Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations

Better Executive Function Is Associated With Faster On-Transition Aerobic Metabolism Among Older Adults

The present study aimed to examine relationships between executive function (EF) and variables of aerobic fitness. Participants were 32 healthy older adults (M age = 65.1, SD = 6.6 years). We measured the first ventilatory threshold (VeT₁) and the kinetics of oxygen uptake (V˙O₂), heart rate (HR), and muscle deoxygenation [HHb] during treadmill walking of either constant, moderate intensity, or increasing intensity. We assessed EF with a computerized Stroop test and Stroop measures of correct answers, reaction time, and percent interference. We found the Stroop interference score to be negatively associated with the VeT₁ (r = -0.387, p = 0.031) and positively associated with the on-transition aerobic metabolism time constant (τ) of HR (r = 0.519, p = 0.003), V˙O₂ (r = 0.454; p = 0.010), and [HHb] (r = 0.644, p = 0.001). Correct responses were negatively related with τHR (r = -0.372, p = 0.039) and τV˙O₂ (r = -0.500, p = 0.004). The Stroop average reaction time, congruent reaction time and incongruent reaction time were positively related to τ[HHb] (r = 0.507, p = 0.010; r = 0.437, p = 0.029; r = 0.558, p = 0.004, respectively). Better EF was associated with faster on-transition aerobic metabolism and higher aerobic fitness among older adults.

Cognitive function of older adults engaging in physical activity

BACKGROUND

Physical activity can be classified as open-skilled or closed-skilled. Open-skilled physical activity, such as tennis, require participants to perform within a dynamic setting and respond to unpredictable and frequent environmental changes throughout the activity. Closed-skilled types of physical activity, such as swimming, are predictable and self-directed. However, the benefits of cognitive function in these two types of physical activities to older adults are unknown. This study examined the effects of participation in open- and closed-skilled physical activity on the cognitive function of older adults.

METHODS

The study recruited a total of 61 participants aged 65 years and over. Participant recruitment was achieved by distributing flyers asking for volunteers in various sports venues. Participants self-reported to be without medical conditions affecting their physical and cognitive function. All participants underwent a two-hour assessment session involving the completion of seven standardised cognitive function assessments, which were used to assess a range of cognitive function.

RESULTS

Overall mean scores across all of the assessments showed superior performance for the open- or closed-skilled participants when compared with the no-physical-activity group. The results of 61 adults who participated in this study showed that closed-skilled physical activity was associated with better selective attention and visuospatial function while open-skilled physical activity was associated with better inhibition and cognitive flexibility function. No significant difference in self-regulation ability was found between the open- or closed-skilled groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Open-skilled physical activity was associated with better inhibition, visual tracking, and cognitive flexibility while closed-skilled physical activity was associated with better selective attention and visuospatial perception. The findings have important practical implications for the health and quality of life of ageing populations, knowing which particular types of physical activity might affect the cognitive function.

The Association Between Work-Related Rumination and Executive Function Using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function

Work-related rumination has been associated with a number of health complaints, however, little is known about the underlying factors associated with rumination. Previous work using proxy measures of executive function showed work-related rumination to be negatively associated with executive function. In this paper, we report two studies that examined the association between work-related rumination and executive function utilizing an ecological valid measure of executive function: the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF-A, Roth et al., 2005). In study 1 (N = 63), high, relative to low work-related ruminators, were found to demonstrate lower executive function skills, in eight of the nine subscales of the BRIEF. The aim of study 2 (N = 237) was to identify, the key executive function subscale/s associated with work-related rumination. Controlling for known factors associated with work-related rumination (fatigue and sleep), regression analysis identified the behavioral regulation subscale “shift” as the key predictor within the model. Shift relates to our ability to switch attention, to think about different solutions, and dealing with and accepting change. It was concluded that these findings lend support for future research to develop interventions for enhancing shift ability, as an aid to reduce work-related ruminative thinking.

Deliberate Soccer Practice Modulates Attentional Functioning in Children

The main purpose of this study was to explore the association between the regular practice of open-skill sports (i.e., soccer) and executive control, along with other attentional functions (i.e., alerting and orienting) during preadolescence. The study was conducted on 131 participants (70 non-athletes and 61 soccer players). To measure cognitive performance, participants performed the Attentional Network Test—Interactions (ANT-I) task. Compared to non-athletes, soccer players showed overall faster responses and better executive control (e.g., reduced interference from distractors). Overall, our results provide new empirical evidence supporting the positive association between regular sports practice and cognitive performance, and more specifically executive functions. However, is important to note that the relationship between regular sport practice and cognition is complex and multifactorial. Our findings can be partly explained by the “cardiovascular fitness hypothesis” and the “cognitive component skills approach,” suggesting that an externally paced sport environment with high physical fitness and perceptual–cognitive demands may be an appropriate setting to optimize the development of cognitive functioning during early adolescence.

A Single Bout of Aerobic Exercise Provides an Immediate "Boost" to Cognitive Flexibility

Executive function includes the core components of working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. A wealth of studies demonstrate that working memory and inhibitory control improve following a single bout of exercise; however, a paucity - and equivocal - body of work has demonstrated a similar benefit for cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility underlies switching between different attentional- and motor-related goals, and a potential limitation of previous work examining this component in an exercise context is that they included tasks involving non-executive processes (i.e., numerosity, parity, and letter judgments). To address this issue, Experiment 1 employed a 20-min bout of aerobic exercise and examined pre- and immediate post-exercise cognitive flexibility via stimulus-driven (SD) and minimally delayed (MD) saccades ordered in an AABB task-switching paradigm. Stimulus-driven saccades are a standard task requiring a response at target onset, whereas MD saccades are a non-standard and top-down task requiring a response only after the target is extinguished. Work has shown that RTs for a SD saccade preceded by a MD saccade are longer than when a SD saccade is preceded by its same task-type, whereas the converse switch does not influence performance (i.e., the unidirectional switch-cost). Experiment 1 yielded a 28 ms and 8 ms unidirectional switch-cost pre- and post-exercise, respectively (ps < 0.001); however, the magnitude of the switch-cost was reduced post-exercise (p = 0.005). Experiment 2 involved a non-exercise control condition and yielded a reliable and equivalent magnitude unidirectional switch-cost at a pre- (28 ms) and post-break (26 ms) assessment (ps < 0.001). Accordingly, a single-bout of exercise improved task-switching efficiency and thereby provides convergent evidence that exercise provides a global benefit to the core components of executive function.

Which Type of Exercise Is More Beneficial for Cognitive Function? A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Open-Skill Exercise versus Closed-Skill Exercise among Children, Adults, and Elderly Populations

A large number of studies have described a positive relationship between physical exercise and cognition. Physical exercise can be divided into closed-skill exercise (CSE) and open-skill exercise (OSE) based on the predictability of the performance environment. It remains unknown whether either of these types of exercise is more beneficial for cognitive function. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effect of OSE versus CSE on cognition. Eligible studies included cross-sectional studies and intervention studies that had a clear definition of OSE and CSE, and these were used to compare the cognitive performance differences between the two classes of exercise. A total of 15 cross-sectional studies and 4 intervention studies were included in this meta-analysis. Among the cross-sectional studies, the overall effect size for OSE versus CSE was 0.304 (95% confidence interval (CI) (−0.097, 1.213); p < 0.05). Further subgroup analysis showed that the overall effect size for OSE versus CSE was 0.247 for inhibition and 0.360 for cognitive flexibility (both p < 0.05). In contrast, no significant differences between the two exercise modes were observed in the intervention studies. In particular, there were no significant differences in visuospatial attention or in processing speed between the two exercise modes. Taken together, these results suggest that OSE is superior to CSE, especially for executive function, according to the 15 cross-sectional studies examined. However, data from the intervention studies indicate that OSE is not superior. Therefore, additional well-designed, long-term intervention studies are needed to elucidate the potential efficacy of OSE in all populations.

Allometrically scaled explosive strength, but not static strength or maximal oxygen uptake is associated with better central processing time in young males

BACKGROUND

We aimed to examine the associations of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), static strength and explosive strength with cognitive functions in young males.

METHODS

Eighty-six young males (age 16-24 years) participated in the study and took part in a number of tests including: static strength (grip strength test), explosive strength (Sargent jump test), and CRF (via direct measure of maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max]). Static strength and explosive strength were scaled by allometrically modeled skeletal muscle mass (SMM) and height while VO2max was scaled by SMM and body mass (BM). Cognition was assessed by inhibitory control, simple and choice reaction time tasks using computerized Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Battery (CANTAB). Central processing time was measured by surface electromyography changes in isometric contraction response to an audio stimulus.

RESULTS

VO2max scaled by BM (but not SMM), was associated with better central processing time and stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). Explosive strength was also associated with better central processing time independent of VO2max. However, static strength was not associated with cognition.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that explosive strength is a better predictor of central processing than static strength or VO2max in young males. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine whether explosive strength training in youth would improve central processing time.

Serious Motion-Based Exercise Games for Older Adults: Evaluation of Usability, Performance, and Pain Mitigation

Background

Many societies are facing demographic changes that challenge the viability of health and welfare systems. Serious games for health care and ambient assisted living (AAL) offer health benefits and support for older adults and may mitigate some of the negative effects of the demographic shift.

Objective

This study aimed to examine the acceptance of serious games to promote physical health in AAL environments. Since AAL environments are designed specifically to support independent living in older adults, we studied the relationship among age and user diversity, performance in the game, and overall usability and acceptance evaluation.

Methods

We developed a motion-based serious exercise game for prototypical AAL environments. In two evaluations, outside (n=71) and within (n=64) the AAL environment, we investigated the influence of age, gender, self-efficacy in interacting with technology, need for achievement on performance, effect of the game, usability evaluation of the game, and overall acceptance.

Results

Both games were evaluated as easy to use and fun to play. Both game interventions had a strong pain-mitigating effect in older adults (game 1: −55%, P=.002; game 2: −66%, P=.01).

Conclusions

Serious exercise games outside and inside AAL environments can contribute to individuals’ health and well-being and to the stability of health care systems.

Volunteering in older adulthood is associated with activity engagement and cognitive functioning

Introduction: Given evidence that activity engagement in older adulthood can have protective effects on the aging brain, we investigated the idea that volunteering in the community, which often encompasses social, cognitive, and physical activity, might benefit cognition. Method: Ninety-one retired 65- to 75-year-olds reported their sociodemographic characteristics, wellbeing, volunteering, and activity engagement. They also completed computerized cognitive tests that tapped specific functions known to decline disproportionately with age. Results: Volunteering at least monthly was associated with better working memory and more social and cognitive activity. Mediation analyses indicated that volunteering was indirectly related to switching performance via cognitive activity. However, the volunteering-working memory association did not depend on activity engagement, leaving the underpinning mechanisms unclear. Conclusions: These findings provide new insight into positive associations between older people's volunteering, activity engagement, and cognitive functioning. However, further work is needed to understand the mechanisms that drive volunteering-cognition links, and to establish causality.

A citizen science study of short physical activity breaks at school: improvements in cognition and wellbeing with self-paced activity

BACKGROUND

School-based physical activity and running programmes, such as The Daily Mile™, are increasing in popularity globally. The aim of this research was to examine the acute impact of such classroom physical activity breaks on cognition and affective wellbeing.

METHODS

A total of 5463 school pupils from 332 schools took part in a citizen science project with a repeated measures design. They completed tasks of cognition (inhibition, verbal, and visuo-spatial working memory) and the Children's Feeling Scale and Felt Arousal Scale before and after three different outdoor activities: a classroom break of 15 min of self-paced activity, a near maximal exhaustion activity (the bleep test), and a no-exercise control group where pupils sat or stood outside. Wellbeing and fitness were examined as mediators of the relationship between outdoor activity and cognition.

RESULTS

Fifteen minutes of self-paced outdoor activity was beneficial for pupils' cognition and wellbeing in comparison to both other activities (Cohen's d effect sizes ranging from 0.04 to 0.22; small). The relationship with cognition was not mediated by participants' fitness level and was only partially mediated by wellbeing. Change scores for alertness were higher after the bleep test compared to the control activity but similar for all other outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Taking a break from the classroom to complete 15 min of self-paced physical activity should be considered a worthwhile activity by class teachers, school management, and policymakers. Additionally, more intense physical activity should not be considered to be detrimental.

Shall We Dance? Dancing Modulates Executive Functions and Spatial Memory

BACKGROUND

Aging is generally considered to be related to physical and cognitive decline. This is especially prominent in the frontal and parietal lobes, underlying executive functions and spatial memory, respectively. This process could be successfully mitigated in certain ways, such as through the practice of aerobic sports. With regard to this, dancing integrates physical exercise with music and involves retrieval of complex sequences of steps and movements creating choreographies.

METHODS

In this study, we compared 26 non-professional salsa dancers (mean age 55.3 years, age-range 49-70 years) with 20 non-dancers (mean age 57.6 years, age-range 49-70 years) by assessing two variables: their executive functions and spatial memory performance.

RESULTS

results showed that dancers scored better that non-dancers in our tests, outperforming controls in executive functions-related tasks. Groups did not differ in spatial memory performance.

CONCLUSIONS

This work suggests that dancing can be a valid way of slowing down the natural age-related cognitive decline. A major limitation of this study is the lack of fitness assessment in both groups. In addition, since dancing combines multiple factors like social contact, aerobic exercise, cognitive work with rhythms, and music, it is difficult to determine the weight of each variable.

Physical Activity Is Associated With Better Executive Function in University Students

Introduction: In recent years, the study of the benefits that physical exercise has on brain health has acquired special relevance. In order to implement exercise as an intervention to protect the brain, it is important to have a more clear idea of its effect in the young population. However, few studies have been carried out on these ages. Objective: The main objective of our study was to evaluate the association between physical activity (PA) with memory and executive function, in university students, analyzing the modulatory effect of sex. Methodology: We collected socio-demographic and life habit information, as well as data on the PA that was carried out during the previous week using the international PAquestionnaire short version (IPAQ-SF) questionnaire in 206 university students (mean age 19.55 ± 2.39; 67.5% women). Memory and executive function were assessed using a comprehensive battery of validate cognitive tests. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to correlate PA with cognitive tests scores and to evaluate the potential synergistic role of sex. Results: The main finding was that the total amount of PA correlated positively with several tests that evaluated aspects of executive function, specifically Stroop Colors (Pearson's r = 0.17; p = 0.01) and the Stroop Test Color-Word (Pearson's r = 0.15. p = 0.03). These results were adjusted by a large number of possible confounders and modifying variables in a multivariate analysis, like age, sex, academic record, day of the week, and time at which the test was performed. Additionally, we found out that sex had a synergistic effect with PA on the executive test Trail making test-A (TMTA), and in women, this association was stronger than in men. The more PA women reported, the better they performed, that is to say that they took less time to finalize the TMT-A (interaction term between PA and sex: b = -0.0009; p = 0.014). Conclusion: Our study adds evidence of the benefit of PA in cognition in the young population, specifically in the executive inhibitory control, and more significantly in women.

Variability in Executive Control Performance Is Predicted by Physical Activity

Physical activity (PA) promotes neurogenesis and has neuroprotective effects on the brain, bolstering the structural and functional resources necessary for improved cognitive functioning. Intraindividual variability (IIV) in cognitive performance is linked to neuropsychological structure and functional ability. Despite evidence of the neurogenerative and neuroprotective effects of PA, limited investigation into the link between PA and IIV has been conducted. Across three studies we investigate the effect of PA on IIV in reaction time (RT) on three modified Flanker Tasks. The International PA Questionnaire was used to evaluate PA while the Attention Network Test (ANT) and two additional modified Flanker Tasks were used to assess executive control and attentional performance. RT coefficients of variation (RTCV) were calculated for each participant by dividing the standard deviation by the mean RT for each stimuli condition. Analysis revealed that basic RT was not associated with PA nor was PA predictive of IIV on the modified Flanker Tasks. However, three consistent findings emerged from analysis of the ANT. First, RTCV and moderate PA were positively related, such that more self-reported moderate PA was associated with greater IIV. Conversely, RTCV and vigorous PA were negatively related. Finally, when controlling for the effects of PA on IIV in young adults, variability decreases as age increases. In sum, PA is predictive of IIV on attentional and executive control tasks in young adults, though only at particular intensities and on certain tasks, indicating that task type and cognitive load are important determinants of the relationship between PA and cognitive performance. These findings are consistent with prior literature that suggests that the role of PA in young adults is reliant on specific interventions and measures in order to detect effects more readily found in adolescent and aging populations.

Physical Exercise, Fitness, Cognitive Functioning, and Psychosocial Variables in an Adolescent Sample

The objective of this paper was to evaluate the relationship between physical exercise and physical fitness with cognitive and psychosocial functioning in a group of adolescents. 167 teenagers between 14 and 15 years old (M = 14.53; SD = 0.50) from the city of Malaga (Spain) participated in the study. This research used a comparative and predictive type of design. The Tanita® Body Composition Monitor BC-601, some Eurofit battery tests, the D2 Attention Test, the WISC-IV Scale Symbols and Keys tests, the Form 5 Self-Concept Questionnaire (AF5), the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) were used to evaluate the study variables. The results found in this research pointed to a positive relationship between physical exercise and physical fitness with cognitive and psychosocial functioning in the adolescents analyzed. For example, adolescents who practiced more physical exercise had better scores on variables such as selective attention (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.10), processing speed (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.09) or general self-efficacy (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.15). In addition, cardiorespiratory fitness was the best predictor of test scores to assess cognitive ability and psychosocial variables. These findings suggest the need to promote physical exercise among young people because of its implications for various facets of their health and development.

Preconditioning cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation facilitates the neuroplastic effect of subsequent anodal transcranial direct current stimulation applied during cycling in young adults

The study aimed to examine the effect of a pre-conditioning cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (ctDCS) before subsequent anodal-tDCS (atDCS) was applied during low workload cycling exercise on the corticospinal responses in young healthy individuals. Eleven young subjects participated in two sessions receiving either conditioning ctDCS or sham stimulation, followed by atDCS while cycling (i.e. ctDCS-atDCS, sham-atDCS) at 1.2 times their body weight (84 ± 20 W) in a counterbalanced double-blind design. Corticospinal excitability was measured with motor evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited via transcranial magnetic stimulation with the intensity set to produce an MEP amplitude of 1 mV in a resting hand muscle at baseline (PRE), following pre-conditioning tDCS (POST-COND) and post atDCS combined with cycling exercise (POST-TEST). There was a significant interaction between time and intervention (P < 0.01) on MEPs. MEPs increased from PRE (1.0 ± 0.06 mV) to POST-TEST (1.3 ± 0.06 mV) during ctDCS-atDCS (P < 0.001) but did not change significantly across time during sham-atDCS (P > 0.7). Furthermore, MEPs were higher in ctDCS-atDCS compared to sham-atDCS (both P < 0.01) at POST-COND (ctDCS-atDCS: 1.1 ± 0.06 mV, sham-atDCS: 1.0 ± 0.06 mV) and POST-TEST (ctDCS-atDCS: 1.3 ± 0.06 mV, sham-atDCS: 1.0 ± 0.06 mV). These outcomes demonstrate that pre-conditioning cathodal tDCS can enhance subsequent corticospinal excitability changes induced by anodal tDCS applied in combination with cycling exercise. The findings have implications for the application of tDCS in combination with cycling exercise in rehabilitation and sporting contexts.

Aerobic Exercise Training Improves Cerebral Blood Flow and Executive Function: A Randomized, Controlled Cross-Over Trial in Sedentary Older Men

Background

Physical activity may attenuate age-related cognitive decline by improving cerebrovascular function. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate effects of aerobic exercise training on cerebral blood flow (CBF), which is a sensitive physiological marker of cerebrovascular function, in sedentary older men.

Methods

Seventeen apparently healthy men, aged 60–70 years and with a BMI between 25 and 35 kg/m², were included in a randomized, controlled cross-over trial. Study participants were randomly allocated to a fully-supervised, progressive, aerobic exercise training or no-exercise control period for 8 weeks, separated by a 12-week wash-out period. Measurements at the end of each period included aerobic fitness evaluated using peak oxygen consumption during incremental exercise (VO_2peak), CBF measured with pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling magnetic resonance imaging, and post-load glucose responses determined using an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Furthermore, cognitive performance was assessed in the domains of executive function, memory, and psychomotor speed.

Results

VO_2peak significantly increased following aerobic exercise training compared to no-exercise control by 262 ± 236 mL (P < 0.001). CBF was increased by 27% bilaterally in the frontal lobe, particularly the subcallosal and anterior cingulate gyrus (cluster volume: 1008 mm³; P < 0.05), while CBF was reduced by 19% in the right medial temporal lobe, mainly temporal fusiform gyrus (cluster volume: 408 mm³; P < 0.05). Mean post-load glucose concentrations determined using an OGTT decreased by 0.33 ± 0.63 mmol/L (P = 0.049). Furthermore, executive function improved as the latency of response was reduced by 5% (P = 0.034), but no changes were observed in memory or psychomotor speed.

Conclusion

Aerobic exercise training improves regional CBF in sedentary older men. These changes in CBF may underlie exercise-induced beneficial effects on executive function, which could be partly mediated by improvements in glucose metabolism. This clinical trial is registered on ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT03272061.

One step at a time: Physical activity is linked to positive interpretations of ambiguity

Background

Extensive research has established a clear positive relationship between physical activity (PA), even in small amounts, and psychological well-being, including benefits for emotional and mental health (e.g., decreased depression). However, little research has examined the relationship between PA and decision-making within emotionally ambiguous contexts. The purpose of the present cross-sectional study was to examine the relationship between reported amount and intensity of PA and interpretations of emotional ambiguity.

Methods

Adults (n = 611) recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk were assessed on their interpretations of ambiguous and clear (unambiguous) emotional stimuli and reported habitual PA and exercise.

Results

More positive ratings of ambiguity were associated with greater amount of vigorous activity (p = .002), but not with moderate activity (p = .826) or walking (p = .673). Subsequent analyses demonstrated that this relationship between vigorous PA and positive interpretations of ambiguity was most pronounced when comparing individuals who reported any amount of vigorous PA to those who reported no vigorous activity at all.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that higher amounts of vigorous, but not moderate, PA are associated with more positive interpretations of ambiguity, and that even small amounts of PA seem to be sufficient to promote this more positive valence bias when compared to individuals conducting no vigorous PA at all. Future work should examine the longitudinal effects of PA among individuals participating in structured activity programs.

Effects of High Intensity Interval Training on Executive Function in Children Aged 8-12 Years

This study investigated the effects of a high intensity interval training (HIIT) program on both physical fitness and executive functions in children. Fifty-six children aged 8–12 years participated in this study, and were divided into a HIIT group and a control group. The HIIT group performed three sessions of the 8- to 10-min HIIT program per week for 4 weeks. Before and after the intervention, 20-m shuttle runs, sit-ups, and standing long jumps were assessed as test of physical fitness. In addition, the executive function was assessed using the digit span forward (DSF) test, digit span backward (DSB) test, and Tower of Hanoi test. Only the HIIT group experienced significant improvement when completing the 20-m shuttle run (p = 0.042) and sit-ups (p < 0.001). Regarding executive function, the number of correct answers in DSB test significantly increased only in the HIIT group (p = 0.003). However, the standing long jump, DSF, and the Tower of Hanoi test performance did not change after intervention. The findings of the present study suggest that HIIT has positive effects on a core executive function such as working memory in addition to components of the physical fitness such as cardiorespiratory endurance and muscular endurance.

Effect of Exercise on Major Depressive Disorder and Schizophrenia: A BDNF Focused Approach

Psychiatric disorders are remarkable health problems that cause a massive social and economic burden, and the issue of their long-term and effective treatment is subjected to discussion. The effect of physical activity and exercise is under investigation in the treatment of the major depressive disorder (MDD) and schizophrenia which are accompanied by cognitive dysfunctions. Scientists focus on the positive effects of exercise on learning, memory and attention parameters while investigating the regulatory role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In this review, the effect of aerobic exercise on peripheral BDNF levels in MDD and schizophrenia is examined by including human studies in which acute and chronic aerobic exercise are applied. The results showed that aerobic exercise caused different responses on BDNF levels, and some of the studies were accompanied by the improvement in cognitive functions in BDNF changes. In order to comprehend the effect of aerobic exercise in MDD and schizophrenia, it is understood that applying studies on larger and paired participant groups with different exercise frequencies and tensions in necessary.

Effects of Exercise Modes on Neural Processing of Working Memory in Late Middle-Aged Adults: An fMRI Study

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of regular exercise on cognitive function in aging populations, with aerobic exercise and cardiovascular fitness having received the largest amount of research attention. However, the relationship between exercise mode and cognitive function underlying behavioral modification and neural activation remains unknown. The present study, therefore, sought to examine the associations between different exercise modes and the working memory (WM) aspect of executive function as well as its task-evoked brain activation in the late middle-aged population. Seventy late middle-aged adults were classified into open-skill, closed-skill, or irregular exercise groups based on their participation in exercise activities prior to the study and then performed a spatial working memory (SWM) task while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. The results revealed that exercise groups, regardless of exercise modes, showed better SWM and physical fitness performance. Additionally, the open-skill group exhibited greater brain activation in the prefrontal lobe, anterior cingulate cortex/supplementary motor area (ACC/SMA), and hippocampus than those in the closed-skill group, suggesting a mode-sensitive compensatory mechanism in late middle-aged adults. These findings indicate that exercise promotes cognitive health, improves WM, and enhances neurocognitive scaffolding in late middle-aged adults and further suggest that various exercise modes can effectively modulate frontal and hippocampal function in the face of age-related neurocognitive declines, implications that may inform the development of exercise programs for the elderly.

A Combined EEG-fNIRS Study Investigating Mechanisms Underlying the Association between Aerobic Fitness and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults

The current evidence suggests that aerobic fitness is associated with inhibitory control of executive functioning in children and older adults. However, the relative contributions of different neurophysiological mechanisms to this relation remain unclear and have not yet been examined in young adults. The present study aimed to compare inhibitory control between high and low-fit young adult men, and to investigate a possible mediation of fitness effects by conflict monitoring (N450 component of event-related potentials) and lateralized oxygenation difference (LOD) in the DLPFC. For the present cross-sectional study, participants with different physical activity levels were recruited and divided into low-fit and high-fit participants based on relative power on the PWC170. A Stroop Color-Word task was administered and combined EEG-fNIRS was simultaneously utilized to assess the N450 and LOD, because these parameters are linked with behavioral performance. The results of the statistical analysis showed that high-fitcompared to low-fit participants showed less Stroop interference and lower negativity of the N450, whereas no difference was found for LOD. Path-analyses further revealed that the relation between aerobic fitness levels and Stroop interference was indirect and mediated by N450. In contrast, LOD was inversely correlated with Stroop interference, but did not explain the relation of aerobic fitness with behavioral performance. The present findings indicate that greater inhibitory control in high- compared to low-fit young men can be explained by more effective conflict monitoring. Moreover, young adults with left-lateralizedDLPFC oxygenation also show higher inhibitory control, but this oxygenation pattern is not influenced by aerobic fitness.

The effect of Active Plus, a computer-tailored physical activity intervention, on cognitive functioning of elderly people with chronic illness(es) - study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Physical activity not only is beneficial to a person's health, but can also have a positive influence on cognitive functioning. However, elderly people with chronic illness(es) often do not meet the physical activity guidelines. Physical activity programs for the elderly exist, but these are often expensive and not easily accessible to the elderly with chronic illness(es). In addition, the beneficial effects of these physical activity programs on cognitive functioning have never been specifically tested in this target group. Hence, this randomized controlled trial aims to test whether Active Plus, a proven effective physical activity intervention, is able to improve the cognitive functioning of elderly people with chronic illness(es) or to slow down cognitive decline. In addition, it studies what kind of activity, intensity, duration and frequency of physical activity most strongly influence cognitive functioning.

METHODS

A randomized controlled trial is performed, comparing the Active Plus intervention group to a waiting list control group. In total 540 older adults (≥65 years) with at least one chronic illness that limits mobility are recruited from 7 municipalities. Comparable neighborhoods within a municipality are randomly allocated to the intervention or control group. Baseline and follow-up measurements after 6 and 12 months assess cognitive functioning and physical activity behavior, measured both objectively with an accelerometer and subjectively with a self-report questionnaire. Multilevel analyses are conducted to assess effects on cognitive functioning, including analyses on moderation effects for physical activity type, frequency, duration and intensity.

DISCUSSION

To our knowledge this is the first study to investigate effectiveness of a physical activity program on cognitive functioning in elderly people suffering from a broad range of chronic illnesses. If proven effective Active Plus would be a very cost effective intervention not only to increase physical activity, but also to improve cognitive functioning or slow down cognitive decline. Up till now clear evidence is lacking on the kind of physical activity, intensity, duration and frequency needed to achieve cognitive benefits. By measuring both with accelerometers and self-report questionnaires we hope to gain insight in these processes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Nederlands Trial Register NL6005 ; Date of Registration 21-03-2017.

Effects and Mechanisms of Cognitive, Aerobic Exercise, and Combined Training on Cognition, Health, and Brain Outcomes in Physically Inactive Older Adults: The Projecte Moviment Protocol

INTRODUCTION

Age-related health, brain, and cognitive impairment is a great challenge in current society. Cognitive training, aerobic exercise and their combination have been shown to benefit health, brain, cognition and psychological status in healthy older adults. Inconsistent results across studies may be related to several variables. We need to better identify cognitive changes, individual variables that may predict the effect of these interventions, and changes in structural and functional brain outcomes as well as physiological molecular correlates that may be mediating these effects. Projecte Moviment is a multi-domain randomized trial examining the effect of these interventions applied 5 days per week for 3 months compared to a passive control group. The aim of this paper is to describe the sample, procedures and planned analyses.

METHODS

One hundred and forty healthy physically inactive older adults will be randomly assigned to computerized cognitive training (CCT), aerobic exercise (AE), combined training (COMB), or a control group. The intervention consists of a 3 month home-based program 5 days per week in sessions of 45 min. Data from cognitive, physical, and psychological tests, cardiovascular risk factors, structural and functional brain scans, and blood samples will be obtained before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Effects of the interventions on cognitive outcomes will be described in intention-to-treat and per protocol analyses. We will also analyze potential genetic, demographic, brain, and physiological molecular correlates that may predict the effects of intervention, as well as the association between cognitive effects and changes in these variables using the per protocol sample.

DISCUSSION

Projecte Moviment is a multi-domain intervention trial based on prior evidence that aims to understand the effects of CCT, AE, and COMB on cognitive and psychological outcomes compared to a passive control group, and to determine related biological correlates and predictors of the intervention effects.Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03123900.

Enhanced decision-making through multimodal training

A central aim of research in the psychological and decision sciences is to establish interventions that enhance performance, investigating the efficacy of modern approaches to improve human inference and decision-making. Whereas the decision sciences have established interventions to reduce decision biases by promoting strategies for critical thought and reasoning, methods from psychology have instead focused on enhancing cognition through skill-based training of executive functions. Contemporary research in psychology has engaged these operations through multi-modal interventions designed to enhance cognition and physical health through training of executive functions, mindfulness meditation, and physical fitness. Despite the comparable aims of research in the psychological and decision sciences, the efficacy of multi-modal interventions to enhance decision-making remain to be established. We therefore conducted a comprehensive, 16-week, randomized controlled trial (RCT) to investigate this issue, enrolling 160 healthy adults in one of four interventions: (1) high-intensity cardioresistance fitness training (HICRT); (2) HICRT and cognitive training of core executive functions; (3) HICRT and cognitive training, along with mindfulness meditation training; or (4) active control training. The results of our RCT demonstrate that HICRT training and multi-modal interventions that also incorporate cognitive training and mindfulness meditation have beneficial effects on decision-making competence. The observed pattern of findings motivate the application of modern interventions from psychology and cognitive neuroscience to enhance human judgment and decision-making in complex, real-world environments.

Acute psychosocial stress and working memory performance: the potential of physical activity to modulate cognitive functions in children

Background

Research suggests that physical activity (PA) enhances cognitive performance and prevents stress-related impairments of higher order cognitive functions like working memory (WM) performance. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of PA on WM performance after acute stress exposure in preadolescent children.

Methods

Regular PA was assessed for seven consecutive days during a typical school week using accelerometers in a sample of 44 preadolescent children (14 girls, M_age = 11.29 years, SD_age = 0.67). Following this period, participants performed an automated operational span (OSPAN) task immediately after being exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C).

Results

Children exhibited prototypical response slopes in salivary cortisol and salivary α-amylase as markers of the endocrine and autonomic stress response immediately after psychosocial stress induction. A subsequent two-way ANOVA comparing high- and low-stress responders revealed a significant interaction between group affiliation and PA level on WM performance for both stress markers. Interestingly, best WM performance was demonstrated in children showing both high PA levels and high cortisol (or low α-amylase, respectively) stress responses.

Conclusions

Though patterns differed for salivary cortisol and salivary α-amylase, overall findings suggest that PA buffers the negative effects of stress on cognitive performance in children.

A New Brief Measure of Executive Function: Adapting the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders Task to Older Adults

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Executive function (EF) abilities are recognized as components of cognition most likely to show age-related declines. Measurement of EF in older adults is often computer-based, takes place in a laboratory setting, and thus lacks ecological validity. We sought to investigate a new way of measuring EF in older adults by adapting a brief, behavioral measure of EF in children, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A sample of 150 community-dwelling older adults (Mean age = 68.55, SD = 6.34) completed the HTKS, NIH Toolbox: Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB) and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

RESULTS

The HTKS showed adequate internal consistency, α = .84. Significant associations between HTKS variables and measures of attention and inhibitory control were robust to the influences of age, processing speed, and subjective health ratings. HTKS completion time exhibited the strongest associations to NIHTB-CB measures, suggesting that the time it takes older adults to complete the HTKS may be a better measure of EF than the total score. Nonsignificant associations between HTKS variables and positive and negative affect demonstrated discriminant validity.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

These results provide initial evidence for use of the HTKS as a brief, low-cost, easy to administer measure of EF in older adults. Further research is needed to determine its potential to identify individuals at risk for poor cognitive outcomes. A brief, valid measure may allow for wider screenings aimed at early intervention, when cognitive interventions are most effective.

Impact of a structured, group-based running programme on clinical, cognitive and social function in youth and adults with complex mood disorders: a 12-week pilot study

Background

Individuals with mood disorders often report lingering health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and social and cognitive impairments even after mood symptoms have improved. Exercise programmes improve mood symptoms in patients, but whether exercise improves functional outcomes in patients with difficult-to-treat mood disorders remains unknown.

Design

We evaluated the impact of a 12-week structured running programme on cognitive, social and quality-of-life outcomes in participants with difficult-to-treat mood disorders.

Methods

In a prospective, open-label study, patients referred to the St Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton Team Unbreakable running programme for youth and adults with mood disorders completed a comprehensive assessment battery before and after the 12-week exercise intervention.

Results

We collected preintervention and postintervention data from 18 participants who improved on the general health, vitality, role of emotions, social functioning and mental health (all p≤0.01) HRQOL subscales. Performance improved on cognitive tests that assessed working memory and processing speed (p≤0.04); there were no improvements in complex executive functioning tasks. Regression analyses indicated that younger age, shorter illness duration and reduced bodily pain predicted social and cognitive outcomes.

Conclusion

Participation in a group-based, structured running programme was associated with improved HRQOL and social and cognitive function.

The relationship between vigilance capacity and physical exercise: a mixed-effects multistudy analysis

A substantial body of work has depicted a positive association between physical exercise and cognition, although the key factors driving that link are still a matter of scientific debate. Here, we aimed to contribute further to that topic by pooling the data from seven studies (N = 361) conducted by our research group to examine whether cardiovascular fitness (VO2), sport type participation (externally-paced (e.g., football or basketball) and self-paced (e.g., triathlon or track and field athletes) vs. sedentary), or both, are crucial factors to explain the association between the regular practice of exercise and vigilance capacity. We controlled for relevant variables such as age and the method of VO2 estimation. The Psychomotor Vigilance Task was used to measure vigilance performance by means of reaction time (RT). The results showed that externally-paced sport practice (e.g., football) resulted in significantly shorter RT compared to self-paced sport (e.g., triathlon) and sedentary condition, depicting larger effects in children and adolescents than in adults. Further analyses revealed no significant effect of cardiovascular fitness and self-paced sport practice, in comparison to the sedentary condition, on RT. Our data point to the relevance of considering the type of sport practice over and above the level of cardiovascular fitness as crucial factor to explain the positive association between the regular practice of exercise and vigilance capacity.

Sport Experience and Physical Activity: Event-Related Brain Potential and Task Performance Indices of Attention in Young Adults

A growing body of literature demonstrates that engaging in sport regularly and maintaining an active lifestyle have a positive impact on cognition. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of sport experiences and physical activity on attention, and explore whether the type of sport can impact differently on the neuroelectric system using Event-Related Potentials (ERPs). Thirty-three young adults (mean age = 19.72 ± 1.25) were divided according to their sport experience into swimmers, karateka, and irregular exercisers. Participants performed auditory oddball tasks, while measures of task performance and ERPs were collected. The results indicated that exercisers, regardless of their sport experience, exhibited a larger and shorter P3 compared to irregular exercisers. However, no significant difference was observed in the reaction time (RT) between groups. No statistically significant differences in the RT and P3 were present between swimmers and karateka. These findings suggest that sport experiences, regardless of the type, are associated with a larger amount of neural attentional resources and faster stimulus evaluation speed. The results replicate previous studies that have reported improved cognitive functions in more active individuals. They further extended the current knowledge by indicating that both swimming and karate influence attention and do not differentially alter the brain response.

Volunteering in the Community: Potential Benefits for Cognitive Aging

Objectives

This review aims to advance understanding of the potential benefits of volunteering in the community for older adults' cognitive functioning by taking an in-depth look at the relevant evidence to date.

Method

This review describes the main pathways through which volunteering could plausibly benefit cognitive functioning and critically examines research that has specifically investigated links between volunteering and cognition. Fifteen articles that assessed in adults aged ≥ 55 years the relationship between volunteering (predictor) and cognitive functioning (outcome) were identified via literature database searches.

Results

On balance, evidence from the small number of relevant studies to date supports the idea that volunteering can protect against cognitive aging with respect to global functioning and at least some specific cognitive domains. Studies that used robust designs and assessed domain-specific cognitive functioning produced the largest effect sizes.

Discussion

To help advance the field, this review puts forward recommendations for future research, with an emphasis on the need for robust study designs and specific investigations into the nature and extent of the cognitive benefits of volunteering. Through that work, researchers can determine how a simple and accessible activity like volunteering can best be used to help reduce the burden of age-related cognitive decline.

Distinctive Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Modes on Neurocognitive and Biochemical Changes in Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment

Background:

Decreased levels of the neuroprotective growth factors, low-grade inflammation, and reduced neurocognitive functions during aging are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Physical exercise modifies these disadvantageous phenomena while a sedentary lifestyle promotes them.

Purpose:

The purposes of the present study included investigating whether both aerobic and resistance exercise produce divergent effects on the neuroprotective growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, and neurocognitive performance, and further exploring whether changes in the levels of these molecular biomarkers are associated with alterations in neurocognitive performance.

Methods:

Fifty-five older adults with amnestic MCI (aMCI) were recruited and randomly assigned to an aerobic exercise (AE) group, a resistance exercise (RE) group, or a control group. The assessment included neurocognitive measures [e.g., behavior and event-related potential (ERP)] during a task-switching paradigm, as well as circulating neuroprotective growth factors (e.g., BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF, and FGF-2) and inflammatory cytokine (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-15) levels at baseline and after either a 16-week aerobic or resistance exercise intervention program or a control period.

Results:

Aerobic and resistance exercise could effectively partially facilitate neurocognitive performance [e.g., accuracy rates (ARs), reaction times during the heterogeneous condition, global switching cost, and ERP P3 amplitude] when the participants performed the task switching paradigm although the ERP P2 components and P3 latency could not be changed. In terms of the circulating molecular biomarkers, the 16-week exercise interventions did not change some parameters (e.g., leptin, VEGF, FGF-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8). However, the peripheral serum BDNF level was significantly increased, and the levels of insulin, TNF-α, and IL-15 levels were significantly decreased in the AE group, whereas the RE group showed significantly increased IGF-1 levels and decreased IL-15 levels. The relationships between the changes in neurocognitive performance (AR and P3 amplitudes) and the changes in the levels of neurotrophins (BDNF and IGF-1)/inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α) only approached significance.

Conclusion:

These findings suggested that in older adults with aMCI, not only aerobic but also resistance exercise is effective with regard to increasing neurotrophins, reducing some inflammatory cytokines, and facilitating neurocognitive performance. However, the aerobic and resistance exercise modes likely employed divergent molecular mechanisms on neurocognitive facilitation.

Effects of a programme of vigorous physical activity during secondary school physical education on academic performance, fitness, cognition, mental health and the brain of adolescents (Fit to Study): study protocol for a cluster-randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Early adolescence is a period of dynamic neurobiological change. Converging lines of research suggest that regular physical activity (PA) and improved aerobic fitness have the potential to stimulate positive brain changes, improve cognitive function and boost academic attainment in this age group, but high-quality studies are needed to substantiate these findings. The primary aim of the Fit to Study trial is to investigate whether short infusions of vigorous PA (VPA) delivered during secondary school physical education (PE) can improve attainment in maths, as described in a protocol published by NatCen Social Research. The present protocol concerns the trial's secondary outcome measures, which are variables thought to moderate or mediate the relationship between PA and attainment, including the effect of the intervention on cardiorespiratory fitness, cognitive performance, mental health and brain structure and function.

METHOD

The Fit to Study project is a cluster-randomised controlled trial that includes Year 8 pupils (aged 12-13) from secondary state schools in South/Mid-England. Schools were randomised into an intervention condition in which PE teachers delivered an additional 10 min of VPA per PE lesson for one academic year, or a 'PE as usual' control condition. Intervention and control groups were stratified according to whether schools were single-sex or co-educational. Assessments take place at baseline (end of Year 7, aged 11-12) and after 12 months (Year 8). Secondary outcomes are cardiorespiratory fitness, objective PA during PE, cognitive performance and mental health. The study also includes exploratory measures of daytime sleepiness, attitudes towards daily PA and PE enjoyment. A sub-set of pupils from a sub-set of schools will also take part in a brain imaging sub-study, which is embedded in the trial.

DISCUSSION

The Fit to Study trial could advance our understanding of the complex relationships between PA and aerobic fitness, the brain, cognitive performance, mental health and academic attainment during adolescence. Further, it will add to our understanding of whether school PE is an effective setting to increase VPA and fitness, which could inform future PA interventions and education policy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03286725 . Retrospectively registered on 18 September 2017. ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03593863 . Retrospectively registered on 19 July 2018.

Rationale and methods for a multicenter clinical trial assessing exercise and intensive vascular risk reduction in preventing dementia (rrAD Study)

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an age-related disease with modifiable risk factors such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and physical inactivity influencing the onset and progression. There is however, no direct evidence that reducing these risk factors prevents or slows AD. The Risk Reduction for Alzheimer's Disease (rrAD) trial is designed to study the independent and combined effects of intensive pharmacological control of blood pressure and cholesterol and exercise training on neurocognitive function. Six hundred and forty cognitively normal older adults age 60 to 85 years with hypertension and increased risk for dementia will be enrolled. Participants are randomized into one of four intervention group for two years: usual care, Intensive Reduction of Vascular Risk factors (IRVR) with blood pressure and cholesterol reduction, exercise training (EX), and IRVR+EX. Neurocognitive function is measured at baseline, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months; brain MRIs are obtained at baseline and 24 months. We hypothesize that both IRVR and EX will improve global cognitive function, while IRVR+EX will provide a greater benefit than either IRVR or EX alone. We also hypothesize that IRVR and EX will slow brain atrophy, improve brain structural and functional connectivity, and improve brain perfusion. Finally, we will explore the mechanisms by which study interventions impact neurocognition and brain. If rrAD interventions are shown to be safe, practical, and successful, our study will have a significant impact on reducing the risks of AD in older adults. NCT Registration: NCT02913664.

Desempeño neuropsicológico e indicadores de frecuencia, duración y tiempo de la sesión del ejercicio físico

Objetivo. El ejercicio físico (EF) se relaciona con estructuras cerebrales y funcionamiento cognitivo; sin embargo, se desconocen indicadores de frecuencia, duración e intensidad del EF asociados a procesos neuropsicológicos. Estudiar la relación y las posibles diferencias entre las funciones ejecutivas (FE) y los indicadores del EF (frecuencia, duración y tiempo que lleva practicando EF). Método. Se seleccionó una muestra intencional de treinta sujetos físicamente activos, pareados por sexo (Medad = 22.9, DE = 8.5). Se aplicó la totalidad de la Batería de Funciones Ejecutivas y Lóbulos Frontales (Banfe). Resultados. El desempeño neuropsicológico se relacionó con la frecuencia del EF en tareas que evalúan capacidades de control inhibitorio, seguimiento de límites y normas, memoria de trabajo visoespacial y anticipación de acciones de orden progresivo y regresivo. La duración y el tiempo de entrenamiento presentaron relación con la planeación, respeto por los límites y la inhibición. Aquellos participantes que se ejercitan más de seis veces por semana presentaron mejor desempeño en los aciertos y menor número de errores en el control inhibitorio. No se diferencia el desempeño neuropsicológico en función a indicadores y tipo de EF. Conclusión. Se confirma la hipótesis acerca de que el EF se asocia con procesos neuropsicológicos. Se abren posibles implicaciones científicas, educativas y clínicas.

An integrated model of acute exercise on memory function

Memory is a complex cognition that plays a critical role in daily functioning. This review discusses the dynamic effects of acute exercise on memory function, via a hypothesized exercise-memory interaction model, taking into consideration multiple memory systems and exercise parameters.

Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prominent mental health problem in veteran and community populations. There is accumulating evidence to suggest that aerobic exercise may serve as an effective treatment option for individuals with PTSD. The purpose of this review is to summarize the existing literature exploring aerobic exercise and PTSD and briefly discuss potential mechanisms of PTSD symptom reduction. A search of electronic databases and reference sections of relevant articles published through October 1, 2018 revealed 19 relevant studies that examined aerobic exercise and PTSD symptomatology. A narrative review of extant studies provides encouraging evidence that aerobic exercise interventions alone or as an adjunct to standard treatment may positively impact PTSD symptoms. Potential mechanisms by which aerobic exercise could exert a positive impact in PTSD include exposure and desensitization to internal arousal cues, enhanced cognitive function, exercise-induced neuroplasticity, normalization of hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA) function, and reductions in inflammatory markers. Randomized clinical trials and translational neuroscience approaches are required to clarify the efficacy of exercise intervention for PTSD and elucidate potential mechanisms of exercise-induced PTSD symptom reduction.

Association between habitual physical activity on episodic memory strategy use and memory controllability

Background: The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the association between habitual physical activity engagement and perceived controllability of memory function. Secondary objectives included the evaluation of physical activity on memory strategy use, and whether the latter mediates the relationship between physical activity on memory controllability. Methods: Two-hundred and nine young adults (M_age=25 y) completed a brief survey evaluating physical activity (Physical Activity Vital Signs Questionnaire), memory strategy use (Memory Functioning Questionnaire), and memory controllability (Memory Controllability Inventory). Results: Physical activity was not associated with memory strategy use (β=0.68; 95% CI: -1.25,2.62; P=0.48), nor was memory strategy use associated with memory controllability. Physical activity was consistently associated with various attributes of memory controllability, including Present Ability (β=1.10; 95% CI: 0.07, 2.12; P=0.03), Potential Improvement (β=0.84; 95% CI:0.05, 1.63; P=0.03), Effort Utility (β=0.87; 95% CI: 0.11, 1.61; P=0.02), Inevitable Decrement (β=-1.19; 95% CI: -2.19, -0.19; P=0.02) and Alzheimer's likelihood (β=-1.21; 95% CI: -2.29,-0.12; P=0.02). Conclusion: Physical activity is consistently associated with greater perceptions of memory controllability. Future longitudinal and experimental work on this topic is warranted to evaluate if physical activity can foster an individual's ability to modify their behavior and cognitions to enhance and preserve memory function.

A Randomized Controlled Trial on the Effects of Aerobic and Coordinative Training on Neural Correlates of Inhibitory Control in Children

Whereas aerobic training has found to be beneficial for inhibitory control, less is known on the efficiency of other exercise types in children. The present study compared the effects of aerobic and coordinative training on behavioral and neurophysiological measures of inhibitory control. Forty-five children were randomly assigned (1:1:1 ratio) to groups performing aerobic training, coordinative training or assisted homework sessions over 10 weeks. Before and after intervention, all participants completed a Flanker task. The P300 component of event-related potentials elicited from the task was recorded via electroencephalography. Additionally, aerobic fitness and gross-motor skills were assessed using 20 m Shuttle Run and Heidelberg Gross-Motor Test, respectively. Statistical analyses revealed no time by group interactions for the P300 component (amplitude, latency), p = 0.976, η² = 0.007, and behavioral performance (reaction time, accuracy), p = 0.570, η² = 0.045. In contrast, there was a significant group-difference in pre- to post-test changes in aerobic fitness, p = 0.008, η² = 0.246, with greater improvements following aerobic and coordinative training compared to assisted homework sessions. In conclusion, no differences regarding the efficiency of aerobic and coordinative training for the enhancement of inhibitory control were found as both exercise programs failed to elicit changes in speed and accuracy of stimulus evaluation and the allocation of attentional resources.

Investigating links between habitual physical activity, cerebrovascular function, and cognitive control in healthy older adults

A growing body of evidence indicates regular physical activity benefits older adults' cognitive functioning, particularly when a high level of cognitive control is required. Recent research has pointed to improved cerebrovascular function as one mechanism through which such benefits might arise. This study built on previous research by investigating in 51 healthy older adults aged 60-72 years relationships between habitual physical activity, cerebrovascular function (indicated by resting cerebral blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery [n = 42], and its responsiveness to hypercapnia [n = 26] and hypocapnia [n = 25]), and cognitive control (inhibition and switching). Linear regression analyses showed moderate positive associations between physical activity and inhibitory control, but not cerebrovascular function. There were also no significant relationships between the cerebrovascular measures and cognitive control. These results indicate that regular engagement in physical activity is associated with superior inhibitory control in older adulthood, but cerebrovascular function was not found to explain those relationships. Taken together, the current findings reinforce reports of positive links between habitual physical activity and cognition in healthy older adults, but also signal that interrelationships with cerebrovascular function may be more complex than currently indicated by the literature, necessitating further research to elucidate the role cerebrovascular function might play in accounting for physical activity-cognition links in healthy older adults.

Improving Memory Inhibition: A Study of Retrieval Induced Forgetting, Executive Control, and Chronic Aerobic Exercise

Chronic aerobic exercise is being established as a way to enhance executive functions and prevent cognitive decline. In the current study, we are aiming to investigate whether chronic aerobic exercise would also modulate long-term memory retrieval under the context of the Retrieval Practice Paradigm. According to Anderson et al. (1994), the retrieval of relevant information may decrease the access to other related information inducing the failure to remember or forgetting Interestingly, it has been shown (Román et al., 2009) that this process is mediated by the level of attentional resources. In order to test if chronic aerobic exercise benefits attentional resources, we have applied the Dual Retrieval Practice Task. The purpose of this task is to evaluate the Retrieval Induced Forgetting (RIF) effect, which is supposed to index adaptive forgetting. More specifically, the Dual Retrieval Practice Task assesses the effects of memory retrieval on forgetting information directly related to the information that has been previously retrieved, but also studies the involvement of attentional resources on this type of forgetting (retrieval induced forgetting). This task alternates memory retrieval practice with an updating task in order to load attentional resources. Two groups of physically active and sedentary young participants were evaluated. The results showed that while active participants were able to show RIF despite the overload of the attentional resources, sedentary participants were not. These results are discussed in terms of the modulatory role of chronic aerobic exercise on executive control and retrieval induced forgetting.

Roles of myokines in exercise-induced improvement of neuropsychiatric function

Exercise is a well-known non-pharmacological intervention to improve brain functions, including cognition, memory, and motor coordination. Contraction of skeletal muscles during exercise releases humoral factors that regulate the whole-body metabolism via interaction with other non-muscle organs. Myokines are muscle-derived effectors that regulate body metabolism by autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine action and were reportedly suggested as "exercise factors" that can improve the brain function. However, several aspects remain to be elucidated, namely the specific activities of myokines related to the whole-body metabolism or brain function, the mechanisms of regulation of other organs or cells, the sources of "exercise factors" that regulate brain function, and their mechanisms of interaction with non-muscle organs. In this paper, we present the physiological functions of myokines secreted by exercise, including regulation of the whole-body metabolism by interaction with other organs and adaptation of skeletal muscles to exercise. In addition, we discuss the functions of myokines that possibly contribute to exercise-induced improvement of brain function. Among several myokines, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is the most studied myokine that regulates adult neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. However, the source of circulating BDNF and its upstream effector, insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), and irisin and the effect size of peripheral BDNF, irisin, and IGF-1 released after exercise should be further investigated. Recently, cathepsin B has been reported to be secreted from skeletal muscles and upregulate BDNF following exercise, which was associated with improved cognitive function. We reviewed the level of evidence for the effect of myokine on the brain function. Level of evidence for the association of the change in circulating myokine following exercise and improvement of neuropsychiatric function is lower than the level of evidence for the benefit of exercise on the brain. Therefore, more clinical evidences for the association of myokine release after exercise and their effect on the brain function are required. Finally, we discuss the effect size of the action of myokines on cognitive benefits of exercise, in addition to other contributors, such as improvement of the cardiovascular system or the effect of "exercise factors" released from non-muscle organs, particularly in patients with sarcopenia.

Decomposing the within-person and between-person sources of variation in physical activity-cognition associations for low-active older adults

OBJECTIVES

To examine within-person and between-person sources of variation in the relationship between physical activity and cognition in older adults participating in a walking program. To explore whether demographic, health and fitness variables, and their interactions with activity, are significant predictors of cognition.

DESIGN

Brief longitudinal burst design.

PARTICIPANTS

118 participants (91 females, mean age = 72.81 + 5.24 years).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Cognition, self-reported moderate-to-vigorous walking and self-reported moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were assessed at baseline and 6, 9, 12 and 16 weeks follow-up. Attendance at weekly walks was also recorded.

RESULTS

Within-persons, changes in physical activity were related to select measures of executive functioning, with increased activity predictive of better cognition (three of four cognitive functions, p<.05). Between-persons, activity was also associated with cognition (two of four cognitive functions, p<.05). Younger age and higher education were related to better cognition. Interactions of demographic, health, and fitness variables with changes in within-person activity were generally non-significant.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the importance of distinguishing within- from between-person effects in longitudinal analyses of the association between physical activity and cognition. This stringent within-person test of association underscores the potential value of simple physical activity interventions for improving cognitive function.

Ten years younger: Practice of chronic aerobic exercise improves attention and spatial memory functions in ageing

Aerobic exercise is associated with changes in brain morphology and improvement of cognitive functions. Physical activity may be especially important after age 60 when cognitive decline is more pronounced. In this paper, the effect of chronic practice of aerobic sports was studied in old adults by assessing their executive and mnesic functions, supported by frontal and temporal brain structures. Two groups were formed according to their age (60-69 and 70-79 years-old) including sportsmen (n = 23) and sedentary men (n = 24). Spatial memory and efficiency of attentional networks were measured, as well as general intelligence. Results showed that sportsmen outperformed sedentary participants in many of the tests employed. Thus their alerting, orienting and executive networks worked more effectively in the ANT-I task for executive functions, and they were more accurate in the spatial memory task, displaying a better spatial orientation. Scores in other neuropsychological tasks followed the same tendency. These data support the protective effect of aerobic exercise on cognitive functions.