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Qiu Z, Huang H, Grenier JM, Perez OA, Smilowitz HM, Adler B, Khanna KM. Cytomegalovirus-Based Vaccine Expressing a Modified Tumor Antigen Induces Potent Tumor-Specific CD8(+) T-cell Response and Protects Mice from Melanoma. Cancer Immunol Res 2015; 3:536-46. [PMID: 25633711 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-14-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The presence of tumor-infiltrating CD8(+) T cells is associated with tumor regression and better prognosis. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection elicits a robust and long-lasting CD8(+) T-cell response, which makes CMV a potentially promising vaccine vector against cancer. In the current study, we used recombinant murine CMV (MCMV) strains as prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines in an aggressive B16 lung metastatic melanoma model. Immunization with MCMV-expressing ovalbumin (OVA) induced a potent OVA-specific CD8(+) T-cell response and was effective in protecting mice from OVA-expressing B16 melanoma in an antigen-dependent manner. We engineered MCMV to express a modified B16 melanoma antigen gp100 (MCMV-gp100KGP). Immunization with MCMV-gp100KGP was highly effective in overcoming immune tolerance to self-antigen and induced a strong, long-lasting gp100-specific CD8(+) T-cell response even in the presence of preexisting anti-CMV immunity. Furthermore, both prophylactic and therapeutic vaccinations of mice with MCMV-gp100KGP effectively protected mice from highly aggressive lung B16-F10 melanoma, and the protection was mediated by gp100-specific CD8(+) T cells. We showed that MCMV is a superior vaccine vector compared with a commonly used vesicular stomatitis virus vector. Collectively, our studies demonstrate that CMV is a promising vaccine vector to prevent and treat tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijuan Qiu
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Huakang Huang
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Jeremy M Grenier
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Oriana A Perez
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Henry M Smilowitz
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Barbara Adler
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institute for Virology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Kamal M Khanna
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut.
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102
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Quinn M, Turula H, Tandon M, Deslouches B, Moghbeli T, Snyder CM. Memory T cells specific for murine cytomegalovirus re-emerge after multiple challenges and recapitulate immunity in various adoptive transfer scenarios. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:1726-1736. [PMID: 25595792 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Reconstitution of CMV-specific immunity after transplant remains a primary clinical objective to prevent CMV disease, and adoptive immunotherapy of CMV-specific T cells can be an effective therapeutic approach. Because of viral persistence, most CMV-specific CD8(+) T cells become terminally differentiated effector phenotype CD8(+) T cells (TEFF). A minor subset retains a memory-like phenotype (memory phenotype CD8(+) T cells [TM]), but it is unknown whether these cells retain memory function or persist over time. Interestingly, recent studies suggest that CMV-specific CD8(+) T cells with different phenotypes have different abilities to reconstitute sustained immunity after transfer. The immunology of human CMV infections is reflected in the murine CMV (MCMV) model. We found that human CMV- and MCMV-specific T cells displayed shared genetic programs, validating the MCMV model for studies of CMV-specific T cells in vivo. The MCMV-specific TM population was stable over time and retained a proliferative capacity that was vastly superior to TEFF. Strikingly, after transfer, TM established sustained and diverse T cell populations even after multiple challenges. Although both TEFF and TM could protect Rag(-/-) mice, only TM persisted after transfer into immune replete, latently infected recipients and responded if recipient immunity was lost. Interestingly, transferred TM did not expand until recipient immunity was lost, supporting that competition limits the Ag stimulation of TM. Ultimately, these data show that CMV-specific TM retain memory function during MCMV infection and can re-establish CMV immunity when necessary. Thus, TM may be a critical component for consistent, long-term adoptive immunotherapy success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Quinn
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Holly Turula
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Mayank Tandon
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Berthony Deslouches
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Toktam Moghbeli
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Christopher M Snyder
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
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103
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Sun L, Miyoshi H, Origanti S, Nice TJ, Barger AC, Manieri NA, Fogel LA, French AR, Piwnica-Worms D, Piwnica-Worms H, Virgin HW, Lenschow DJ, Stappenbeck TS. Type I interferons link viral infection to enhanced epithelial turnover and repair. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 17:85-97. [PMID: 25482432 PMCID: PMC4297260 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The host immune system functions constantly to maintain chronic commensal and pathogenic organisms in check. The consequences of these immune responses on host physiology are as yet unexplored, and may have long-term implications in health and disease. We show that chronic viral infection increases epithelial turnover in multiple tissues, and the antiviral cytokines type I interferons (IFNs) mediate this response. Using a murine model with persistently elevated type I IFNs in the absence of exogenous viral infection, the Irgm1(-/-) mouse, we demonstrate that type I IFNs act through nonepithelial cells, including macrophages, to promote increased epithelial turnover and wound repair. Downstream of type I IFN signaling, the highly related IFN-stimulated genes Apolipoprotein L9a and b activate epithelial proliferation through ERK activation. Our findings demonstrate that the host immune response to chronic viral infection has systemic effects on epithelial turnover through a myeloid-epithelial circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Sun
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Hiroyuki Miyoshi
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Sofia Origanti
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Timothy J Nice
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Alexandra C Barger
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Nicholas A Manieri
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Leslie A Fogel
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Anthony R French
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - David Piwnica-Worms
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Helen Piwnica-Worms
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Herbert W Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Deborah J Lenschow
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Thaddeus S Stappenbeck
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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104
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Molecular mechanisms of CD8(+) T cell trafficking and localization. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:2461-73. [PMID: 25577280 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1835-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells are potent mediators of host protection against disease due to their ability to directly kill cells infected with intracellular pathogens and produce inflammatory cytokines at the site of infection. To fully achieve this objective, naïve CD8(+) T cells must be able to survey the entire body for the presence of foreign or "non-self" antigen that is delivered to draining lymph nodes following infection or tissue injury. Once activated, CD8(+) T cells undergo many rounds of cell division, acquire effector functions, and are no longer restricted to the circulation and lymphoid compartments like their naïve counterparts, but rather are drawn to inflamed tissues to combat infection. As CD8(+) T cells transition from naïve to effector to memory populations, this is accompanied by dynamic changes in the expression of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors that ultimately dictate their localization in vivo. Thus, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating CD8(+) T cell trafficking and localization is critical for vaccine design, control of infectious diseases, treatment of autoimmune disorders, and cancer immunotherapy.
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105
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Sims S, Colston J, Emery V, Klenerman P. CD73 is dispensable for the regulation of inflationary CD8+ T-cells after murine cytomegalovirus infection and adenovirus immunisation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114323. [PMID: 25490556 PMCID: PMC4260835 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73) is expressed by T-cell subsets, myeloid derived suppressive cells and endothelial cells. It works in conjunction with CD39 to regulate the formation and degradation of adenosine in vivo. Adenosine has previously been shown to suppress the proliferation and cytokine secretion of T-cells and recent evidence suggests that inhibition of CD73 has the potential to enhance T-cell directed therapies. Here we utilised a CD73 knockout mouse model to assess the suppressive ability of CD73 on CD8+ T-cell classical memory and memory “inflation”, induced by murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection and adenovirus immunisation. We show that CD73 is dispensable for normal CD8+ T-cell differentiation and function in both models. Thus CD73 as a suppressor of CD8+ T-cells is unlikely to play a deterministic role in the generation and functional characteristics of antiviral memory in these settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Sims
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (SS); (PK)
| | - Julia Colston
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Vince Emery
- Department of Microbial and Cellular Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (SS); (PK)
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106
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Sims S, Bolinger B, Klenerman P. Increasing inflationary T-cell responses following transient depletion of MCMV-specific memory T cells. Eur J Immunol 2014; 45:113-8. [PMID: 25331015 PMCID: PMC4477908 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201445016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Murine CMV (MCMV) infection induces effector CD8+ T cells that continue to increase in frequency after acute infection (“inflation”) and are stably maintained at a high frequency, with up to 20% of the CD8+ T-cell compartment being specific for one epitope, although the flexibility and turnover of these populations is not fully defined. Here we report that effector/memory CD8+ T cells induced by MCMV can be paradoxically boosted following transient depletion of epitope specific CD8+ T cells. Treatment of MCMV-infected mice with MHC-Class I-saporin tetramers led to partial (80–90%) depletion of epitope-specific CD8+ T cells—rapidly followed by a rebound, leading to expansion and maintenance of up to 40% of total CD8+ T cells, with minimal changes in response to a control epitope (M45). These data indicate the tight balance between host and virus during persistent infection and the functional flexibility of the “inflated” CD8+ T cell responses during persistent infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Sims
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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107
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Alexandre YO, Cocita CD, Ghilas S, Dalod M. Deciphering the role of DC subsets in MCMV infection to better understand immune protection against viral infections. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:378. [PMID: 25120535 PMCID: PMC4114203 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of mice with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) recapitulates many physiopathological characteristics of human CMV infection and enables studying the interactions between a virus and its natural host. Dendritic cells (DC) are mononuclear phagocytes linking innate and adaptive immunity which are both necessary for MCMV control. DC are critical for the induction of cellular immunity because they are uniquely efficient for the activation of naïve T cells during their first encounter with a pathogen. DC are equipped with a variety of innate immune recognition receptors (I2R2) allowing them to detect pathogens or infections and to engulf molecules, microorganisms or cellular debris. The combinatorial engagement of I2R2 during infections controls DC maturation and shapes their response in terms of cytokine production, activation of natural killer (NK) cells and functional polarization of T cells. Several DC subsets exist which express different arrays of I2R2 and are specialized in distinct functions. The study of MCMV infection helped deciphering the physiological roles of DC subsets and their molecular regulation. It allowed the identification and first in vivo studies of mouse plasmacytoid DC which produce high level of interferons-α/β early after infection. Despite its ability to infect DC and dampen their functions, MCMV induces very robust, efficient and long-lasting CD8 T cell responses. Their priming may rely on the unique ability of uninfected XCR1+ DC to cross-present engulfed viral antigens and thus to counter MCMV interference with antigen presentation. A balance appears to have been reached during co-evolution, allowing controlled replication of the virus for horizontal spread without pathological consequences for the immunocompetent host. We will discuss the role of the interplay between the virus and DC in setting this balance, and how advancing this knowledge further could help develop better vaccines against other intracellular infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick O Alexandre
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix-Marseille University, UM2 Marseille, France ; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104 Marseille, France ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR7280 Marseille, France
| | - Clément D Cocita
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix-Marseille University, UM2 Marseille, France ; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104 Marseille, France ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR7280 Marseille, France
| | - Sonia Ghilas
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix-Marseille University, UM2 Marseille, France ; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104 Marseille, France ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR7280 Marseille, France
| | - Marc Dalod
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix-Marseille University, UM2 Marseille, France ; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104 Marseille, France ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR7280 Marseille, France
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108
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Slavuljica I, Kveštak D, Huszthy PC, Kosmac K, Britt WJ, Jonjić S. Immunobiology of congenital cytomegalovirus infection of the central nervous system—the murine cytomegalovirus model. Cell Mol Immunol 2014; 12:180-91. [PMID: 25042632 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2014.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Congenital human cytomegalovirus infection is a leading infectious cause of long-term neurodevelopmental sequelae, including mental retardation and hearing defects. Strict species specificity of cytomegaloviruses has restricted the scope of studies of cytomegalovirus infection in animal models. To investigate the pathogenesis of congenital human cytomegalovirus infection, we developed a mouse cytomegalovirus model that recapitulates the major characteristics of central nervous system infection in human infants, including the route of neuroinvasion and neuropathological findings. Following intraperitoneal inoculation of newborn animals with mouse cytomegalovirus, the virus disseminates to the central nervous system during high-level viremia and replicates in the brain parenchyma, resulting in a focal but widespread, non-necrotizing encephalitis. Central nervous system infection is coupled with the recruitment of resident and peripheral immune cells as well as the expression of a large number of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Although infiltration of cellular constituents of the innate immune response characterizes the early immune response in the central nervous system, resolution of productive infection requires virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. Perinatal mouse cytomegalovirus infection results in profoundly altered postnatal development of the mouse central nervous system and long-term motor and sensory disabilities. Based on an enhanced understanding of the pathogenesis of this infection, prospects for novel intervention strategies aimed to improve the outcome of congenital human cytomegalovirus infection are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Slavuljica
- 1] Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia [2] Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Daria Kveštak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Peter Csaba Huszthy
- 1] Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia [2] Department of Immunology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kate Kosmac
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - William J Britt
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Stipan Jonjić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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109
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Diverse specificities, phenotypes, and antiviral activities of cytomegalovirus-specific CD8+ T cells. J Virol 2014; 88:10894-908. [PMID: 25008941 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01477-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED CD8(+) T cells specific for pp65, IE1, and IE2 are present at high frequencies in human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-seropositive individuals, and these have been shown to have phenotypes associated with terminal differentiation, as well as both cytokine and proliferative dysfunctions, especially in the elderly. However, more recently, T cell responses to many other HCMV proteins have been described, but little is known about their phenotypes and functions. Consequently, in this study, we chose to determine the diversity of HCMV-specific CD8(+) T cell responses to the products of 11 HCMV open reading frames (ORFs) in a cohort of donors aged 20 to 80 years old as well as the ability of the T cells to secrete gamma interferon (IFN-γ). Finally, we also tested their functional antiviral capacity using a novel viral dissemination assay. We identified substantial CD8(+) T cell responses by IFN-γ enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assays to all 11 of these HCMV proteins, and across the cohort, individuals displayed a range of responses, from tightly focused to highly diverse, which were stable over time. CD8(+) T cell responses to the HCMV ORFs were highly differentiated and predominantly CD45RA(+), CD57(+), and CD28(-), across the cohort. These highly differentiated cells had the ability to inhibit viral spread even following direct ex vivo isolation. Taken together, our data argue that HCMV-specific CD8(+) T cells have effective antiviral activity irrespective of the viral protein recognized across the whole cohort and despite viral immune evasion. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is normally carried without clinical symptoms and is widely prevalent in the population; however, it often causes severe clinical disease in individuals with compromised immune responses. HCMV is never cleared after primary infection but persists in the host for life. In HCMV carriers, the immune response to HCMV includes large numbers of virus-specific immune cells, and the virus has evolved many mechanisms to evade the immune response. While this immune response seems to protect healthy people from subsequent disease, the virus is never eliminated. It has been suggested that this continuous surveillance by the immune system may have deleterious effects in later life. The study presented in this paper examined immune responses from a cohort of donors and shows that these immune cells are effective at controlling the virus and can overcome the virus' lytic cycle immune evasion mechanisms.
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110
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Smith CJ, Turula H, Snyder CM. Systemic hematogenous maintenance of memory inflation by MCMV infection. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004233. [PMID: 24992722 PMCID: PMC4081724 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Several low-grade persistent viral infections induce and sustain very large numbers of virus-specific effector T cells. This was first described as a response to cytomegalovirus (CMV), a herpesvirus that establishes a life-long persistent/latent infection, and sustains the largest known effector T cell populations in healthy people. These T cells remain functional and traffic systemically, which has led to the recent exploration of CMV as a persistent vaccine vector. However, the maintenance of this remarkable response is not understood. Current models propose that reservoirs of viral antigen and/or latently infected cells in lymph nodes stimulate T cell proliferation and effector differentiation, followed by migration of progeny to non-lymphoid tissues where they control CMV reactivation. We tested this model using murine CMV (MCMV), a natural mouse pathogen and homologue of human CMV (HCMV). While T cells within draining lymph nodes divided at a higher rate than cells elsewhere, antigen-dependent proliferation of MCMV-specific effector T cells was observed systemically. Strikingly, inhibition of T cell egress from lymph nodes failed to eliminate systemic T cell division, and did not prevent the maintenance of the inflationary populations. In fact, we found that the vast majority of inflationary cells, including most cells undergoing antigen-driven division, had not migrated into the parenchyma of non-lymphoid tissues but were instead exposed to the blood supply. Indeed, the immunodominance and effector phenotype of inflationary cells, both of which are primary hallmarks of memory inflation, were largely confined to blood-localized T cells. Together these results support a new model of MCMV-driven memory inflation in which most immune surveillance occurs in circulation, and in which most inflationary effector T cells are produced in response to viral antigen presented by cells that are accessible to the blood supply. Herpesviruses persist for the life of the host and must be continuously controlled by a robust immune surveillance effort. In the case of the cytomegalovirus (CMV), this ongoing immune surveillance promotes the accumulation of CMV-specific T cells in a process known as “memory inflation”. We and others have proposed that the ability to induce memory inflation may be an important benefit of CMV-based vaccine vectors that persist within the host and continuously boost the immune response. However, it has been difficult to determine where T cells are encountering CMV in the body, leading to many unanswered questions about the maintenance of this remarkable response. Previous models proposed that T cells encountered viral antigen within lymph nodes and then migrated to other tissues to prevent CMV reactivation. However, we found that the majority of T cells stimulated by CMV were present in circulation, where they could be sustained without the input from T cells localized to lymph nodes. In fact, two of the defining features of memory inflation - inflated numbers and an effector phenotype - were restricted to cells that were exposed to the blood. Thus, we propose that memory inflation during CMV infection is largely the result of immune surveillance that occurs in circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne J. Smith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Holly Turula
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Christopher M. Snyder
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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111
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Terrazzini N, Kern F. Cell-mediated immunity to human CMV infection: a brief overview. F1000PRIME REPORTS 2014; 6:28. [PMID: 24860650 PMCID: PMC4018181 DOI: 10.12703/p6-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The cellular immune response to human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) has different components originating from both the adaptive and innate immune systems. There is a significant global interest in understanding how the immune system keeps HCMV under control, in particular with a view to situations where HCMV infection causes severe damage. Such settings include HIV infection, transplantation, and maybe most importantly perinatal medicine, HCMV being a major cause of sometimes catastrophic birth defects. The development of an active HCMV vaccine has proven very difficult but some recent successes raise hope that this might be available in the future. However, adoptive transfer of HCMV-specific T cells has been successfully used to prevent CMV disease after bone marrow transplantation for many years. In fact, the CD8 T cell response has been thought to be the most important effector response, with numerous reports focusing on specific T cell subsets recognizing select peptides in select human leukocyte antigen (HLA) contexts. However, it is becoming increasingly clear now that other cells, first and foremost CD4 T cells, but also gamma/delta (γ/δ) T cells and natural killer cells, are critically involved in the cellular immune response to HCMV. This commentary aims to provide a brief overview of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Terrazzini
- Pathogen Host Interaction Group (PHI), Immunology, Division of Medicine, Brighton and Sussex Medical SchoolBiology Road, Brighton, BN1 9PSUK
| | - Florian Kern
- Pathogen Host Interaction Group (PHI), Immunology, Division of Medicine, Brighton and Sussex Medical SchoolBiology Road, Brighton, BN1 9PSUK
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112
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Promotion of a subdominant CD8 T cell response during murine gammaherpesvirus 68 infection in the absence of CD4 T cell help. J Virol 2014; 88:7862-9. [PMID: 24789784 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00690-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8 and CD4 T cells are each critically important for immune control of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (γHV68) infection. In immunocompetent mice, acute γHV68 infection results in lifelong latency, but in the absence of CD4 T cell help, mice succumb to viral recrudescence and disease. However, the requirements for CD4 T cell help in the generation and maintenance of antiviral CD8 T cell responses are incompletely understood, and it is unclear whether there are epitope-specific differences in the requirement of CD8 T cells for CD4 help. In this report, we characterized the CD8 T cell response to γHV68 in major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II(-/-) mice, which lack CD4 T cells, or after antibody-mediated depletion of CD4 T cells. All antiviral CD8 T cells exhibited marked upregulation of surface expression of the inhibitory receptor programmed death-1 (PD-1), but surprisingly, while the immunodominant memory response appeared to be functionally impaired, helpless CD8 T cells of a subdominant specificity had increased numbers and enhanced functionality. Thus, we demonstrate differential requirements for CD4 help in the antiviral CD8 T cell response to a latent gammaherpesvirus. Importance: γHV68 is a mouse pathogen closely related to the oncogenic human γHVs, which infect a majority of the world's population. Reactivation of these viruses from latency can lead to complications, disease, and even death. CD4 T cells are required for complete immune control of long-term infection, in part by providing key signals to dendritic cells that in turn instruct optimal antiviral CD8 T cell responses. We have investigated multiple virus-specific CD8 T cell responses during infection and identified a subdominant CD8 T cell response that is numerically and functionally enhanced in the absence of CD4 T cell help. This occurs in spite of high surface expression of an inhibitory receptor and in contrast to the immunodominant response, which is impaired. Our data suggest that signals from CD4 T cells are important in maintaining the CD8 T cell hierarchy during γHV infections.
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113
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Ebert S, Becker M, Lemmermann NAW, Büttner JK, Michel A, Taube C, Podlech J, Böhm V, Freitag K, Thomas D, Holtappels R, Reddehase MJ, Stassen M. Mast cells expedite control of pulmonary murine cytomegalovirus infection by enhancing the recruitment of protective CD8 T cells to the lungs. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004100. [PMID: 24763809 PMCID: PMC3999167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The lungs are a noted predilection site of acute, latent, and reactivated cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections. Interstitial pneumonia is the most dreaded manifestation of CMV disease in the immunocompromised host, whereas in the immunocompetent host lung-infiltrating CD8 T cells confine the infection in nodular inflammatory foci and prevent viral pathology. By using murine CMV infection as a model, we provide evidence for a critical role of mast cells (MC) in the recruitment of protective CD8 T cells to the lungs. Systemic infection triggered degranulation selectively in infected MC. The viral activation of MC was associated with a wave of CC chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) in the serum of C57BL/6 mice that was MC-derived as verified by infection of MC-deficient KitW-sh/W-sh “sash” mutants. In these mutants, CD8 T cells were recruited less efficiently to the lungs, correlating with enhanced viral replication and delayed virus clearance. A causative role for MC was verified by MC reconstitution of “sash” mice restoring both, efficient CD8 T-cell recruitment and infection control. These results reveal a novel crosstalk axis between innate and adaptive immune defense against CMV, and identify MC as a hitherto unconsidered player in the immune surveillance at a relevant site of CMV disease. Being strategically located beneath endothelial and epithelial surfaces, mast cells (MC) serve as sentinels for invading pathogens at host-environment boundaries as part of the innate defense against infection. Host genetic resistance against cytomegaloviruses (CMV) is largely determined by the innate immune response, but an implication of MC in the adaptive immune defense against CMV has not been considered so far and is almost impossible to address in human infection. Using murine CMV as a model that in the past has already pioneered the discovery of fundamental principles in CMV-host interactions, our data reveal MC as central part of a novel crosstalk-axis between the innate and adaptive immune response to CMV. We found that upon host infection MC become rapidly activated and promote the recruitment of protective CD8 T cells to the lungs, a noted critical site of CMV pathogenesis in humans as well as in the mouse model. Enhanced tissue infiltration of CD8 T cells results in a reduced peak viral load and a faster clearance of productive infection. Realizing the importance of MC in the control of pulmonary CMV infection may help to develop new strategies for preventing CMV pneumonia by MC supplementation in recipients of hematopoietic cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Ebert
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Marc Becker
- Institute for Immunology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Niels A W Lemmermann
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Julia K Büttner
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Anastasija Michel
- Institute for Immunology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Christian Taube
- Department of Pulmonology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jürgen Podlech
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Verena Böhm
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Kirsten Freitag
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Doris Thomas
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Rafaela Holtappels
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Matthias J Reddehase
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Michael Stassen
- Institute for Immunology and Research Center for Immunology (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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Redeker A, Welten SPM, Arens R. Viral inoculum dose impacts memory T-cell inflation. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:1046-57. [PMID: 24356925 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Memory T-cell inflation develops during certain persistent viral infections and is characterized by the accumulation and maintenance of large numbers of effector-memory T cells, albeit with varying degrees in size and phenotype among infected hosts. The underlying mechanisms that control memory T-cell inflation are not yet fully understood. Here, we dissected CMV-specific memory T-cell formation and its connection to the initial infectious dose by varying the inoculum size. After low dose inoculum with mouse CMV, the accumulation of inflationary memory T cells was severely hampered and correlated with reduced reservoirs of latent virus in nonhematopoietic cells and diminished antigen-driven T-cell proliferation. Moreover, lowering of the initial viral dose turned the characteristic effector memory-like inflationary T cells into more central memory-like cells as evidenced by the cell-surface phenotype of CD27(high) , CD62L(+) , CD127(+) , and KLRG1(-) , and by improved secondary expansion potential. These data show the impact of the viral inoculum on the degree of memory T-cell inflation and provide a rationale for the observed variation of human CMV-specific T-cell responses in terms of magnitude and phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Redeker
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
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115
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Noncanonical expression of a murine cytomegalovirus early protein CD8 T-cell epitope as an immediate early epitope based on transcription from an upstream gene. Viruses 2014; 6:808-31. [PMID: 24535000 PMCID: PMC3939483 DOI: 10.3390/v6020808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral CD8 T-cell epitopes, represented by viral peptides bound to major histocompatibility complex class-I (MHC-I) glycoproteins, are often identified by “reverse immunology”, a strategy not requiring biochemical and structural knowledge of the actual viral protein from which they are derived by antigen processing. Instead, bioinformatic algorithms predicting the probability of C-terminal cleavage in the proteasome, as well as binding affinity to the presenting MHC-I molecules, are applied to amino acid sequences deduced from predicted open reading frames (ORFs) based on the genomic sequence. If the protein corresponding to an antigenic ORF is known, it is usually inferred that the kinetic class of the protein also defines the phase in the viral replicative cycle during which the respective antigenic peptide is presented for recognition by CD8 T cells. We have previously identified a nonapeptide from the predicted ORFm164 of murine cytomegalovirus that is presented by the MHC-I allomorph H-2 Dd and that is immunodominant in BALB/c (H-2d haplotype) mice. Surprisingly, although the ORFm164 protein gp36.5 is expressed as an Early (E) phase protein, the m164 epitope is presented already during the Immediate Early (IE) phase, based on the expression of an upstream mRNA starting within ORFm167 and encompassing ORFm164.
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116
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Turner DL, Gordon CL, Farber DL. Tissue-resident T cells,in situimmunity and transplantation. Immunol Rev 2014; 258:150-66. [DOI: 10.1111/imr.12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Damian L. Turner
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
- Department of Medicine; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
| | - Claire L. Gordon
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
- Department of Medicine; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
- Department of Medicine; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - Donna L. Farber
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
- Department of Surgery; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Columbia University Medical Center; New York NY USA
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117
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Khan AA, Srivastava R, Lopes PP, Wang C, Pham TT, Cochrane J, Thai NTU, Gutierrez L, Benmohamed L. Asymptomatic memory CD8+ T cells: from development and regulation to consideration for human vaccines and immunotherapeutics. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2014; 10:945-63. [PMID: 24499824 DOI: 10.4161/hv.27762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Generation and maintenance of high quantity and quality memory CD8(+) T cells determine the level of protection from viral, bacterial, and parasitic re-infections, and hence constitutes a primary goal for T cell epitope-based human vaccines and immunotherapeutics. Phenotypically and functionally characterizing memory CD8(+) T cells that provide protection against herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) infections, which cause blinding ocular herpes, genital herpes, and oro-facial herpes, is critical for better vaccine design. We have recently categorized 2 new major sub-populations of memory symptomatic and asymptomatic CD8(+) T cells based on their phenotype, protective vs. pathogenic function, and anatomical locations. In this report we are discussing a new direction in developing T cell-based human herpes vaccines and immunotherapeutics based on the emerging new concept of "symptomatic and asymptomatic memory CD8(+) T cells."
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Azam Khan
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Ruchi Srivastava
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Patricia Prado Lopes
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA; Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Christine Wang
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Thanh T Pham
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Justin Cochrane
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Nhi Thi Uyen Thai
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Lucas Gutierrez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
| | - Lbachir Benmohamed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology; Gavin Herbert Eye Institute; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA; Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA; Institute for Immunology; University of California Irvine; School of Medicine; Irvine, CA USA
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118
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Stahl FR, Heller K, Halle S, Keyser KA, Busche A, Marquardt A, Wagner K, Boelter J, Bischoff Y, Kremmer E, Arens R, Messerle M, Förster R. Nodular inflammatory foci are sites of T cell priming and control of murine cytomegalovirus infection in the neonatal lung. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003828. [PMID: 24348257 PMCID: PMC3861546 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonates, including mice and humans, are highly susceptible to cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. However, many aspects of neonatal CMV infections such as viral cell tropism, spatio-temporal distribution of the pathogen as well as genesis of antiviral immunity are unknown. With the use of reporter mutants of the murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) we identified the lung as a primary target of mucosal infection in neonatal mice. Comparative analysis of neonatal and adult mice revealed a delayed control of virus replication in the neonatal lung mucosa explaining the pronounced systemic infection and disease in neonates. This phenomenon was supplemented by a delayed expansion of CD8+ T cell clones recognizing the viral protein M45 in neonates. We detected viral infection at the single-cell level and observed myeloid cells forming “nodular inflammatory foci” (NIF) in the neonatal lung. Co-localization of infected cells within NIFs was associated with their disruption and clearance of the infection. By 2-photon microscopy, we characterized how neonatal antigen-presenting cells (APC) interacted with T cells and induced mature adaptive immune responses within such NIFs. We thus define NIFs of the neonatal lung as niches for prolonged MCMV replication and T cell priming but also as sites of infection control. Neonates are highly susceptible to a number of infections that usually cause disease only in immunocompromised individuals, most likely because of their incompletely developed immune system. Although this phenomenon has been frequently observed, immune responses of neonates remain largely undefined upon infections with viruses. There is lack of knowledge about the spatio-temporal dynamics of host-virus interaction, especially in comparative infection models of neonates and adults. In this study, with the use of virus reporter mutants, we provide elaborate insight into these aspects in the mouse model of CMV infection. We define hallmarks of virus tropism, early cellular immune responses and general infection dynamics, findings that are fundamental to understand neonatal antiviral immunity. Furthermore, we found that neonatal APCs induce T cell responses in nodular inflammatory foci of the lung, a process which was supposed to be restricted to lymphoid organs. However, the MCMV-specific T cell response was qualitatively different in neonates from that in adults, possibly explaining - in part - the higher susceptibility of newborns. These observations expand our understanding of where adaptive immunity can be initiated, highlights the importance of early local cellular immune responses and sheds more light on neonatal antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix R. Stahl
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail: (FRS); (RF)
| | - Katrin Heller
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Stephan Halle
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Busche
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Anja Marquardt
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Karen Wagner
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jasmin Boelter
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Yvonne Bischoff
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Kremmer
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, München, Germany
| | - Ramon Arens
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Messerle
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Reinhold Förster
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail: (FRS); (RF)
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119
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Establishment of a novel mouse model of ulcerative colitis with concomitant cytomegalovirus infection: in vivo identification of cytomegalovirus persistent infected cells. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2013; 19:1951-63. [PMID: 23839229 DOI: 10.1097/mib.0b013e318293c5bf] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is considered to be an exacerbating factor in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC). However, the pathogenicity of HCMV in the exacerbation of UC remains unclear. The lack of a model mimicking UC with HCMV infection has posed a challenge for research into the pathogenic mechanism of HCMV in flare of UC. Therefore, the aim of our study was to establish a new mouse model of UC with HCMV infection. METHODS We established latent murine CMV (MCMV) infection in T-cell receptor α knockout (TCR-α KO) mice at an early age by adjustment of viral dose. Next, we performed immunohistochemical analysis in various organs of infected adult TCR-α KO mice to prove the correlation between MCMV infection and development of colitis. We then assessed colitis histologically and cytokine expression in the colon of infected and uninfected TCR-α KO mice. Finally, the types of MCMV-infected cells in the inflamed colon were examined by immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS MCMV antigen-positive cells reappeared predominantly in the inflamed colon of TCR-α KO mice. Severe colitis developed in the infected TCR-α KO mice compared with uninfected mice, and Th1/Th17 and Th2 responses were strongly induced. MCMV-infected cells were mainly perivascular stromal cells including pericytes, expressing platelet-derived growth factor receptor-beta (PDGFR-β) and CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12). CONCLUSIONS In this study, we established, to our knowledge, the first mouse model of UC with HCMV infection. This model is an excellent tool for clarifying the detailed pathogenicity of HCMV in the exacerbation of UC and developing new treatment strategy for active UC with HCMV infection.
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120
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Xu G, Smith T, Grey F, Hill AB. Cytomegalovirus-based cancer vaccines expressing TRP2 induce rejection of melanoma in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 437:287-91. [PMID: 23811402 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.06.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) induces strong and long-lasting immune responses, which make it an attractive candidate for a cancer vaccine vector. In this study, we tested whether a tumor antigen expressed in CMV can induce a strong anti-tumor effect. We expressed an unmodified melanoma antigen, mouse tyrosinase-related protein 2 (TRP2), in mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV). Prophylactic vaccination of the mice with a single dose of MCMV-TRP2 induced rejection of B16 melanoma challenge; therapeutic vaccination with MCMV-TRP2 prolonged the survival of the mice challenged with B16 cells. Additionally, vaccination with MCMV-TRP2 five months before tumor challenge still induced tumor rejection, which indicated that the vaccine induced long-term protection. Furthermore, MCMV-TRP2 protected mice against B16 melanoma challenge regardless of the pre-existing CMV infection. We found that vaccination with MCMV-TRP2 induced long-lasting TRP2 specific antibodies but not CD8 T cells. In addition, depletion of CD4 and CD8 T cells did not compromise the antitumor effect by MCMV-TRP2; while in B cell deficient (μMT) mice, the vaccine lost its antitumor effect. These results indicate that antibodies, not T cells, are important in mediating the antitumor effect during the effector phase by the vaccine. We also made a spread deficient MCMV-TRP2 lacking the essential glycoprotein gL, which showed a similar antitumor effect. In conclusion, our study indicates that tumor antigen (TRP2) expressed in MCMV induces a strong and long-lasting anti-melanoma effect through an antibody-dependent mechanism. Our findings demonstrate that CMV might be a promising vector for the development of cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangwu Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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121
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A cytomegalovirus-based vaccine expressing a single tumor-specific CD8+ T-cell epitope delays tumor growth in a murine model of prostate cancer. J Immunother 2013; 35:390-9. [PMID: 22576344 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e3182585d50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a highly immunogenic virus that results in a persistent, life-long infection in the host typically with no ill effects. Certain unique features of CMV, including its capacity to actively replicate in the presence of strong host CMV-specific immunity, may give CMV an advantage compared with other virus-based vaccine delivery platforms. In the present study, we tested the utility of mouse CMV (mCMV)-based vaccines expressing human prostate-specific antigen (PSA) for prostate cancer immunotherapy in double-transgenic mice expressing PSA and HLA-DRB1*1501 (DR2bxPSA F1 mice). We assessed the capacity of 2 mCMV-based vectors to induce PSA-specific CD8 T-cell responses and affect the growth of PSA-expressing Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of the Mouse Prostate tumors (TRAMP-PSA). In the absence of tumor challenge, immunization with mCMV vectors expressing either a H2-D(b)-restricted epitope PSA(65-73) (mCMV/PSA(65-73)) or the full-length gene for PSA (mCMV/PSA(FL)) induced comparable levels of CD8 T-cell responses that increased (inflated) with time. Upon challenge with TRAMP-PSA tumor cells, animals immunized with mCMV/PSA(65-73) had delay of tumor growth and increased PSA-specific CD8 T-cell responses, whereas animals immunized with mCMV/PSA(FL) showed progressive tumor growth and no increase in number of splenic PSA(65-73)-specific T cells. The data show that a prototype CMV-based prostate cancer vaccine can induce an effective antitumor immune response in a "humanized" double-transgenic mouse model. The observation that mCMV/PSA(FL) is not effective against TRAMP-PSA is consistent with our previous findings that HLA-DRB1*1501-restricted immune responses to PSA are associated with suppression of effective CD8 T-cell responses to TRAMP-PSA tumors.
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122
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Turula H, Smith CJ, Grey F, Zurbach KA, Snyder CM. Competition between T cells maintains clonal dominance during memory inflation induced by MCMV. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:1252-63. [PMID: 23404526 PMCID: PMC4500790 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Both human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) establish persistent infections that induce the accumulation of virus-specific T cells over time in a process called memory inflation. It has been proposed that T cells expressing T-cell receptors (TCRs) with high affinity for HCMV-derived peptides are preferentially selected after acute HCMV infection. To test this in the murine model, small numbers of OT-I transgenic T cells, which express a TCR with high affinity for the SIINFEKL peptide, were transferred into congenic mice and recipients were challenged with recombinant MCMV expressing SIINFEKL. OT-I T cells were selectively enriched during the first 3 weeks of infection. Similarly, in the absence of OT-I T cells, the functional avidity of SIINFEKL-specific T cells increased from early to late times postinfection. However, even when exceedingly small numbers of OT-I T cells were transferred, their inflation limited the inflation of host-derived T cells specific for SIINFEKL. Importantly, subtle minor histocompatibility differences led to late rejection of the transferred OT-I T cells in some mice, which allowed host-derived T cells to inflate substantially. Thus, T cells with a high functional avidity are selected shortly after MCMV infection and continuously sustain their clonal dominance in a competitive manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Turula
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, 233 S. 10th St, Philadelphia PA 19107
| | - Corinne J. Smith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, 233 S. 10th St, Philadelphia PA 19107
| | - Finn Grey
- Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - Katherine A. Zurbach
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, 233 S. 10th St, Philadelphia PA 19107
| | - Christopher M. Snyder
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, 233 S. 10th St, Philadelphia PA 19107
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Bolinger B, Sims S, O’Hara G, de Lara C, Tchilian E, Firner S, Engeler D, Ludewig B, Klenerman P. A new model for CD8+ T cell memory inflation based upon a recombinant adenoviral vector. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2013; 190:4162-74. [PMID: 23509359 PMCID: PMC3672979 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
CD8(+) T cell memory inflation, first described in murine CMV (MCMV) infection, is characterized by the accumulation of high-frequency, functional Ag-specific CD8(+) T cell pools with an effector-memory phenotype and enrichment in peripheral organs. Although persistence of Ag is considered essential, the rules underpinning memory inflation are still unclear. The MCMV model is, however, complicated by the virus's low-level persistence and stochastic reactivation. We developed a new model of memory inflation based on a β-galactosidase (βgal)-recombinant adenovirus vector. After i.v. administration in C57BL/6 mice, we observed marked memory inflation in the βgal96 epitope, whereas a second epitope, βgal497, undergoes classical memory formation. The inflationary T cell responses show kinetics, distribution, phenotype, and functions similar to those seen in MCMV and are reproduced using alternative routes of administration. Memory inflation in this model is dependent on MHC class II. As in MCMV, only the inflating epitope showed immunoproteasome independence. These data define a new model for memory inflation, which is fully replication independent, internally controlled, and reproduces the key immunologic features of the CD8(+) T cell response. This model provides insight into the mechanisms responsible for memory inflation and, because it is based on a vaccine vector, also is relevant to novel T cell-inducing vaccines in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Bolinger
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Stuart Sims
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Geraldine O’Hara
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Catherine de Lara
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Elma Tchilian
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sonja Firner
- Institute of Immunobiology, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, CH-9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Engeler
- Institute of Immunobiology, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, CH-9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Burkhard Ludewig
- Institute of Immunobiology, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, CH-9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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CD27-CD70 costimulation controls T cell immunity during acute and persistent cytomegalovirus infection. J Virol 2013; 87:6851-65. [PMID: 23576505 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03305-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) establish lifelong infections that are controlled in part by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. To promote persistence, CMVs utilize multiple strategies to evade host immunity, including modulation of costimulatory molecules on infected antigen-presenting cells. In humans, CMV-specific memory T cells are characterized by the loss of CD27 expression, which suggests a critical role of the costimulatory receptor-ligand pair CD27-CD70 for the development of CMV-specific T cell immunity. In this study, the in vivo role of CD27-CD70 costimulation during mouse CMV infection was examined. During the acute phase of infection, the magnitudes of CMV-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses were decreased in mice with abrogated CD27-CD70 costimulation. Moreover, the accumulation of inflationary memory T cells during the persistent phase of infection and the ability to undergo secondary expansion required CD27-CD70 interactions. The downmodulation of CD27 expression, however, which occurs gradually and exclusively on inflationary memory T cells, is ligand independent. Furthermore, the IL-2 production in both noninflationary and inflationary CMV-specific T cells was dependent on CD27-CD70 costimulation. Collectively, these results highlight the importance of the CD27-CD70 costimulation pathway for the development of CMV-specific T cell immunity during acute and persistent infection.
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Dekhtiarenko I, Jarvis MA, Ruzsics Z, Čičin-Šain L. The context of gene expression defines the immunodominance hierarchy of cytomegalovirus antigens. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:3399-409. [PMID: 23460738 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Natural immunity to CMV dominates the CD4 and CD8 memory compartments of the CMV-seropositive host. This property has been recently exploited for experimental CMV-based vaccine vector strategies, and it has shown promise in animal models of AIDS and Ebola disease. Although it is generally agreed that CMV-based vaccine vectors may induce highly protective and persistent memory T cells, the influence of the gene expression context on Ag-specific T cell memory responses and immune protection induced by CMV vectors is not known. Using murine CMV (MCMV) recombinants expressing a single CD8 T cell epitope from HSV-1 fused to different MCMV genes, we show that magnitude and kinetics of T cell responses induced by CMV are dependent on the gene expression of CMV Ags. Interestingly, the kinetics of the immune response to the HSV-1 epitope was paralleled by a reciprocal depression of immune responses to endogenous MCMV Ags. Infection with a recombinant MCMV inducing a vigorous initial immune response to the recombinant peptide resulted in a depressed early response to endogenous MCMV Ag. Another recombinant virus, which induced a slowly developing "inflationary" T cell response to the HSV-1 peptide, induced weaker long-term responses to endogenous CMV Ags. Importantly, both mutants were able to protect mice from a challenge with HSV-1, mediating strong sterilizing immunity. Our data suggest that the context of gene expression markedly influences the T cell immunodominance hierarchy of CMV Ags, but the immune protection against HSV-1 does not require inflationary CD8 responses against the recombinant CMV-expressed epitope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iryna Dekhtiarenko
- Department of Vaccinology, Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Braunschweig 38124, Germany
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126
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Farrington LA, Smith TA, Grey F, Hill AB, Snyder CM. Competition for antigen at the level of the APC is a major determinant of immunodominance during memory inflation in murine cytomegalovirus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:3410-6. [PMID: 23455500 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The unique ability of CMV to drive the expansion of virus-specific T cell populations during the course of a lifelong, persistent infection has generated interest in the virus as a potential vaccine strategy. When designing CMV-based vaccine vectors to direct immune responses against HIV or tumor Ags, it becomes important to understand how and why certain CMV-specific populations are chosen to inflate over time. To investigate this, we designed recombinant murine CMVs (MCMVs) encoding a SIINFEKL-enhanced GFP fusion protein under the control of endogenous immediate early promoters. When mice were infected with these viruses, T cells specific for the SIINFEKL epitope inflated and profoundly dominated T cells specific for nonrecombinant (i.e., MCMV-derived) Ags. Moreover, when the virus encoded SIINFEKL, T cells specific for nonrecombinant Ags displayed a phenotype indicative of less frequent exposure to Ag. The immunodominance of SIINFEKL-specific T cells could not be altered by decreasing the number of SIINFEKL-specific cells available to respond, or by increasing the number of cells specific for endogenous MCMV Ags. In contrast, coinfection with viruses expressing and lacking SIINFEKL enabled coinflation of T cells specific for both SIINFEKL and nonrecombinant Ags. Because coinfection allows presentation of SIINFEKL and MCMV-derived Ags by different cells within the same animal, these data reveal that competition for, or availability of, Ag at the level of the APC determines the composition of the inflationary response to MCMV. SIINFEKL's strong affinity for H-2K(b), as well as its early and abundant expression, may provide this epitope's competitive advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lila A Farrington
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
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127
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Busche A, Jirmo AC, Welten SPM, Zischke J, Noack J, Constabel H, Gatzke AK, Keyser KA, Arens R, Behrens GMN, Messerle M. Priming of CD8+ T cells against cytomegalovirus-encoded antigens is dominated by cross-presentation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:2767-77. [PMID: 23390296 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
CMV can infect dendritic cells (DCs), and direct Ag presentation could, therefore, lead to the priming of CMV-specific CD8(+) T cells. However, CMV-encoded immune evasins severely impair Ag presentation in the MHC class I pathway; thus, it is widely assumed that cross-presentation drives the priming of antiviral T cells. We assessed the contribution of direct versus cross priming in mouse CMV (MCMV) infection using recombinant viruses. DCs infected with an MCMV strain encoding the gB498 epitope from HSV-1 were unable to stimulate in vitro naive gB498-specific CD8(+) T cells from TCR transgenic mice. Infection of C57BL/6 mice with this recombinant virus led, however, to the generation of abundant numbers of gB498-specific T cells in vivo. Of the DC subsets isolated from infected mice, only CD8α(+) DCs were able to stimulate naive T cells, suggesting that this DC subset cross-presents MCMV-encoded Ag in vivo. Upon infection of mice with MCMV mutants encoding Ag that can either be well or hardly cross-presented, mainly CD8(+) T cells specific for cross-presented epitopes were generated. Moreover, even in the absence of immune evasion genes interfering with MHC class I-mediated Ag presentation, priming of T cells to Ag that can only be presented directly was not observed. We conclude that the host uses mainly DCs capable of cross-presentation to induce the CMV-specific CD8(+) T cell response during primary, acute infection and discuss the implications for the development of a CMV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Busche
- Department of Virology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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128
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Smith C, Khanna R. Immune regulation of human herpesviruses and its implications for human transplantation. Am J Transplant 2013; 13 Suppl 3:9-23; quiz 23. [PMID: 23347211 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.12005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2012] [Revised: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Human herpesviruses including cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, HHV6, HHV7, HHV8, Herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 and HSV-2 and varicella zoster virus (VZV) have developed an intricate relationship with the human immune system. This is characterized by the interplay between viral immune evasion mechanisms that promote the establishment of a lifelong persistent infection and the induction of a broad humoral and cellular immune response, which prevents the establishment of viral disease. Understanding the immune parameters that control herpesvirus infection, and the strategies the viruses use to evade immune recognition, has been critical in understanding why immunological dysfunction in transplant patients can lead to disease, and in the development of immunological strategies to prevent and control herpesvirus associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Smith
- Australian Centre for Vaccine Development, Tumour Immunology Laboratory, Department of Immunology, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Australia
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129
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Abstract
PARV4 is a small DNA human virus that is strongly associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV infections. The immunologic control of acute PARV4 infection has not been previously described. We define the acute onset of PARV4 infection and the characteristics of the acute-phase and memory immune responses to PARV4 in a group of HCV- and HIV-negative, active intravenous drug users. Ninety-eight individuals at risk of blood-borne infections were tested for PARV4 IgG. Gamma interferon enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assays, intracellular cytokine staining, and a tetrameric HLA-A2-peptide complex were used to define the T cell populations responding to PARV4 peptides in those individuals who acquired infection during the study. Thirty-five individuals were found to be PARV4 seropositive at the end of the study, eight of whose baseline samples were found to be seronegative. Persistent and functional T cell responses were detected in the acute infection phase. These responses had an active, mature, and cytotoxic phenotype and were maintained several years after infection. Thus, PARV4 infection is common in individuals exposed to blood-borne infections, independent of their HCV or HIV status. Since PARV4 elicits strong, broad, and persistent T cell responses, understanding of the processes responsible may prove useful for future vaccine design.
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130
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Wensveen FM, Klarenbeek PL, van Gisbergen KPJM, Pascutti MF, Derks IAM, van Schaik BDC, Ten Brinke A, de Vries N, Cekinovic D, Jonjic S, van Lier RAW, Eldering E. Pro-apoptotic protein Noxa regulates memory T cell population size and protects against lethal immunopathology. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 190:1180-91. [PMID: 23277490 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Memory T cells form a highly specific defense layer against reinfection with previously encountered pathogens. In addition, memory T cells provide protection against pathogens that are similar, but not identical to the original infectious agent. This is because each T cell response harbors multiple clones with slightly different affinities, thereby creating T cell memory with a certain degree of diversity. Currently, the mechanisms that control size, diversity, and cross-reactivity of the memory T cell pool are incompletely defined. Previously, we established a role for apoptosis, mediated by the BH3-only protein Noxa, in controlling diversity of the effector T cell population. This function might positively or negatively impact T cell memory in terms of function, pool size, and cross-reactivity during recall responses. Therefore, we investigated the role of Noxa in T cell memory during acute and chronic infections. Upon influenza infection, Noxa(-/-) mice generate a memory compartment of increased size and clonal diversity. Reinfection resulted in an increased recall response, whereas cross-reactive responses were impaired. Chronic infection of Noxa(-/-) mice with mouse CMV resulted in enhanced memory cell inflation, but no obvious pathology. In contrast, in a model of continuous, high-level T cell activation, reduced apoptosis of activated T cells rapidly led to severe organ pathology and premature death in Noxa-deficient mice. These results establish Noxa as an important regulator of the number of memory cells formed during infection. Chronic immune activation in the absence of Noxa leads to excessive accumulation of primed cells, which may result in severe pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix M Wensveen
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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131
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Smithey MJ, Li G, Venturi V, Davenport MP, Nikolich-Zugich J. Lifelong persistent viral infection alters the naive T cell pool, impairing CD8 T cell immunity in late life. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2012; 189:5356-66. [PMID: 23087407 PMCID: PMC3504138 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Persistent CMV infection has been associated with immune senescence. To address the causal impact of lifelong persistent viral infection on immune homeostasis and defense, we infected young mice systemically with HSV-1, murine CMV, or both viruses and studied their T cell homeostasis and function. Herpesvirus(+) mice exhibited increased all-cause mortality compared with controls. Upon Listeria-OVA infection, 23-mo-old animals that had experienced lifelong herpesvirus infections showed impaired bacterial control and CD8 T cell function, along with distinct alterations in the T cell repertoire both before and after Listeria challenge, compared with age-matched, herpesvirus-free controls. Herpesvirus infection was associated with reduced naive CD8 T cell precursors above the loss attributable to aging. Moreover, the OVA-specific CD8 T cell repertoire recruited after Listeria challenge was entirely nonoverlapping between control and herpesvirus(+) mice. To our knowledge, this study for the first time causally links lifelong herpesvirus infection to all-cause mortality in mice and to disturbances in the T cell repertoire, which themselves correspond to impaired immunity to a new infection in aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan J. Smithey
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85724
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85724
| | - Vanessa Venturi
- Computational Biology Group and Complex Systems in Biology Group, Centre for Vascular Research, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Miles P. Davenport
- Computational Biology Group and Complex Systems in Biology Group, Centre for Vascular Research, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Janko Nikolich-Zugich
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85724
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132
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Antiviral therapy can reverse the development of immune senescence in elderly mice with latent cytomegalovirus infection. J Virol 2012; 87:779-89. [PMID: 23115277 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02427-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection leads to the development of adaptive and humoral immune responses that are among the largest for any pathogen, and intriguingly, the magnitude of the immune response increases with age, a phenomenon termed "memory inflation." Elevated CMV-specific immunity has been correlated with an increased mortality rate in elderly individuals and with impaired vaccination responses. The latent phase of CMV infection is characterized by intermittent episodes of subclinical viral reactivation and the production of immunogenic transcripts that may maintain memory inflation of virus-specific cytotoxic lymphocytes. However, the relative importance of CMV reactivation in the development of memory inflation is uncertain, as is the potential for antiviral treatment to reverse this effect. Here, we administered valaciclovir for up to 12 months in mice with established murine CMV (MCMV) infection. Treatment reduced the magnitude of the MCMV-specific CD8(+) T-lymphocyte response by 80%, and the residual MCMV tetramer-specific lymphocytes exhibited a less differentiated phenotype. In addition, latent MCMV infection suppressed the proportion of naïve CD8(+) T cells by 60% compared to antiviral-treated mice or MCMV-negative animals. Furthermore, treatment led to a reduction in influenza A viral loads following a challenge in elderly MCMV-infected animals and also reduced the differentiation of influenza virus-specific cytotoxic lymphocytes. These observations demonstrate that MCMV-specific memory inflation is maintained by viral replication and that therapeutic intervention could lead to improved immune function.
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133
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Peripheral tissue surveillance and residency by memory T cells. Trends Immunol 2012; 34:27-32. [PMID: 23036434 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2012.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
T cell immunity has long been described in terms of two circulating memory populations. Central memory T (T(CM)) cells migrate between the secondary lymphoid organs and are capable of mounting a recall proliferative response on pathogen re-encounter, whereas effector memory T (T(EM)) cells traffic between blood and extralymphoid compartments for effective peripheral immune surveillance. It is now clear that there exists a third category of memory cells that never returns to the circulation. These tissue-resident memory T (T(RM)) cells are phenotypically distinct from T(EM) cells, persist in elevated numbers in areas involved in prior infection and have been implicated in various immune phenomena, such as the control of persisting infections and immune disorders in fixed regions of the body.
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134
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Abstract
One common sign of human cytomegalovirus infection is altered liver function. Murine cytomegalovirus strain v70 induces a rapid and severe hepatitis in immunocompetent mice that requires the presence of T cells in order to develop. v70 exhibits approximately 10-fold-greater virulence than the commonly used strain K181, resulting in a more severe, sustained, and lethal hepatitis but not dramatically higher viral replication levels. Hepatitis and death are markedly delayed in immunodeficient SCID compared to immunocompetent BALB/c mice. Transfer of BALB/c splenocytes to SCID mice conferred rapid disease following infection, and depletion of either CD4 or CD8 T cells in BALB/c mice reduced virus-induced hepatitis. The frequency of CD8 T cells producing gamma interferon and tumor necrosis factor in response to viral antigen was higher in settings where more severe disease occurred. Thus, virus-specific effector CD8 T cells appear to contribute to lethal virus-induced hepatitis, contrasting their protective role during sublethal infection. This study reveals how protection and disease during cytomegalovirus infection depend on viral strain and dose, as well as the quality of the T cell response.
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135
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Seckert CK, Griessl M, Büttner JK, Scheller S, Simon CO, Kropp KA, Renzaho A, Kühnapfel B, Grzimek NKA, Reddehase MJ. Viral latency drives 'memory inflation': a unifying hypothesis linking two hallmarks of cytomegalovirus infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2012; 201:551-66. [PMID: 22991040 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-012-0273-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Low public awareness of cytomegalovirus (CMV) results from the only mild and transient symptoms that it causes in the healthy immunocompetent host, so that primary infection usually goes unnoticed. The virus is not cleared, however, but stays for the lifetime of the host in a non-infectious, replicatively dormant state known as 'viral latency'. Medical interest in CMV results from the fact that latent virus can reactivate to cytopathogenic, tissue-destructive infection causing life-threatening end-organ disease in immunocompromised recipients of solid organ transplantation (SOT) or hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). It is becoming increasingly clear that CMV latency is not a static state in which the viral genome is silenced at all its genetic loci making the latent virus immunologically invisible, but rather is a dynamic state characterized by stochastic episodes of transient viral gene desilencing. This gene expression can lead to the presentation of antigenic peptides encoded by 'antigenicity-determining transcripts expressed in latency (ADTELs)' sensed by tissue-patrolling effector-memory CD8 T cells for immune surveillance of latency [In Reddehase et al., Murine model of cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation, Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 325. Springer, Berlin, pp 315-331, 2008]. A hallmark of the CD8 T cell response to CMV is the observation that with increasing time during latency, CD8 T cells specific for certain viral epitopes increase in numbers, a phenomenon that has gained much attention in recent years and is known under the catchphrase 'memory inflation.' Here, we provide a unifying hypothesis linking stochastic viral gene desilencing during latency to 'memory inflation.'
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Affiliation(s)
- Christof K Seckert
- Institute for Virology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Obere Zahlbacher Strasse 67, Hochhaus am Augustusplatz, 55131 Mainz, Germany
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136
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Immune control in the absence of immunodominant epitopes: implications for immunotherapy of cytomegalovirus infection with antiviral CD8 T cells. Med Microbiol Immunol 2012; 201:541-50. [PMID: 22976556 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-012-0268-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Accepted: 08/25/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive transfer of virus-specific donor-derived CD8 T cells is a therapeutic option to prevent cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease in recipients of hematopoietic cell transplantation. Due to their high coding capacity, human as well as animal CMVs have the potential to encode numerous CD8 T cell epitopes. Although the CD8 T cell response to CMVs is indeed broadly specific in that it involves epitopes derived from almost every open reading frame when tested for cohorts of immune CMV carriers representing the polymorphic MHC/HLA distribution in the population, the response in any one individual is directed against relatively few epitopes selected by the private combination of MHC/HLA alleles. Of this individually selected set of epitopes, few epitopes are 'immunodominant' in terms of magnitude of the response directed against them, while others are 'subdominant' according to this definition. In the assumption that 'immunodominance' indicates 'relevance' in antiviral control, research interest was focused on the immunodominant epitopes (IDEs) and their potential use in immunotherapy and in vaccines. The murine model has provided 'proof of concept' for the efficacy of CD8 T cell therapy of CMV infection. By experimental modulation of the CD8 T cell 'immunome' of murine CMV constructing an IDE deletion mutant, we have used this established cytoimmunotherapy model (a) for evaluating the actual contribution of IDEs to the control of infection and (b) for answering the question whether antigenicity-determining codon polymorphisms in IDE-encoding genes of CMV strains impact on the efficacy of CD8 T cell immunotherapy in case the donor and the recipient harbor different CMV strains.
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137
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Murine cytomegalovirus immune evasion proteins operative in the MHC class I pathway of antigen processing and presentation: state of knowledge, revisions, and questions. Med Microbiol Immunol 2012; 201:497-512. [PMID: 22961127 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-012-0257-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Medical interest in cytomegalovirus (CMV) is based on lifelong neurological sequelae, such as sensorineural hearing loss and mental retardation, resulting from congenital infection of the fetus in utero, as well as on CMV disease with multiple organ manifestations and graft loss in recipients of hematopoietic cell transplantation or solid organ transplantation. CMV infection of transplantation recipients occurs consequent to reactivation of virus harbored in a latent state in the transplanted donor cells and tissues, or in the tissues of the transplantation recipient herself or himself. Hence, CMV infection is a paradigm for a viral infection that causes disease primarily in the immunocompromised host, while infection of the immunocompetent host is associated with only mild and nonspecific symptoms so that it usually goes unnoticed. Thus, CMV is kept under strict immune surveillance. These medical facts are in apparent conflict with the notion that CMVs in general, human CMV as well as animal CMVs, are masters of 'immune evasion', which during virus-host co-speciation have convergently evolved sophisticated mechanisms to avoid their recognition by innate and adaptive immunity of their respective host species, with viral genes apparently dedicated to serve just this purpose (Reddehase in Nat Rev Immunol 2:831-844, 2002). With focus on viral interference with antigen presentation to CD8 T cells in the preclinical model of murine CMV infection, we try here to shed some more light on the in vivo balance between host immune surveillance of CMV infection and viral 'immune evasion' strategies.
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138
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Mekker A, Tchang VS, Haeberli L, Oxenius A, Trkola A, Karrer U. Immune senescence: relative contributions of age and cytomegalovirus infection. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002850. [PMID: 22916013 PMCID: PMC3420944 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune senescence, defined as the age-associated dysregulation and dysfunction of the immune system, is characterised by impaired protective immunity and decreased efficacy of vaccines. Recent clinical, epidemiological and immunological studies suggest that Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection may be associated with accelerated immune senescence, possibly by restricting the naïve T cell repertoire. However, direct evidence whether and how CMV-infection is implicated in immune senescence is still lacking. In this study, we have investigated whether latent mouse CMV (MCMV) infection with or without thymectomy (Tx) alters antiviral immunity of young and aged mice. After infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) or Vaccinia virus, specific antiviral T cell responses were significantly reduced in old, old MCMV-infected and/or Tx mice compared to young mice. Importantly, control of LCMV replication was more profoundly impaired in aged MCMV-infected mice compared to age-matched MCMV-naïve or young mice. In addition, latent MCMV infection was associated with slightly reduced vaccination efficacy in old Tx mice. In contrast to the prevailing hypothesis of a CMV-mediated restriction of the naïve T cell repertoire, we found similar naïve T cell numbers in MCMV-infected and non-infected mice, whereas ageing and Tx clearly reduced the naïve T cell pool. Instead, MCMV-infection expanded the total CD8+ T cell pool by a massive accumulation of effector memory T cells. Based on these results, we propose a new model of increased competition between CMV-specific memory T cells and any ‘de novo’ immune response in aged individuals. In summary, our results directly demonstrate in a mouse model that latent CMV-infection impairs immunity in old age and propagates immune senescence. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) persistently infects 50–90% of the human population. After primary infection, constant immune surveillance is required to prevent CMV-related disease. During ageing, increasing T cell resources are expended to keep CMV under control. Recent human studies have suggested that this investment may come at the cost of accelerated immune senescence, a condition describing the age-associated decline of the immune system's functionality. In the present study, we have developed a mouse model to directly investigate whether and how CMV-infection might impair immunity of aged individuals. We demonstrate that old mice with long-lasting CMV-infection are more susceptible to viral infections than old mice without CMV since their virus specific T cell response is suppressed. Contrary to the prevailing hypothesis we found no indication for a CMV-associated shrinking of the naïve T cell compartment. Instead, CMV-infection precipitated a massive expansion of memory T cells. Thus, we propose an alternative mechanism of CMV-enhanced immune senescence based on T cell competition between CMV-specific memory T cells and de novo generated T cell responses. In summary, we provide the first direct evidence that CMV-infection is indeed a propagating factor for poor immunity in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Mekker
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Molecular Life Science Graduate School, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Vincent S. Tchang
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lea Haeberli
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annette Oxenius
- Institute of Microbiology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, HCI 4, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Trkola
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Urs Karrer
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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139
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Gaddi PJ, Crane MJ, Kamanaka M, Flavell RA, Yap GS, Salazar-Mather TP. IL-10 mediated regulation of liver inflammation during acute murine cytomegalovirus infection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42850. [PMID: 22880122 PMCID: PMC3411849 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Various cell types in both lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues produce the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 during murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. The functions of IL-10 in the liver during acute infection and the cells that generate this cytokine at this site have not been extensively investigated. In this study, we demonstrate that the production of IL-10 in the liver is elevated in C57BL/6 mice during late acute MCMV infection. Using IL-10 green fluorescence protein (GFP) reporter knock-in mice, designated IL-10-internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-GFP-enhanced reporter (tiger), NK cells are identified as major IL-10 expressing cells in the liver after infection, along with T cells and other leukocytes. In the absence of IL-10, mice exhibit marked elevations in proinflammatory cytokines and in the numbers of mononuclear cells and lymphocytes infiltrating the liver during this infection. IL-10-deficiency also enhances liver injury without improving viral clearance from this site. Collectively, the results indicate that IL-10-producing cells in the liver provide protection from collateral injury by modulating the inflammatory response associated with MCMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela J. Gaddi
- Division of Biology and Medicine, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Meredith J. Crane
- Division of Biology and Medicine, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Masahito Kamanaka
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Richard A. Flavell
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - George S. Yap
- Department of Medicine and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Thais P. Salazar-Mather
- Division of Biology and Medicine, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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140
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Torti N, Oxenius A. T cell memory in the context of persistent herpes viral infections. Viruses 2012; 4:1116-43. [PMID: 22852044 PMCID: PMC3407898 DOI: 10.3390/v4071116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Revised: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The generation of a functional memory T cell pool upon primary encounter with an infectious pathogen is, in combination with humoral immunity, an essential process to confer protective immunity against reencounters with the same pathogen. A prerequisite for the generation and maintenance of long-lived memory T cells is the clearance of antigen after infection, which is fulfilled upon resolution of acute viral infections. Memory T cells play also a fundamental role during persistent viral infections by contributing to relative control and immuosurveillance of active replication or viral reactivation, respectively. However, the dynamics, the phenotype, the mechanisms of maintenance and the functionality of memory T cells which develop upon acute/resolved infection as opposed to chronic/latent infection differ substantially. In this review we summarize current knowledge about memory CD8 T cell responses elicited during α-, β-, and γ-herpes viral infections with major emphasis on the induction, maintenance and function of virus-specific memory CD8 T cells during viral latency and we discuss how the peculiar features of these memory CD8 T cell responses are related to the biology of these persistently infecting viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Torti
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland.
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141
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Campbell J, Trgovcich J, Kincaid M, Zimmerman PD, Klenerman P, Sims S, Cook CH. Transient CD8-memory contraction: a potential contributor to latent cytomegalovirus reactivation. J Leukoc Biol 2012; 92:933-7. [PMID: 22730545 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1211635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
It is clear that latent CMV can reactivate in immunocompetent individuals, but the mechanism triggering such reactivations remains unclear. Recent clinical data suggest that reactivation can be subverted by CMV-specific T-memory. We therefore monitored CMV-specific T cells in immunocompetent mice with latent mCMV after a known reactivation trigger (LPS). LPS induced transient systemic contraction of mCMV-specific CD8 memory that was followed by transcriptional reactivation. Subsequent recovery of mCMV-specific T cells coincided with resumption of latency. These data suggest that bacterial antigen encounters can induce transient T-memory contraction, allowing viral recrudescence in hosts latently infected with herpes family viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Campbell
- Department of Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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142
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Activated iNKT cells promote memory CD8+ T cell differentiation during viral infection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37991. [PMID: 22649570 PMCID: PMC3359346 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) is the prototypical lipid ligand for invariant NKT cells. Recent studies have proposed that α-GalCer is an effective adjuvant in vaccination against a range of immune challenges, however its mechanism of action has not been completely elucidated. A variety of delivery methods have been examined including pulsing dendritic cells with α-GalCer to optimize the potential of α-GalCer. These methods are currently being used in a variety of clinical trials in patients with advanced cancer but cannot be used in the context of vaccine development against pathogens due to their complexity. Using a simple delivery method, we evaluated α-GalCer adjuvant properties, using the mouse model for cytomegalovirus (MCMV). We measured several key parameters of the immune response to MCMV, including inflammation, effector, and central memory CD8+ T cell responses. We found that α-GalCer injection at the time of the infection decreases viral titers, alters the kinetics of the inflammatory response, and promotes both increased frequencies and numbers of virus-specific memory CD8+ T cells. Overall, our data suggest that iNKT cell activation by α-GalCer promotes the development of long-term protective immunity through increased fitness of central memory CD8+ T cells, as a consequence of reduced inflammation.
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143
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Twohig JP, Marsden M, Cuff SM, Ferdinand JR, Gallimore AM, Perks WV, Al-Shamkhani A, Humphreys IR, Wang ECY. The death receptor 3/TL1A pathway is essential for efficient development of antiviral CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell immunity. FASEB J 2012; 26:3575-86. [PMID: 22593543 DOI: 10.1096/fj.11-200618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Death receptor 3 (DR3, TNFRSF25), the closest family relative to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, promotes CD4(+) T-cell-driven inflammatory disease. We investigated the in vivo role of DR3 and its ligand TL1A in viral infection, by challenging DR3-deficient (DR3(KO)) mice and their DR3(WT) littermates with the β-herpesvirus murine cytomegalovirus or the poxvirus vaccinia virus. The phenotype and function of splenic T-cells were analyzed using flow cytometry and molecular biological techniques. We report surface expression of DR3 by naive CD8(+) T cells, with TCR activation increasing its levels 4-fold and altering the ratio of DR3 splice variants. T-cell responses were reduced up to 90% in DR3(KO) mice during acute infection. Adoptive transfer experiments indicated this was dependent on T-cell-restricted expression of DR3. DR3-dependent CD8(+) T-cell expansion was NK and CD4 independent and due to proliferation, not decreased cell death. Notably, impaired immunity in DR3(KO) hosts on a C57BL/6 background was associated with 4- to 7-fold increases in viral loads during the acute phase of infection, and in mice with suboptimal NK responses was essential for survival (37.5%). This is the first description of DR3 regulating virus-specific T-cell function in vivo and uncovers a critical role for DR3 in mediating antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Twohig
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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144
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Akue AD, Lee JY, Jameson SC. Derivation and maintenance of virtual memory CD8 T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:2516-23. [PMID: 22308307 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Memory CD8(+) T cells are an important component of the adaptive immune response against many infections, and understanding how Ag-specific memory CD8(+) T cells are generated and maintained is crucial for the development of vaccines. We recently reported the existence of memory-phenotype, Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells in unimmunized mice (virtual memory or VM cells). However, it was not clear when and where these cells are generated during normal development, nor the factors required for their production and maintenance. This issue is especially pertinent given recent data showing that memory-like CD8 T cells can be generated in the thymus, in a bystander response to IL-4. In this study, we show that the size of the VM population is reduced in IL-4R-deficient animals. However, the VM population appears first in the periphery and not the thymus of normal animals, suggesting this role of IL-4 is manifest following thymic egress. We also show that the VM pool is durable, showing basal proliferation and long-term maintenance in normal animals, and also being retained during responses to unrelated infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adovi D Akue
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA
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145
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O'Hara GA, Welten SPM, Klenerman P, Arens R. Memory T cell inflation: understanding cause and effect. Trends Immunol 2012; 33:84-90. [PMID: 22222196 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2011.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Revised: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Typically, during viral infections, T cells encounter antigen, undergo proliferative expansion and ultimately contract into a pool of memory cells. However, after infection with cytomegalovirus, a ubiquitous β-herpesvirus, T cell populations specific for certain epitopes do not contract but instead are maintained and/or accumulate at high frequencies with a characteristic effector-memory phenotype. This feature has also been noted after other infections, for example, by parvoviruses. We discuss this so-called memory T cell inflation and the factors involved in this phenomenon. Also, we consider the potential therapeutic use of memory T cell inflation as a vaccine strategy and the associated implications for immune senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geraldine A O'Hara
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 4SY, UK.
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146
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Abstract
Nearly all human beings, by the time they reach adolescence, are infected with multiple herpesviruses. At any given time, this family of viruses accounts for 35-40 billion human infections worldwide, making herpesviruses among the most prevalent pathogens known to exist. Compared to most other viruses, herpesviruses are also unique in that infection lasts the life of the host. Remarkably, despite their prevalence and persistence, little is known about how these viruses interact with their hosts, especially during the clinically asymptomatic phase of infection referred to as latency. This review explores data in human and animal systems that reveal the ability of latent herpesviruses to modulate the immune response to self and environmental antigens. From the perspective of the host, there are both potentially detrimental and surprisingly beneficial effects of this lifelong interaction. The realization that latent herpesvirus infection modulates immune responses in asymptomatic hosts forces us to reconsider what constitutes a 'normal' immune system in a healthy individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas W. White
- Division of Rheumatology, Gundersen Lutheran Medical Center, La Crosse, WI, USA
| | - R. Suzanne Beard
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem NC, USA
| | - Erik S. Barton
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem NC, USA
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147
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Slavuljica I, Krmpotić A, Jonjić S. Manipulation of NKG2D ligands by cytomegaloviruses: impact on innate and adaptive immune response. Front Immunol 2011; 2:85. [PMID: 22566874 PMCID: PMC3342069 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2011.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
NKG2D is a potent activating receptor expressed on NK cells, NKT cells, γδ T cells, and CD8 T cells. NKG2D recognizes cell surface molecules structurally related to MHC class I proteins induced by infection or other type of cellular stress. The engagement of NKG2D leads to NK cell cytotoxicity and cytokine secretion or to a co-stimulation of CD8 T cells. Both human and mouse cytomegalovirus (CMV) have evolved numerous mechanisms to evade NKG2D-mediated immune response. This review describes the mechanisms used by CMV to inhibit NKG2D ligand expression and the recent advances in exploiting the NKG2D recognition pathway for mounting efficient and long-lasting immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Slavuljica
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka Rijeka, Croatia
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148
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Buffered memory: a hypothesis for the maintenance of functional, virus-specific CD8+ T cells during cytomegalovirus infection. Immunol Res 2011; 51:195-204. [DOI: 10.1007/s12026-011-8251-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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149
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Torti N, Walton SM, Brocker T, Rülicke T, Oxenius A. Non-hematopoietic cells in lymph nodes drive memory CD8 T cell inflation during murine cytomegalovirus infection. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002313. [PMID: 22046127 PMCID: PMC3203160 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
During human and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection an exceptionally large virus-specific CD8 T cell pool is maintained in the periphery lifelong. This anomalous response is only seen for specific subsets of MCMV-specific CD8 T cells which are referred to as 'inflationary T cells'. How memory CD8 T cell inflation is induced and maintained is unclear, though their activated phenotype strongly suggests an involvement of persistent antigen encounter during MCMV latency. To dissect the cellular and molecular requirements for memory CD8 T cell inflation, we have generated a transgenic mouse expressing an MHC class I-restricted T cell receptor specific for an immunodominant inflationary epitope of MCMV. Through a series of adoptive transfer experiments we found that memory inflation was completely dependent on antigen presentation by non-hematopoietic cells, which are also the predominant site of MCMV latency. In particular, non-hematopoietic cells selectively induced robust proliferation of inflationary CD8 T cells in lymph nodes, where a majority of the inflationary CD8 T cells exhibit a central-memory phenotype, but not in peripheral tissues, where terminally differentiated inflationary T cells accumulate. These results indicate that continuous restimulation of central memory CD8 T cells in the lymph nodes by infected non-hematopoietic cells ensures the maintenance of a functional effector CD8 T pool in the periphery, providing protection against viral reactivation events. Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) infect the majority of the human population and persist lifelong via latency. CMV latency is thought to be a dynamic state, characterized by stochastic viral reactivation events coupled to CMV-derived antigen presentation. In support of this hypothesis is the exceptionally large CMV-specific CD8 T cell response which constitutes an integral part of immune surveillance of CMV reactivation. Conversely, it may also contribute to immune senescence as it significantly shapes the overall CD8 T cell pool in bias of CMV-specificity. In mice, only a subset of CMV-specific CD8 T cells, also called ‘inflationary CD8 T cells’, contribute to this large response. The mechanism leading to the selective accumulation and persistence of memory CD8 T cells during MCMV latency is largely unknown. Here, we unraveled the mechanisms of memory CD8 T cell inflation using a newly generated TCR transgenic mouse with specificity for an immunodominant inflationary MCMV epitope. We show that antigen presentation on non-hematopoietic cells is essential for memory inflation and that memory inflation in peripheral tissues is fueled by lymph node-resident central memory CD8 T cells, being locally reactivated by non-hematopoietic cells, inducing their local expansion and migration to peripheral tissues where they control viral reactivation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Torti
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Thomas Rülicke
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science and Biomodels Austria, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Annette Oxenius
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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150
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Pipeling MR, John ER, Orens JB, Lechtzin N, McDyer JF. Primary cytomegalovirus phosphoprotein 65-specific CD8+ T-cell responses and T-bet levels predict immune control during early chronic infection in lung transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:1663-71. [PMID: 22021622 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cytomegalovirus (CMV) remains an important pathogen in solid organ transplantation, particularly lung transplantation. Lung transplant recipients (LTRs) mismatched for CMV (donor positive/recipient negative [D(+)R(-)]) are at highest risk for active CMV infection and have increased mortality. However, the correlates of immune control during chronic CMV infection remain incompletely understood. METHODS We prospectively studied 22 D(+)R(-) LTRs during primary CMV infection and into chronic infection. Immune responses during primary infection were analyzed for association with viral relapse during early chronic infection. RESULTS Primary CMV infection was characterized by a striking induction of T-box transcription factor (T-bet) in CD8(+) T cells. CMV-specific effector CD8(+) T cells were found to be T-bet(+). After primary infection, 7 LTRs lacked immune control with relapsing viremia during early chronic infection. LTRs with relapsing viremia had poor induction of T-bet and low frequencies of phosphoprotein 65 (pp65)-specific CD8(+) effector T cells during primary infection. However, frequencies of IE1-specific CD8(+) effector T cells during primary infection were not associated with early relapsing viremia. CONCLUSIONS T-bet plays an important role in coordinating CD8(+) effector responses to CMV during primary infection. Moreover, CD8(+) T-bet induction and pp65-specific CD8(+) effector responses at the time of primary infection are important predictors of immune control of CMV during early chronic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Pipeling
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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