101
|
Berlin AA, Lincoln P, Tomkinson A, Lukacs NW. Inhibition of stem cell factor reduces pulmonary cytokine levels during allergic airway responses. Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 136:15-20. [PMID: 15030509 PMCID: PMC1809010 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02404.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell factor (SCF) has a significant role in the inflammation and activation of allergic airway responses. When monoclonal anti-SCF was administered intratracheally during allergen challenge there was a significant alteration of eosinophil accumulation and airway hyperreactivity (AHR). Anti-SCF treatment also attenuated pulmonary cytokine and chemokine levels. In particular, there was an antibody dose-dependent decrease in interleukin (IL)-5 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. There was also a significant reduction of CCL2 and CCL5, which correlated with the reduction in AHR. Mice treated with anti-SCF demonstrated a significant decrease in pulmonary gob-5 gene expression, which has been shown to correlate to goblet cell hyperplasia/metaplasia relating to airway mucus production. Blocking SCF-mediated activation within the airway using a monoclonal antibody indicates that this cytokine may represent a viable target for therapeutic intervention that could affect multiple aspects of allergen-induced immunopathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A A Berlin
- University of Michigan Medical School, Department of Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
102
|
Park JW, Taube C, Yang ES, Joetham A, Balhorn A, Takeda K, Miyahara N, Dakhama A, Donaldson DD, Gelfand EW. Respiratory syncytial virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness is independent of IL-13 compared with that induced by allergen. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004; 112:1078-87. [PMID: 14657862 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2003.08.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND IL-13 is a central mediator of allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), but its role in respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced AHR is not defined. The combination of allergen exposure and RSV infection is known to increase AHR and lung inflammation, but whether IL-13 regulates this increase is similarly not known. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to determine the role of RSV infection and IL-13 on airway responsiveness and lung inflammation on sensitized and challenged mice. METHODS Using a murine model of RSV infection and allergen exposure, we examined the role of IL-13 in the development of AHR and lung inflammation in IL-13 knockout mice, as well as using a potent IL-13 inhibitor (IL-13i). Mice were sensitized and challenged to allergen, and 6 days after the last challenge, they were infected with RSV. IL-13 was inhibited using an IL-13 receptor alpha(2)-human IgG fusion protein. AHR to inhaled methacholine was measured 6 days after infection, as was bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung inflammatory and cytokine responses. RESULTS RSV-induced AHR was unaffected by the IL-13i, despite prevention of goblet cell hyperplasia. Similar results were seen in IL-13-deficient mice. In sensitized and challenged mice, RSV infection significantly increased AHR, and after IL-13i treatment, AHR was significantly reduced, but to the levels seen in RSV-infected mice alone. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that despite some similarities, the mechanisms leading to AHR induced by RSV are different from those that follow allergen sensitization and challenge. Because IL-13 inhibition is effective in preventing the increases in AHR and mucus production in sensitized and challenged mice infected with RSV, IL-13i could play an important role in preventing the consequences of viral infection in patients with allergic asthma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jung Won Park
- Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
103
|
Zimmer G, Rohn M, McGregor GP, Schemann M, Conzelmann KK, Herrler G. Virokinin, a bioactive peptide of the tachykinin family, is released from the fusion protein of bovine respiratory syncytial virus. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:46854-61. [PMID: 12952986 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m306949200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Tachykinins, an evolutionary conserved family of peptide hormones in both invertebrates and vertebrates, are produced by neuronal cells as inactive preprotachykinins that are post-translationally processed into different neuropeptides such as substance P, neurokinin A, and neurokinin B. We show here that furin-mediated cleavage of the bovine respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein results in the release of a peptide that is converted into a biologically active tachykinin (virokinin) by additional post-translational modifications. An antibody directed to substance P cross-reacted with the C terminus of mature virokinin that contains a classical tachykinin motif. The cellular enzymes involved in the C-terminal maturation of virokinin were found to be present in many established cell lines. Virokinin is secreted by virus-infected cells and was found to act on the tachykinin receptor 1 (TACR1), leading to rapid desensitization of this G protein-coupled receptor as shown by TACR1-green fluorescent protein conjugate translocation from the cell surface to endosomes and by co-internalization of the receptor with beta-arrestin 1-green fluorescent protein conjugates. In vitro experiments with isolated circular muscle from guinea pig stomach indicated that virokinin is capable of inducing smooth muscle contraction by acting on the tachykinin receptor 3. Tachykinins and their cognate receptors are present in the mammalian respiratory tract, where they have potent effects on local inflammatory and immune processes. The viral tachykinin-like peptide represents a novel form of molecular mimicry, which may benefit the virus by affecting the host immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gert Zimmer
- Institut für Virologie, Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, Bünteweg 17, D-30559 Hannover, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
104
|
Wang SZ, Rosenberger CL, Bao YX, Stark JM, Harrod KS. Clara cell secretory protein modulates lung inflammatory and immune responses to respiratory syncytial virus infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 171:1051-60. [PMID: 12847279 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.2.1051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions in the lung. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of respiratory infection in infants and young children. RSV usually infects small airways and likely interacts with the Clara cells of bronchioles. To determine a possible role for CCSP during acute RSV infection, CCSP-deficient (CCSP(-/-)) and wild-type (WT) mice were intratracheally infected with RSV and the lung inflammatory and immune responses to RSV infection were assessed. RSV-F gene expression was increased in the lungs of CCSP(-/-) mice as compared with WT mice following RSV infection, consistent with increased viral persistence. Lung inflammation was significantly increased in CCSP(-/-) mice as compared with WT mice after infection. Moreover, although the levels of Th1 cytokines were similar, the levels of Th2 cytokines and neutrophil chemokines were increased in the lungs of CCSP(-/-) mice following infection. Physiologic endpoints of exacerbated lung disease, specifically airway reactivity and mucus production, were increased in CCSP(-/-) mice after RSV infection. Importantly, restoration of CCSP in the airways of CCSP(-/-) mice abrogated the increased viral persistence, lung inflammation, and airway reactivity. These findings suggest a role for CCSP and Clara cells in regulating lung inflammatory and immune responses to RSV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shan-Ze Wang
- Asthma and Pulmonary Immunology Program, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
105
|
Peebles RS, Hashimoto K, Graham BS. The complex relationship between respiratory syncytial virus and allergy in lung disease. Viral Immunol 2003; 16:25-34. [PMID: 12725686 DOI: 10.1089/088282403763635429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiologic studies suggest a strong link between severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced bronchiolitis in infancy and allergic disease; however, the mechanisms determining this relationship are currently unknown. In this review article, we summarize data from human clinical studies that explore the association between RSV infection and allergy, some that suggest that RSV bronchiolitis requiring hospitalization leads to an increased incidence of the allergic phenotype and others that suggest that pre-existing allergy is a risk factor for severe RSV bronchiolitis. We also review the published murine models that combine RSV infection and allergic sensitization that attempt to explain the complex relationship between these two factors in regard to lung immunopathology and physiologic dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Stokes Peebles
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
106
|
Abstract
Respiratory infections can cause wheezing illnesses in children of all ages and also can influence the causation and disease activity of asthma. For years it has been recognized that respiratory syncytial virus infections often produce the first episode of wheezing in children who go on to develop chronic asthma. More recently, it has been proposed that repeated infections with other common childhood viral pathogens might help the immune system develop in such a way as to prevent the onset of allergic diseases and possibly asthma. In addition to the effects of viral infections, infections with certain intracellular pathogens, such as chlamydia and mycoplasma, may cause acute and chronic wheezing in some individuals, whereas common cold and acute sinus infections can trigger acute symptoms of asthma. In this article, the epidemiologic, mechanistic, and treatment implications of the association between respiratory infections and asthma are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James E Gern
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, WI 53792, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
107
|
Raman K, Kaplan MH, Hogaboam CM, Berlin A, Lukacs NW. STAT4 signal pathways regulate inflammation and airway physiology changes in allergic airway inflammation locally via alteration of chemokines. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:3859-65. [PMID: 12646654 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.7.3859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Mice homozygous for the STAT4-null mutation were sensitized to cockroach Ag, challenged intratracheally 21 days later, and compared with STAT4-competent allergic mice. The STAT4(-/-) mice showed significant decreases in airway hyperreactivity (AHR) and peribronchial eosinophils compared with wild-type controls. In addition, pulmonary levels of chemokines were decreased in the STAT4(-/-) mice, including CC chemokine ligand (CCL)5, CCL6, CCL11, and CCL17. However, levels of Th2-type cytokines, such as IL-4 and IL-13, as well as serum IgE levels were similar in the two groups. Transfer of splenic lymphocytes from sensitized wild-type mice into sensitized STAT4(-/-) mice did not restore AHR in the mutant mice. Furthermore, chemokine production and peribronchial eosinophilia were not restored during the cellular transfer experiments. Thus, it appears that STAT4 expression contributes to a type 2 process such as allergen-induced chemokine production and AHR. In additional studies, competent allergic mice were treated with anti-IL-12 locally in the airways at the time of allergen rechallenge. These latter studies also demonstrated a decrease in AHR. Altogether, these data suggest that STAT4-mediated pathways play a role locally within the airway for the exacerbation of the allergen-induced responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kavita Raman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
108
|
Papadopoulos NG, Psarras S, Manoussakis E, Saxoni-Papageorgiou P. The role of respiratory viruses in the origin and exacerbations of asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 3:39-44. [PMID: 12582313 DOI: 10.1097/00130832-200302000-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The present review focuses and comments on the increasing body of evidence correlating respiratory viral infections with asthma onset and exacerbations. RECENT FINDINGS Recent data suggest multiple and some time contrasting roles for viral infection in the origin of asthma. These data also indicate that the immune status of the host, including atopy, may interactively contribute to this process, conferring susceptibility or even resistance to the development of asthma in virus-infected individuals. In the presence of asthma, the role of viral infection in triggering exacerbations is clearly established. Chemokine and cytokine responses of the respiratory epithelium, a biased type 1/type 2 cytokine balance, defective costimulation, as well as abnormal neural control have been suggested as possible mechanisms. The importance of concurrent or synergistic effects of allergen exposure is currently under scrutiny. SUMMARY Viruses may initiate and certainly exacerbate asthma. Mild repeated infections early in life could also stimulate type 1 immune responses conferring protection from atopy and asthma. The host's immune status, the type of viral infection and the timing of exposure to various environmental stimuli are probably the key factors in this process. Mechanistic insights deduced from recent work should allow for the development of intervening strategies in the near future.
Collapse
|
109
|
De Swart RL, Kuiken T, Timmerman HH, van Amerongen G, Van Den Hoogen BG, Vos HW, Neijens HJ, Andeweg AC, Osterhaus ADME. Immunization of macaques with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) induces interleukin-13-associated hypersensitivity to subsequent RSV infection. J Virol 2002; 76:11561-9. [PMID: 12388717 PMCID: PMC136757 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.22.11561-11569.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2002] [Accepted: 08/12/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of severe respiratory disease in infants and the elderly. RSV vaccine development has been hampered by results of clinical trials in the 1960s, when formalin-inactivated whole-RSV preparations adjuvated with alum (FI-RSV) were found to predispose infants for enhanced disease following subsequent natural RSV infection. We have reproduced this apparently immunopathological phenomenon in infant cynomolgus macaques and identified immunological and pathological correlates. Vaccination with FI-RSV induced specific virus-neutralizing antibody responses accompanied by strong lymphoproliferative responses. The vaccine-induced RSV-specific T cells predominantly produced the Th2 cytokines interleukin-13 (IL-13) and IL-5. Intratracheal challenge with a macaque-adapted wild-type RSV 3 months after the third vaccination elicited a hypersensitivity response associated with lung eosinophilia. The challenge resulted in a rapid boosting of IL-13-producing T cells in the FI-RSV-vaccinated animals but not in the FI-measles virus-vaccinated control animals. Two out of seven FI-RSV-vaccinated animals died 12 days after RSV challenge with pulmonary hyperinflation. Surprisingly, the lungs of these two animals did not show overt inflammatory lesions. However, upon vaccination the animals had shown the strongest lymphoproliferative responses associated with the most pronounced Th2 phenotype within their group. We hypothesize that an IL-13-associated asthma-like mechanism resulted in airway hyperreactivity in these animals. This nonhuman primate model will be an important tool to assess the safety of nonreplicating candidate RSV vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rik L De Swart
- Institute of Virology, Erasmus MC, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
110
|
Abstract
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and cow milk allergy (CMA) occur frequently in infants younger than 1 year. In recent years, the relation between these 2 entities has been investigated and some important conclusions have been reached: in up to half of the cases of GER in infants younger than 1 year, there may be an association with CMA. In a high proportion of cases, GER is not only CMA associated but also CMA induced. The frequency of this association should induce pediatricians to screen for possible concomitant CMA in all infants who have GER and are younger than 1 year. With the exception of some patients with mild typical CMA manifestations (diarrhea, dermatitis, or rhinitis), the symptoms of GER associated with CMA are the same as those observed in primary GER. Immunologic tests and esophageal pH monitoring (with a typical pH pattern characterized by a progressive, slow decrease in esophageal pH between feedings) may be helpful if an association between GER and CMA is suspected, although the clinical response to an elimination diet and challenge is the only clue to the diagnosis. This article reviews the main features of GER and CMA, focusing on the aspects in common and the discrepancies between both conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Salvatore
- Pediatrics, Clinica Pediatrica di Varese, Università dell'Insubria, Brussels, Belgium
| | | |
Collapse
|
111
|
Chen M, Hu KF, Rozell B, Orvell C, Morein B, Liljeström P. Vaccination with recombinant alphavirus or immune-stimulating complex antigen against respiratory syncytial virus. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:3208-16. [PMID: 12218139 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.6.3208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe respiratory diseases in infants and young children. Inappropriate immunity to the virus can lead to disease enhancement upon subsequent infection. In this study, we have characterized the antiviral immunity elicited by the recombinant Semliki Forest virus (SFV) encoding the RSV fusion (F) and attachment (G) protein, and compared with that induced by the immune-stimulating complex (ISCOM)-incorporated FG proteins. Antiviral immunity against RSV elicited nasally or parentally by either of the immunogen having divergent profiles could reduce lung RSV titers upon challenge. However, resistance to RSV without disease enhancement was only observed in those vaccinated with SFV recombinants via nasal route. Presence of postvaccination pulmonary IFN-gamma response to the H-2K(d)-restricted T cell epitope (F(85-93); KYKNAVTEL) was found to be associated with absence of enhanced pulmonary disease and goblet cell hyperplasia as well as reduced Th2-cytokine expression. This result demonstrates that the SFV recombinants can result in enhanced clearance of RSV without enhancing the RSV-associated disease, and underlines the importance in priming pulmonary MHC class I-restricted T cells when RSV FG-based vaccines are used.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Chen
- Microbiology and Tumorbiology Center, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
112
|
Thomas LH, Sharland M, Friedland JS. Steroids fail to down-regulate respiratory syncytial virus-induced IL-8 secretion in infants. Pediatr Res 2002; 52:368-72. [PMID: 12193669 DOI: 10.1203/00006450-200209000-00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In the first year of life, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major cause of bronchiolitis and is characterized by extensive inflammatory cell influx to airways. We investigated whether this might reflect a failure to down-regulate secretion of the chemokine IL-8, which has been identified as a key chemoattractant during host defense to RSV. Two milliliters of blood were obtained from infants, children aged 1-12 y, and adults. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated and infected with RSV, and IL-8 secretion was measured by ELISA. The effect of preincubation of PBMC with either 0.1-10 micro M dexamethasone or 1-100 ng/mL of one of the down-regulatory T helper 2 cytokines IL-4, IL-10, or IL-13 before RSV infection was examined. RSV stimulated IL-8 secretion in a dose-dependent manner similarly in all age groups. IL-8 secretion occurred mainly within 24 h of infection, with maximal concentrations of 30,000-46,000 pg/10(6) cells. IL-4 caused modest inhibition and IL-10 and IL-13 caused no inhibition of IL-8 secretion in all groups. Dexamethasone inhibited IL-8 secretion by 34 +/- 8% in children and by 41 +/- 3% in adults but had no effect on infant PBMC. In summary, RSV-induced IL-8 secretion from infant PBMC is equal to that in children and adults and relatively unaffected by down-regulatory cytokines. However, the inhibitory effects of steroids on IL-8 secretion are absent in infants, which may partly explain why they develop more severe bronchiolitis, and why steroid therapy is unsuccessful in clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lynette H Thomas
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Hammersmith Campus, London, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
113
|
Zhu Z, Ma B, Zheng T, Homer RJ, Lee CG, Charo IF, Noble P, Elias JA. IL-13-induced chemokine responses in the lung: role of CCR2 in the pathogenesis of IL-13-induced inflammation and remodeling. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:2953-62. [PMID: 11884467 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.6.2953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
IL-13 stimulates inflammatory and remodeling responses and contributes to the pathogenesis of human airways disorders. To further understand the cellular and molecular events that mediate these responses, we characterized the effects of IL-13 on monocyte chemotactic proteins (MCPs) and compared the tissue effects of transgenic IL-13 in mice with wild-type (+/+) and null (-/-) CCR2 loci. Transgenic IL-13 was a potent stimulator of MCP-1, -2, -3, and -5. This stimulation was not specific for MCPs because macrophage-inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha, MIP-1beta, MIP-2, MIP-3alpha, thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine, thymus-expressed chemokine, eotaxin, eotaxin 2, macrophage-derived chemokines, and C10 were also induced. The ability of IL-13 to increase lung size, alveolar size, and lung compliance, to stimulate pulmonary inflammation, hyaluronic acid accumulation, and tissue fibrosis, and to cause respiratory failure and death were markedly decreased, whereas mucus metaplasia was not altered in CCR2(-/-) mice. CCR2 deficiency did not decrease the basal or IL-13-stimulated expression of target matrix metalloproteinases or cathepsins but did increase the levels of mRNA encoding alpha1-antitrypsin, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1, -2, and -4, and secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor. In addition, the levels of bioactive and total TGF-beta(1) were decreased in lavage fluids from IL-13 transgenic mice with -/- CCR2 loci. These studies demonstrate that IL-13 is a potent stimulator of MCPs and other CC chemokines and document the importance of MCP-CCR2 signaling in the pathogenesis of the IL-13-induced pulmonary phenotype.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid/chemistry
- Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CCL2/metabolism
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/genetics
- Endopeptidases/biosynthesis
- Hyaluronic Acid/metabolism
- Inflammation/immunology
- Inflammation/metabolism
- Inflammation/pathology
- Interleukin-13/adverse effects
- Interleukin-13/genetics
- Interleukin-13/metabolism
- Interleukin-13/physiology
- Lung/enzymology
- Lung/immunology
- Lung/metabolism
- Lung/pathology
- Lung Compliance
- Metaplasia/immunology
- Metaplasia/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mink
- Mucus/cytology
- Mucus/immunology
- Phenotype
- Protease Inhibitors/metabolism
- Pulmonary Alveoli/pathology
- Pulmonary Fibrosis/genetics
- Pulmonary Fibrosis/immunology
- Pulmonary Fibrosis/metabolism
- Pulmonary Fibrosis/pathology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CCR2
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/deficiency
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/physiology
- Respiratory Insufficiency/immunology
- Respiratory Insufficiency/pathology
- Respiratory Mucosa/immunology
- Respiratory Mucosa/metabolism
- Total Lung Capacity
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/biosynthesis
- Transforming Growth Factor beta1
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Zhu
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Departments of Internal Medicine and Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
114
|
Abstract
A large body of research supports a pathogenic role for T helper 2 cells in asthma, although T helper 1 cell-type responses may also contribute. Using the principle of T helper cell cross-regulation, investigators have attempted to regulate the pathological effects of T helper 2 cells using regimens that may promote T helper 1 cell-type inflammation. In this review, we propose that the use of factors that promote T helper 1 cell differentiation and activation to treat asthma may be counterproductive, and that alternate regulatory approaches should be explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Stephens
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|