved in regulation of prolonged ER stress-induced apoptosis through controlling Bcl-2 gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidehiko Kikuchi
- Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200, Kihara, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan; Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infectious Diseases Control, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan.
| | - Futoshi Kuribayashi
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infectious Diseases Control, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan; Department of Biochemistry, Kawasaki Medical School, 577, Matsushima, Kurashiki, Okayama 701-0192, Japan
| | - Hitomi Mimuro
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infectious Diseases Control, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| | - Shinobu Imajoh-Ohmi
- Laboratory Center for Proteomics Research, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| | - Masami Nakayama
- Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200, Kihara, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan
| | - Yasunari Takami
- Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200, Kihara, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan
| | - Hideki Nishitoh
- Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200, Kihara, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Nakayama
- Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200, Kihara, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan
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Gong H, Feng L. Computational analysis of the roles of ER-Golgi network in the cell cycle. BMC SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2014; 8 Suppl 4:S3. [PMID: 25522186 PMCID: PMC4290691 DOI: 10.1186/1752-0509-8-s4-s3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND ER-Golgi network plays an important role in the processing, sorting and transport of proteins, and it's also a site for many signaling pathways that regulate the cell cycle. Accumulating evidence suggests that, the stressed ER and malfunction of Golgi apparatus are associated with the pathogenesis of cancer and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our previous work discovered and verified that altering the expression levels of target SNARE and GEF could modulate the size of Golgi apparatus. Moreover, Golgi's structure and size undergo dramatic changes during the development of several diseases. It is of importance to investigate the roles of ER-Golgi network in the cell cycle progression and some diseases. RESULTS In this work, we first develop a computational model to study the ER stress-induced and Golgi-related apoptosis-survival signaling pathways. Then, we propose and apply both asynchronous and synchronous model checking methods, which extend our previous verification technique, to automatically and formally analyze the ER-Golgi-regulated signaling pathways in the cell cycle progression through verifying some computation tree temporal logic formulas. CONCLUSIONS The proposed asynchronous and synchronous verification technique has advantages for large network analysis and verification over traditional simulation methods. Using the model checking method, we verified several Alzheimer's disease and cancer-related properties, and also identified important proteins (NFκB, ATF4, ASK1 and TRAF2) in the ER-Golgi network, which might be responsible for the pathogenesis of cancer and AD. Our studies indicate that targeting the ER stress-induced and Golgi-related pathways might serve as potent therapeutic targets for the treatment of cancer and Alzheimer's disease.
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