101
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Widge AS, Boggess M, Rockhill AP, Mullen A, Sheopory S, Loonis R, Freeman DK, Miller EK. Altering alpha-frequency brain oscillations with rapid analog feedback-driven neurostimulation. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207781. [PMID: 30517149 PMCID: PMC6281199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Oscillations of the brain's local field potential (LFP) may coordinate neural ensembles and brain networks. It has been difficult to causally test this model or to translate its implications into treatments, because there are few reliable ways to alter LFP oscillations. We developed a closed-loop analog circuit to enhance brain oscillations by feeding them back into cortex through phase-locked transcranial electrical stimulation. We tested the system in a rhesus macaque with chronically implanted electrode arrays, targeting 8-15 Hz (alpha) oscillations. Ten seconds of stimulation increased alpha oscillatory power for up to 1 second after stimulation offset. In contrast, open-loop stimulation decreased alpha power. There was no effect in the neighboring 15-30 Hz (beta) LFP rhythm or on a neighboring array that did not participate in closed-loop feedback. Analog closed-loop neurostimulation might thus be a useful strategy for altering brain oscillations, both for basic research and the treatment of neuro-psychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alik S. Widge
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Picower Institute for Learning & Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Matthew Boggess
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alexander P. Rockhill
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrew Mullen
- Picower Institute for Learning & Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Shivani Sheopory
- Picower Institute for Learning & Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- College of Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Roman Loonis
- Picower Institute for Learning & Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Daniel K. Freeman
- The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Earl K. Miller
- Picower Institute for Learning & Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
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102
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Nicholson E, Kuzmin DA, Leite M, Akam TE, Kullmann DM. Analogue closed-loop optogenetic modulation of hippocampal pyramidal cells dissociates gamma frequency and amplitude. eLife 2018; 7:38346. [PMID: 30351273 PMCID: PMC6219844 DOI: 10.7554/elife.38346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Gamma-band oscillations are implicated in modulation of attention, integration of sensory information and flexible communication among anatomically connected brain areas. How networks become entrained is incompletely understood. Specifically, it is unclear how the spectral and temporal characteristics of network oscillations can be altered on rapid timescales needed for efficient communication. We use closed-loop optogenetic modulation of principal cell excitability in mouse hippocampal slices to interrogate the dynamical properties of hippocampal oscillations. Gamma frequency and amplitude can be modulated bi-directionally, and dissociated, by phase-advancing or delaying optogenetic feedback to pyramidal cells. Closed-loop modulation alters the synchrony rather than average frequency of action potentials, in principle avoiding disruption of population rate-coding of information. Modulation of phasic excitatory currents in principal neurons is sufficient to manipulate oscillations, suggesting that feed-forward excitation of pyramidal cells has an important role in determining oscillatory dynamics and the ability of networks to couple with one another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Nicholson
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dmitry A Kuzmin
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Leite
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas E Akam
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Program, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
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103
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Josselyn SA. The past, present and future of light-gated ion channels and optogenetics. eLife 2018; 7:42367. [PMID: 30343681 PMCID: PMC6197853 DOI: 10.7554/elife.42367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery of the mechanisms underlying light-gated ion channels called channelrhodospins and the subsequent development of optogenetics illustrates how breakthroughs in science and technology can span multiple levels of scientific inquiry. Our knowledge of how channelrhodopsins work emerged from research at the microscopic level that investigated the structure and function of algal proteins. Optogenetics, on the other hand, exploits the power of channelrhodospins and similar proteins to investigate phenomena at the supra-macroscopic level, notably the neural circuits involved in animal behavior that may be relevant for understanding neuropsychiatric disease. This article is being published to celebrate Peter Hegemann, Karl Deisseroth and Ed Boyden receiving a 2018 Canada Gairdner International Award "for the discovery of light-gated ion channel mechanisms, and for the discovery of optogenetics, a technology that has revolutionized neuroscience".
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheena A Josselyn
- Program in Neurosciences
& Mental HealthHospital for Sick
ChildrenTorontoCanada
- Department of
PsychologyUniversity of
TorontoTorontoCanada
- Department of
PhysiologyUniversity of
TorontoTorontoCanada
- Institute of Medical
SciencesUniversity of
TorontoTorontoCanada
- Brain, Mind &
Consciousness ProgramCanadian Institute for Advanced
ResearchTorontoCanada
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104
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Lopes-Dos-Santos V, van de Ven GM, Morley A, Trouche S, Campo-Urriza N, Dupret D. Parsing Hippocampal Theta Oscillations by Nested Spectral Components during Spatial Exploration and Memory-Guided Behavior. Neuron 2018; 100:940-952.e7. [PMID: 30344040 PMCID: PMC6277817 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Theta oscillations reflect rhythmic inputs that continuously converge to the hippocampus during exploratory and memory-guided behavior. The theta-nested operations that organize hippocampal spiking could either occur regularly from one cycle to the next or be tuned on a cycle-by-cycle basis. To resolve this, we identified spectral components nested in individual theta cycles recorded from the mouse CA1 hippocampus. Our single-cycle profiling revealed theta spectral components associated with different firing modulations and distinguishable ensembles of principal cells. Moreover, novel co-firing patterns of principal cells in theta cycles nesting mid-gamma oscillations were the most strongly reactivated in subsequent offline sharp-wave/ripple events. Finally, theta-nested spectral components were differentially altered by behavioral stages of a memory task; the 80-Hz mid-gamma component was strengthened during learning, whereas the 22-Hz beta, 35-Hz slow gamma, and 54-Hz mid-gamma components increased during retrieval. We conclude that cycle-to-cycle variability of theta-nested spectral components allows parsing of theta oscillations into transient operating modes with complementary mnemonic roles. Spectral profiling of single theta waves enables studying inter-cycle variability Theta spectral components feature different spiking patterns and ensembles Co-firing in theta cycles nesting mid-gamma undergo enhanced offline reactivation Theta components relate differently to learning and memory retrieval demands
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Affiliation(s)
- Vítor Lopes-Dos-Santos
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK.
| | - Gido M van de Ven
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK
| | - Alexander Morley
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK
| | - Stéphanie Trouche
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK
| | - Natalia Campo-Urriza
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK
| | - David Dupret
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK.
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105
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Deciphering the Contribution of Oriens-Lacunosum/Moleculare (OLM) Cells to Intrinsic θ Rhythms Using Biophysical Local Field Potential (LFP) Models. eNeuro 2018; 5:eN-NWR-0146-18. [PMID: 30225351 PMCID: PMC6140113 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0146-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oscillations in local field potentials (LFPs) are prevalent and contribute to brain function. An understanding of the cellular correlates and pathways affecting LFPs is needed, but many overlapping pathways in vivo make this difficult to achieve. A prevalent LFP rhythm in the hippocampus associated with memory processing and spatial navigation is the θ (3–12 Hz) oscillation. θ rhythms emerge intrinsically in an in vitro whole hippocampus preparation and this reduced preparation makes it possible to assess the contribution of different cell types to LFP generation. We focus on oriens-lacunosum/moleculare (OLM) cells as a major class of interneurons in the hippocampus. OLM cells can influence pyramidal (PYR) cells through two distinct pathways: by direct inhibition of PYR cell distal dendrites, and by indirect disinhibition of PYR cell proximal dendrites. We use previous inhibitory network models and build biophysical LFP models using volume conductor theory. We examine the effect of OLM cells to ongoing intrinsic LFP θ rhythms by directly comparing our model LFP features with experiment. We find that OLM cell inputs regulate the robustness of LFP responses without affecting their average power and that this robust response depends on coactivation of distal inhibition and basal excitation. We use our models to estimate the spatial extent of the region generating LFP θ rhythms, leading us to predict that about 22,000 PYR cells participate in intrinsic θ generation. Besides obtaining an understanding of OLM cell contributions to intrinsic LFP θ rhythms, our work can help decipher cellular correlates of in vivo LFPs.
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106
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Solari N, Hangya B. Cholinergic modulation of spatial learning, memory and navigation. Eur J Neurosci 2018; 48:2199-2230. [PMID: 30055067 PMCID: PMC6174978 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Spatial learning, including encoding and retrieval of spatial memories as well as holding spatial information in working memory generally serving navigation under a broad range of circumstances, relies on a network of structures. While central to this network are medial temporal lobe structures with a widely appreciated crucial function of the hippocampus, neocortical areas such as the posterior parietal cortex and the retrosplenial cortex also play essential roles. Since the hippocampus receives its main subcortical input from the medial septum of the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic system, it is not surprising that the potential role of the septo-hippocampal pathway in spatial navigation has been investigated in many studies. Much less is known of the involvement in spatial cognition of the parallel projection system linking the posterior BF with neocortical areas. Here we review the current state of the art of the division of labour within this complex 'navigation system', with special focus on how subcortical cholinergic inputs may regulate various aspects of spatial learning, memory and navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Solari
- Lendület Laboratory of Systems NeuroscienceDepartment of Cellular and Network NeurobiologyInstitute of Experimental MedicineHungarian Academy of SciencesBudapestHungary
| | - Balázs Hangya
- Lendület Laboratory of Systems NeuroscienceDepartment of Cellular and Network NeurobiologyInstitute of Experimental MedicineHungarian Academy of SciencesBudapestHungary
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107
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Trimper JB, Galloway CR, Jones AC, Mandi K, Manns JR. Gamma Oscillations in Rat Hippocampal Subregions Dentate Gyrus, CA3, CA1, and Subiculum Underlie Associative Memory Encoding. Cell Rep 2018; 21:2419-2432. [PMID: 29186681 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.10.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuronal oscillations in the rat hippocampus relate to both memory and locomotion, raising the question of how these cognitive and behavioral correlates interact to determine the oscillatory network state of this region. Here, rats freely locomoted while performing an object-location task designed to test hippocampus-dependent spatial associative memory. Rhythmic activity in theta, beta, slow gamma, and fast gamma frequency ranges were observed in both action potentials and local field potentials (LFPs) across four main hippocampal subregions. Several patterns of LFP oscillations corresponded to overt behavior (e.g., increased dentate gyrus-CA3 beta coherence during stationary moments and CA1-subiculum theta coherence during locomotion). In comparison, slow gamma (∼40 Hz) oscillations throughout the hippocampus related most specifically to object-location associative memory encoding rather than overt behavior. The results help to untangle how hippocampal oscillations relate to both memory and motion and single out slow gamma oscillations as a distinguishing correlate of spatial associative memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- John B Trimper
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | | | - Andrew C Jones
- Neuroscience and Behavioral Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Kaavya Mandi
- Neuroscience and Behavioral Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Joseph R Manns
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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108
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Siegle JH, López AC, Patel YA, Abramov K, Ohayon S, Voigts J. Open Ephys: an open-source, plugin-based platform for multichannel electrophysiology. J Neural Eng 2018; 14:045003. [PMID: 28169219 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aa5eea] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Closed-loop experiments, in which causal interventions are conditioned on the state of the system under investigation, have become increasingly common in neuroscience. Such experiments can have a high degree of explanatory power, but they require a precise implementation that can be difficult to replicate across laboratories. We sought to overcome this limitation by building open-source software that makes it easier to develop and share algorithms for closed-loop control. APPROACH We created the Open Ephys GUI, an open-source platform for multichannel electrophysiology experiments. In addition to the standard 'open-loop' visualization and recording functionality, the GUI also includes modules for delivering feedback in response to events detected in the incoming data stream. Importantly, these modules can be built and shared as plugins, which makes it possible for users to extend the functionality of the GUI through a simple API, without having to understand the inner workings of the entire application. MAIN RESULTS In combination with low-cost, open-source hardware for amplifying and digitizing neural signals, the GUI has been used for closed-loop experiments that perturb the hippocampal theta rhythm in a phase-specific manner. SIGNIFICANCE The Open Ephys GUI is the first widely used application for multichannel electrophysiology that leverages a plugin-based workflow. We hope that it will lower the barrier to entry for electrophysiologists who wish to incorporate real-time feedback into their research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua H Siegle
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, 615 Westlake Ave N, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America, jsiegle on GitHub
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109
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Ciliberti D, Kloosterman F. Falcon: a highly flexible open-source software for closed-loop neuroscience. J Neural Eng 2018; 14:045004. [PMID: 28548044 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aa7526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Closed-loop experiments provide unique insights into brain dynamics and function. To facilitate a wide range of closed-loop experiments, we created an open-source software platform that enables high-performance real-time processing of streaming experimental data. APPROACH We wrote Falcon, a C++ multi-threaded software in which the user can load and execute an arbitrary processing graph. Each node of a Falcon graph is mapped to a single thread and nodes communicate with each other through thread-safe buffers. The framework allows for easy implementation of new processing nodes and data types. Falcon was tested both on a 32-core and a 4-core workstation. Streaming data was read from either a commercial acquisition system (Neuralynx) or the open-source Open Ephys hardware, while closed-loop TTL pulses were generated with a USB module for digital output. We characterized the round-trip latency of our Falcon-based closed-loop system, as well as the specific latency contribution of the software architecture, by testing processing graphs with up to 32 parallel pipelines and eight serial stages. We finally deployed Falcon in a task of real-time detection of population bursts recorded live from the hippocampus of a freely moving rat. MAIN RESULTS On Neuralynx hardware, round-trip latency was well below 1 ms and stable for at least 1 h, while on Open Ephys hardware latencies were below 15 ms. The latency contribution of the software was below 0.5 ms. Round-trip and software latencies were similar on both 32- and 4-core workstations. Falcon was used successfully to detect population bursts online with ~40 ms average latency. SIGNIFICANCE Falcon is a novel open-source software for closed-loop neuroscience. It has sub-millisecond intrinsic latency and gives the experimenter direct control of CPU resources. We envisage Falcon to be a useful tool to the neuroscientific community for implementing a wide variety of closed-loop experiments, including those requiring use of complex data structures and real-time execution of computationally intensive algorithms, such as population neural decoding/encoding from large cell assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Ciliberti
- Neuro-Electronic Research Flanders (NERF), Leuven, Belgium. Brain & Cognition Research Unit, KU Leuven, Belgium. VIB, Leuven, Belgium
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110
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Barnett SC, Perry BAL, Dalrymple-Alford JC, Parr-Brownlie LC. Optogenetic stimulation: Understanding memory and treating deficits. Hippocampus 2018; 28:457-470. [DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S. C. Barnett
- Department of Psychology; University of Canterbury; Christchurch 8041 New Zealand
- Brain Research New Zealand; New Zealand
| | - B. A. L. Perry
- Department of Psychology; University of Canterbury; Christchurch 8041 New Zealand
- Brain Research New Zealand; New Zealand
| | - J. C. Dalrymple-Alford
- Department of Psychology; University of Canterbury; Christchurch 8041 New Zealand
- Brain Research New Zealand; New Zealand
- New Zealand Brain Research Institute; Christchurch New Zealand
| | - L. C. Parr-Brownlie
- Brain Research New Zealand; New Zealand
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Science; Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago; Dunedin New Zealand
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111
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Senova S, Chaillet A, Lozano AM. Fornical Closed-Loop Stimulation for Alzheimer's Disease. Trends Neurosci 2018; 41:418-428. [PMID: 29735372 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2018.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacological neuromodulation strategies have shown limited efficacy in treating memory deficits related to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite encouraging results from a few preclinical studies, clinical trials investigating open-loop deep brain stimulation (DBS) for AD have not been successful. Recent refinements in understanding the various phases of memory processes, animal studies investigating phase-specific modulation of hippocampal activity during memorization, and clinical studies using closed-loop DBS strategies to treat patients with movement disorders, all point to the need to investigate closed-loop fornical DBS strategies to better understand memory dynamics and potentially treat memory deficits in AD preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhan Senova
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada; Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Krembil Neuroscience Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Departments of Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris (APHP) Groupe Henri-Mondor Albert-Chenevier, 94000 Créteil, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unité 955, Mondor Institute of Biomedical Research (IMRB), Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris 12, Université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC), 94010 Créteil, France.
| | - Antoine Chaillet
- Laboratoire des Signaux et Systèmes (L2S), CentraleSupélec, Université Paris Sud, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris Saclay, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; Junior member of Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Junior member of Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 91192
| | - Andres M Lozano
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada; Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Krembil Neuroscience Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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112
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Kupferschmidt DA, Gordon JA. The dynamics of disordered dialogue: Prefrontal, hippocampal and thalamic miscommunication underlying working memory deficits in schizophrenia. Brain Neurosci Adv 2018; 2. [PMID: 31058245 PMCID: PMC6497416 DOI: 10.1177/2398212818771821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex is central to the orchestrated brain network communication that gives rise to working memory and other cognitive functions. Accordingly, working memory deficits in schizophrenia are increasingly thought to derive from prefrontal cortex dysfunction coupled with broader network disconnectivity. How the prefrontal cortex dynamically communicates with its distal network partners to support working memory and how this communication is disrupted in individuals with schizophrenia remain unclear. Here we review recent evidence that prefrontal cortex communication with the hippocampus and thalamus is essential for normal spatial working memory, and that miscommunication between these structures underlies spatial working memory deficits in schizophrenia. We focus on studies using normal rodents and rodent models designed to probe schizophrenia-related pathology to assess the dynamics of neural interaction between these brain regions. We also highlight recent preclinical work parsing roles for long-range prefrontal cortex connections with the hippocampus and thalamus in normal and disordered spatial working memory. Finally, we discuss how emerging rodent endophenotypes of hippocampal- and thalamo-prefrontal cortex dynamics in spatial working memory could translate into richer understanding of the neural bases of cognitive function and dysfunction in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Kupferschmidt
- Integrative Neuroscience Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Joshua A Gordon
- Integrative Neuroscience Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, MD, USA.,National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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113
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Electrical brain stimulation provides therapeutic benefits for patients with drug-resistant neurological disorders. It, however, has restricted access to cell-type selectivity which limits its treatment effectiveness. Optogenetics, in contrast, enables precise targeting of a specific cell type which can address the issue with electrical brain stimulation. It, nonetheless, disregards real-time brain responses in delivering optimized stimulation to target cells. Closed-loop optogenetics, on the other hand, senses the difference between normal and abnormal states of the brain, and modulates stimulation parameters to achieve the desired stimulation outcome. Current review articles on closed-loop optogenetics have focused on its theoretical aspects and potential benefits. A review of the recent progress in miniaturized closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices is thus needed. APPROACH This paper presents a comprehensive study on the existing miniaturized closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices and their internal components. MAIN RESULTS Hardware components of closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices including electrode, light-guiding mechanism, optical source, neural recorder, and optical stimulator are discussed. Next, software modules of closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices including feature extraction, classification, control, and stimulation parameter modulation are described. Then, the existing devices are categorized into open-loop and closed-loop groups, and the combined operation of their neural recorder, optical stimulator, and control approach is discussed. Finally, the challenges in the design and implementation of closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices are presented, suggestions on how to tackle these challenges are given, and future directions for closed-loop optogenetics are stated. SIGNIFICANCE A generic architecture for closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices involving both hardware and software perspectives is devised. A comprehensive investigation into the most current miniaturized and tetherless closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices is given. A detailed comparison of the closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Epsy S Edward
- School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia
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114
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Liu X, Lu Y, Iseri E, Shi Y, Kuzum D. A Compact Closed-Loop Optogenetics System Based on Artifact-Free Transparent Graphene Electrodes. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:132. [PMID: 29559885 PMCID: PMC5845553 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrophysiology is a decades-old technique widely used for monitoring activity of individual neurons and local field potentials. Optogenetics has revolutionized neuroscience studies by offering selective and fast control of targeted neurons and neuron populations. The combination of these two techniques is crucial for causal investigation of neural circuits and understanding their functional connectivity. However, electrical artifacts generated by light stimulation interfere with neural recordings and hinder the development of compact closed-loop systems for precise control of neural activity. Here, we demonstrate that transparent graphene micro-electrodes fabricated on a clear polyethylene terephthalate film eliminate the light-induced artifact problem and allow development of a compact battery-powered closed-loop optogenetics system. We extensively investigate light-induced artifacts for graphene electrodes in comparison to metal control electrodes. We then design optical stimulation module using micro-LED chips coupled to optical fibers to deliver light to intended depth for optogenetic stimulation. For artifact-free integration of graphene micro-electrode recordings with optogenetic stimulation, we design and develop a compact closed-loop system and validate it for different frequencies of interest for neural recordings. This compact closed-loop optogenetics system can be used for various applications involving optogenetic stimulation and electrophysiological recordings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Liu
- Neuroelectronics Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Yichen Lu
- Neuroelectronics Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Ege Iseri
- Neuroelectronics Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Yuhan Shi
- Neuroelectronics Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Duygu Kuzum
- Neuroelectronics Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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115
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Hinman JR, Dannenberg H, Alexander AS, Hasselmo ME. Neural mechanisms of navigation involving interactions of cortical and subcortical structures. J Neurophysiol 2018; 119:2007-2029. [PMID: 29442559 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00498.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals must perform spatial navigation for a range of different behaviors, including selection of trajectories toward goal locations and foraging for food sources. To serve this function, a number of different brain regions play a role in coding different dimensions of sensory input important for spatial behavior, including the entorhinal cortex, the retrosplenial cortex, the hippocampus, and the medial septum. This article will review data concerning the coding of the spatial aspects of animal behavior, including location of the animal within an environment, the speed of movement, the trajectory of movement, the direction of the head in the environment, and the position of barriers and objects both relative to the animal's head direction (egocentric) and relative to the layout of the environment (allocentric). The mechanisms for coding these important spatial representations are not yet fully understood but could involve mechanisms including integration of self-motion information or coding of location based on the angle of sensory features in the environment. We will review available data and theories about the mechanisms for coding of spatial representations. The computation of different aspects of spatial representation from available sensory input requires complex cortical processing mechanisms for transformation from egocentric to allocentric coordinates that will only be understood through a combination of neurophysiological studies and computational modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Hinman
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Holger Dannenberg
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Andrew S Alexander
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Michael E Hasselmo
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University , Boston, Massachusetts
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116
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Korotkova T, Ponomarenko A, Monaghan CK, Poulter SL, Cacucci F, Wills T, Hasselmo ME, Lever C. Reconciling the different faces of hippocampal theta: The role of theta oscillations in cognitive, emotional and innate behaviors. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 85:65-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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117
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Zielinski MC, Tang W, Jadhav SP. The role of replay and theta sequences in mediating hippocampal-prefrontal interactions for memory and cognition. Hippocampus 2018; 30:60-72. [PMID: 29251801 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 12/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Sequential activity is seen in the hippocampus during multiple network patterns, prominently as replay activity during both awake and sleep sharp-wave ripples (SWRs), and as theta sequences during active exploration. Although various mnemonic and cognitive functions have been ascribed to these hippocampal sequences, evidence for these proposed functions remains primarily phenomenological. Here, we briefly review current knowledge about replay events and theta sequences in spatial memory tasks. We reason that in order to gain a mechanistic and causal understanding of how these patterns influence memory and cognitive processing, it is important to consider how these sequences influence activity in other regions, and in particular, the prefrontal cortex, which is crucial for memory-guided behavior. For spatial memory tasks, we posit that hippocampal-prefrontal interactions mediated by replay and theta sequences play complementary and overlapping roles at different stages in learning, supporting memory encoding and retrieval, deliberative decision making, planning, and guiding future actions. This framework offers testable predictions for future physiology and closed-loop feedback inactivation experiments for specifically targeting hippocampal sequences as well as coordinated prefrontal activity in different network states, with the potential to reveal their causal roles in memory-guided behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Zielinski
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts, 02453
| | - Wenbo Tang
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts, 02453
| | - Shantanu P Jadhav
- Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology and Volen National Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts, 02453
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118
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Dannenberg H, Young K, Hasselmo M. Modulation of Hippocampal Circuits by Muscarinic and Nicotinic Receptors. Front Neural Circuits 2017; 11:102. [PMID: 29321728 PMCID: PMC5733553 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2017.00102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This article provides a review of the effects of activation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors on the physiological properties of circuits in the hippocampal formation. Previous articles have described detailed computational hypotheses about the role of cholinergic neuromodulation in enhancing the dynamics for encoding in cortical structures and the role of reduced cholinergic modulation in allowing consolidation of previously encoded information. This article will focus on addressing the broad scope of different modulatory effects observed within hippocampal circuits, highlighting the heterogeneity of cholinergic modulation in terms of the physiological effects of activation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors and the heterogeneity of effects on different subclasses of neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Dannenberg
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kimberly Young
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Michael Hasselmo
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
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119
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Low-frequency hippocampal-cortical activity drives brain-wide resting-state functional MRI connectivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E6972-E6981. [PMID: 28760982 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1703309114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus, including the dorsal dentate gyrus (dDG), and cortex engage in bidirectional communication. We propose that low-frequency activity in hippocampal-cortical pathways contributes to brain-wide resting-state connectivity to integrate sensory information. Using optogenetic stimulation and brain-wide fMRI and resting-state fMRI (rsfMRI), we determined the large-scale effects of spatiotemporal-specific downstream propagation of hippocampal activity. Low-frequency (1 Hz), but not high-frequency (40 Hz), stimulation of dDG excitatory neurons evoked robust cortical and subcortical brain-wide fMRI responses. More importantly, it enhanced interhemispheric rsfMRI connectivity in various cortices and hippocampus. Subsequent local field potential recordings revealed an increase in slow oscillations in dorsal hippocampus and visual cortex, interhemispheric visual cortical connectivity, and hippocampal-cortical connectivity. Meanwhile, pharmacological inactivation of dDG neurons decreased interhemispheric rsfMRI connectivity. Functionally, visually evoked fMRI responses in visual regions also increased during and after low-frequency dDG stimulation. Together, our results indicate that low-frequency activity robustly propagates in the dorsal hippocampal-cortical pathway, drives interhemispheric cortical rsfMRI connectivity, and mediates visual processing.
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120
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Suzuki Y, Imayoshi I. Network analysis of exploratory behaviors of mice in a spatial learning and memory task. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180789. [PMID: 28700627 PMCID: PMC5507260 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Barnes maze is one of the main behavioral tasks used to study spatial learning and memory. The Barnes maze is a task conducted on "dry land" in which animals try to escape from a brightly lit exposed circular open arena to a small dark escape box located under one of several holes at the periphery of the arena. In comparison with another classical spatial learning and memory task, the Morris water maze, the negative reinforcements that motivate animals in the Barnes maze are less severe and less stressful. Furthermore, the Barnes maze is more compatible with recently developed cutting-edge techniques in neural circuit research, such as the miniature brain endoscope or optogenetics. For this study, we developed a lift-type task start system and equipped the Barnes maze with it. The subject mouse is raised up by the lift and released into the maze automatically so that it can start navigating the maze smoothly from exactly the same start position across repeated trials. We believe that a Barnes maze test with a lift-type task start system may be useful for behavioral experiments when combined with head-mounted or wire-connected devices for online imaging and intervention in neural circuits. Furthermore, we introduced a network analysis method for the analysis of the Barnes maze data. Each animal's exploratory behavior in the maze was visualized as a network of nodes and their links, and spatial learning in the maze is described by systematic changes in network structures of search behavior. Network analysis was capable of visualizing and quantitatively analyzing subtle but significant differences in an animal's exploratory behavior in the maze.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Suzuki
- Medical Innovation Center/SK Project, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Itaru Imayoshi
- Medical Innovation Center/SK Project, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- The Hakubi Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- World Premier International Research Initiative–Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Japan Science and Technology Agency, Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology, Saitama, Japan
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121
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Synaptic Plasticity, Engrams, and Network Oscillations in Amygdala Circuits for Storage and Retrieval of Emotional Memories. Neuron 2017; 94:731-743. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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122
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Chen Z, Wilson MA. Deciphering Neural Codes of Memory during Sleep. Trends Neurosci 2017; 40:260-275. [PMID: 28390699 PMCID: PMC5434457 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Memories of experiences are stored in the cerebral cortex. Sleep is critical for the consolidation of hippocampal memory of wake experiences into the neocortex. Understanding representations of neural codes of hippocampal-neocortical networks during sleep would reveal important circuit mechanisms in memory consolidation and provide novel insights into memory and dreams. Although sleep-associated ensemble spike activity has been investigated, identifying the content of memory in sleep remains challenging. Here we revisit important experimental findings on sleep-associated memory (i.e., neural activity patterns in sleep that reflect memory processing) and review computational approaches to the analysis of sleep-associated neural codes (SANCs). We focus on two analysis paradigms for sleep-associated memory and propose a new unsupervised learning framework ('memory first, meaning later') for unbiased assessment of SANCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA.
| | - Matthew A Wilson
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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123
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Kim CK, Adhikari A, Deisseroth K. Integration of optogenetics with complementary methodologies in systems neuroscience. Nat Rev Neurosci 2017; 18:222-235. [PMID: 28303019 PMCID: PMC5708544 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2017.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 423] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Modern optogenetics can be tuned to evoke activity that corresponds to naturally occurring local or global activity in timing, magnitude or individual-cell patterning. This outcome has been facilitated not only by the development of core features of optogenetics over the past 10 years (microbial-opsin variants, opsin-targeting strategies and light-targeting devices) but also by the recent integration of optogenetics with complementary technologies, spanning electrophysiology, activity imaging and anatomical methods for structural and molecular analysis. This integrated approach now supports optogenetic identification of the native, necessary and sufficient causal underpinnings of physiology and behaviour on acute or chronic timescales and across cellular, circuit-level or brain-wide spatial scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina K Kim
- Neurosciences Program, Stanford University, 318 Campus Drive, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Avishek Adhikari
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Karl Deisseroth
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, 318 Campus Drive, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 318 Campus Drive, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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124
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Black C, Voigts J, Agrawal U, Ladow M, Santoyo J, Moore C, Jones S. Open Ephys electroencephalography (Open Ephys + EEG): a modular, low-cost, open-source solution to human neural recording. J Neural Eng 2017; 14:035002. [PMID: 28266930 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aa651f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Electroencephalography (EEG) offers a unique opportunity to study human neural activity non-invasively with millisecond resolution using minimal equipment in or outside of a lab setting. EEG can be combined with a number of techniques for closed-loop experiments, where external devices are driven by specific neural signals. However, reliable, commercially available EEG systems are expensive, often making them impractical for individual use and research development. Moreover, by design, a majority of these systems cannot be easily altered to the specification needed by the end user. We focused on mitigating these issues by implementing open-source tools to develop a new EEG platform to drive down research costs and promote collaboration and innovation. APPROACH Here, we present methods to expand the open-source electrophysiology system, Open Ephys (www.openephys.org), to include human EEG recordings. We describe the equipment and protocol necessary to interface various EEG caps with the Open Ephys acquisition board, and detail methods for processing data. We present applications of Open Ephys + EEG as a research tool and discuss how this innovative EEG technology lays a framework for improved closed-loop paradigms and novel brain-computer interface experiments. MAIN RESULTS The Open Ephys + EEG system can record reliable human EEG data, as well as human EMG data. A side-by-side comparison of eyes closed 8-14 Hz activity between the Open Ephys + EEG system and the Brainvision ActiCHamp EEG system showed similar average power and signal to noise. SIGNIFICANCE Open Ephys + EEG enables users to acquire high-quality human EEG data comparable to that of commercially available systems, while maintaining the price point and extensibility inherent to open-source systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Black
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States of America
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125
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Layer-specific optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons causes beta-gamma entrainment of neonatal networks. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14563. [PMID: 28216627 PMCID: PMC5321724 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Coordinated activity patterns in the developing brain may contribute to the wiring of neuronal circuits underlying future behavioural requirements. However, causal evidence for this hypothesis has been difficult to obtain owing to the absence of tools for selective manipulation of oscillations during early development. We established a protocol that combines optogenetics with electrophysiological recordings from neonatal mice in vivo to elucidate the substrate of early network oscillations in the prefrontal cortex. We show that light-induced activation of layer II/III pyramidal neurons that are transfected by in utero electroporation with a high-efficiency channelrhodopsin drives frequency-specific spiking and boosts network oscillations within beta–gamma frequency range. By contrast, activation of layer V/VI pyramidal neurons causes nonspecific network activation. Thus, entrainment of neonatal prefrontal networks in fast rhythms relies on the activation of layer II/III pyramidal neurons. This approach used here may be useful for further interrogation of developing circuits, and their behavioural readout. Oscillations in cortical activity during development are important for functional maturation. Here, the authors use optogenetics in neonatal mice to determine a causal role for pyramidal cell firing in different prelimbic cortex layers in generating beta–gamma range activity.
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126
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Bezaire MJ, Raikov I, Burk K, Vyas D, Soltesz I. Interneuronal mechanisms of hippocampal theta oscillations in a full-scale model of the rodent CA1 circuit. eLife 2016; 5:e18566. [PMID: 28009257 DOI: 10.7554/elife.18566.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The hippocampal theta rhythm plays important roles in information processing; however, the mechanisms of its generation are not well understood. We developed a data-driven, supercomputer-based, full-scale (1:1) model of the rodent CA1 area and studied its interneurons during theta oscillations. Theta rhythm with phase-locked gamma oscillations and phase-preferential discharges of distinct interneuronal types spontaneously emerged from the isolated CA1 circuit without rhythmic inputs. Perturbation experiments identified parvalbumin-expressing interneurons and neurogliaform cells, as well as interneuronal diversity itself, as important factors in theta generation. These simulations reveal new insights into the spatiotemporal organization of the CA1 circuit during theta oscillations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne J Bezaire
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Ivan Raikov
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, United States
| | - Kelly Burk
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Dhrumil Vyas
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Ivan Soltesz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, United States
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127
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Bezaire MJ, Raikov I, Burk K, Vyas D, Soltesz I. Interneuronal mechanisms of hippocampal theta oscillations in a full-scale model of the rodent CA1 circuit. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 28009257 PMCID: PMC5313080 DOI: 10.7554/elife.18566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampal theta rhythm plays important roles in information processing; however, the mechanisms of its generation are not well understood. We developed a data-driven, supercomputer-based, full-scale (1:1) model of the rodent CA1 area and studied its interneurons during theta oscillations. Theta rhythm with phase-locked gamma oscillations and phase-preferential discharges of distinct interneuronal types spontaneously emerged from the isolated CA1 circuit without rhythmic inputs. Perturbation experiments identified parvalbumin-expressing interneurons and neurogliaform cells, as well as interneuronal diversity itself, as important factors in theta generation. These simulations reveal new insights into the spatiotemporal organization of the CA1 circuit during theta oscillations. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.18566.001
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne J Bezaire
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Ivan Raikov
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States.,Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, United States
| | - Kelly Burk
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Dhrumil Vyas
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Ivan Soltesz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, United States
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128
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Blumberg BJ, Flynn SP, Barriere SJ, Mouchati PR, Scott RC, Holmes GL, Barry JM. Efficacy of nonselective optogenetic control of the medial septum over hippocampal oscillations: the influence of speed and implications for cognitive enhancement. Physiol Rep 2016; 4:e13048. [PMID: 27923975 PMCID: PMC5357822 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 10/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Optogenetics holds great promise for both the dissection of neural circuits and the evaluation of theories centered on the temporal organizing properties of oscillations that underpin cognition. To date, no studies have examined the efficacy of optogenetic stimulation for altering hippocampal oscillations in freely moving wild-type rats, or how these alterations would affect performance on behavioral tasks. Here, we used an AAV virus to express ChR2 in the medial septum (MS) of wild-type rats, and optically stimulated septal neurons at 6 Hz and 30 Hz. We measured the corresponding effects of these stimulations on the oscillations of the MS and hippocampal subfields CA1 and CA3 in three different contexts: (1) With minimal movement while the rats sat in a confined chamber; (2) Explored a novel open field; and (3) Learned and performed a T-maze behavioral task. While control yellow light stimulation did not affect oscillations, 6-Hz blue light septal stimulations altered hippocampal theta oscillations in a manner that depended on the animal's mobility and speed. While the 30 Hz blue light septal stimulations only altered theta frequency in CA1 while the rat had limited mobility, it robustly increased the amplitude of hippocampal signals at 30 Hz in both regions in all three recording contexts. We found that animals were more likely to make a correct choice during Day 1 of T-maze training during both MS stimulation protocols than during control stimulation, and that improved performance was independent of theta frequency alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Blumberg
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Sean P Flynn
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Sylvain J Barriere
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Philippe R Mouchati
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Rod C Scott
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Jeremy M Barry
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
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129
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Barry JM, Holmes GL. Why Are Children With Epileptic Encephalopathies Encephalopathic? J Child Neurol 2016; 31:1495-1504. [PMID: 27515946 PMCID: PMC5410364 DOI: 10.1177/0883073816662140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The epileptic encephalopathies are devastating conditions characterized by frequent seizures, severely abnormal electroencephalograms (EEGs), and cognitive slowing or regression. The cognitive impairment in the epileptic encephalopathies may be more concerning to the patient and parents than the epilepsy itself. There is increasing recognition that the cognitive comorbidity can be both chronic, primarily due to the underlying etiology of the epilepsy, and dynamic or evolving because of recurrent seizures, interictal spikes, and antiepileptic drugs. Much of scholars' understanding of the neurophysiological underpinnings of cognitive dysfunction in the epileptic encephalopathies comes from rodent studies. Frequent seizures and interictal EEG discharges in rats lead to considerable spatial and social-cognitive deficits. Paralleling these cognitive deficits are dyscoordination of dynamic neural activity within and between the neural networks that subserve normal cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Barry
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
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130
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Enhanced theta synchronization correlates with the successful retrieval of trace fear memory. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 480:608-614. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.10.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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131
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Dannenberg H, Hinman JR, Hasselmo ME. Potential roles of cholinergic modulation in the neural coding of location and movement speed. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 110:52-64. [PMID: 27677935 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphysparis.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral data suggest that cholinergic modulation may play a role in certain aspects of spatial memory, and neurophysiological data demonstrate neurons that fire in response to spatial dimensions, including grid cells and place cells that respond on the basis of location and running speed. These neurons show firing responses that depend upon the visual configuration of the environment, due to coding in visually-responsive regions of the neocortex. This review focuses on the physiological effects of acetylcholine that may influence the sensory coding of spatial dimensions relevant to behavior. In particular, the local circuit effects of acetylcholine within the cortex regulate the influence of sensory input relative to internal memory representations via presynaptic inhibition of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission, and the modulation of intrinsic currents in cortical excitatory and inhibitory neurons. In addition, circuit effects of acetylcholine regulate the dynamics of cortical circuits including oscillations at theta and gamma frequencies. These effects of acetylcholine on local circuits and network dynamics could underlie the role of acetylcholine in coding of spatial information for the performance of spatial memory tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Dannenberg
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Center for Memory and Brain, Graduate Program for Neuroscience, Boston University, 2 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - James R Hinman
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Center for Memory and Brain, Graduate Program for Neuroscience, Boston University, 2 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - Michael E Hasselmo
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Center for Memory and Brain, Graduate Program for Neuroscience, Boston University, 2 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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132
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Multiple modes of hippocampal-prefrontal interactions in memory-guided behavior. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 40:161-169. [PMID: 27543753 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are crucial for learning and memory-guided behavior, but neural mechanisms underlying their coordinated operation are currently unclear. Recent evidence indicates that different network activity patterns, each marked by local field potential signatures, play distinct roles in mediating long-range interactions between these regions to support memory processing. We propose that network patterns underlie multiple communication modes between these regions, and support different cognitive demands during ongoing behavior. Network patterns may represent a fundamental neurophysiological mechanism through which the hippocampus communicates memory-related information with other regions. Dissecting the causal roles of these network patterns in cognitive processes has the potential to delineate a coherent and dynamic functional organization across hippocampal and prefrontal networks during memory-guided behavior.
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133
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Deng X, Liu DF, Karlsson MP, Frank LM, Eden UT. Rapid classification of hippocampal replay content for real-time applications. J Neurophysiol 2016; 116:2221-2235. [PMID: 27535369 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00151.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sharp-wave ripple (SWR) events in the hippocampus replay millisecond-timescale patterns of place cell activity related to the past experience of an animal. Interrupting SWR events leads to learning and memory impairments, but how the specific patterns of place cell spiking seen during SWRs contribute to learning and memory remains unclear. A deeper understanding of this issue will require the ability to manipulate SWR events based on their content. Accurate real-time decoding of SWR replay events requires new algorithms that are able to estimate replay content and the associated uncertainty, along with software and hardware that can execute these algorithms for biological interventions on a millisecond timescale. Here we develop an efficient estimation algorithm to categorize the content of replay from multiunit spiking activity. Specifically, we apply real-time decoding methods to each SWR event and then compute the posterior probability of the replay feature. We illustrate this approach by classifying SWR events from data recorded in the hippocampus of a rat performing a spatial memory task into four categories: whether they represent outbound or inbound trajectories and whether the activity is replayed forward or backward in time. We show that our algorithm can classify the majority of SWR events in a recording epoch within 20 ms of the replay onset with high certainty, which makes the algorithm suitable for a real-time implementation with short latencies to incorporate into content-based feedback experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Deng
- Department of Statistics, Columbia University, New York, New York; .,Grossman Center for the Statistics of Mind, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Daniel F Liu
- UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, UCSF, San Francisco, California
| | | | - Loren M Frank
- Department of Physiology, UCSF, San Francisco, California.,Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF, San Francisco, California.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UCSF, San Francisco, California; and
| | - Uri T Eden
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
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134
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Probing Neural Transplant Networks In Vivo with Optogenetics and Optogenetic fMRI. Stem Cells Int 2016; 2016:8612751. [PMID: 27293449 PMCID: PMC4880717 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8612751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding how stem cell-derived neurons functionally integrate into the brain upon transplantation has been a long sought-after goal of regenerative medicine. However, methodological limitations have stood as a barrier, preventing key insight into this fundamental problem. A recently developed technology, termed optogenetic functional magnetic resonance imaging (ofMRI), offers a possible solution. By combining targeted activation of transplanted neurons with large-scale, noninvasive measurements of brain activity, ofMRI can directly visualize the effect of engrafted neurons firing on downstream regions. Importantly, this tool can be used to identify not only whether transplanted neurons have functionally integrated into the brain, but also which regions they influence and how. Furthermore, the precise control afforded over activation enables the input-output properties of engrafted neurons to be systematically studied. This review summarizes the efforts in stem cell biology and neuroimaging that made this development possible and outlines its potential applications for improving and optimizing stem cell-based therapies in the future.
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135
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Barry JM, Sakkaki S, Barriere SJ, Patterson KP, Lenck-Santini PP, Scott RC, Baram TZ, Holmes GL. Temporal Coordination of Hippocampal Neurons Reflects Cognitive Outcome Post-febrile Status Epilepticus. EBioMedicine 2016; 7:175-90. [PMID: 27322471 PMCID: PMC4909381 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The coordination of dynamic neural activity within and between neural networks is believed to underlie normal cognitive processes. Conversely, cognitive deficits that occur following neurological insults may result from network discoordination. We hypothesized that cognitive outcome following febrile status epilepticus (FSE) depends on network efficacy within and between fields CA1 and CA3 to dynamically organize cell activity by theta phase. Control and FSE rats were trained to forage or perform an active avoidance spatial task. FSE rats were sorted by those that were able to reach task criterion (FSE-L) and those that could not (FSE-NL). FSE-NL CA1 place cells did not exhibit phase preference in either context and exhibited poor cross-theta interaction between CA1 and CA3. FSE-L and control CA1 place cells exhibited phase preference at peak theta that shifted during active avoidance to the same static phase preference observed in CA3. Temporal coordination of neuronal activity by theta phase may therefore explain variability in cognitive outcome following neurological insults in early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Barry
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States.
| | - Sophie Sakkaki
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States
| | - Sylvain J Barriere
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States
| | - Katelin P Patterson
- Departments of Anatomy/Neurobiology and Pediatrics, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California, United States
| | | | - Rod C Scott
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States; Department of Neurology, University College London, Institute of Child Health, United Kingdom
| | - Tallie Z Baram
- Departments of Anatomy/Neurobiology and Pediatrics, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California, United States
| | - Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont, United States
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136
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Zrenner C, Belardinelli P, Müller-Dahlhaus F, Ziemann U. Closed-Loop Neuroscience and Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation: A Tale of Two Loops. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:92. [PMID: 27092055 PMCID: PMC4823269 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Closed-loop neuroscience is receiving increasing attention with recent technological advances that enable complex feedback loops to be implemented with millisecond resolution on commodity hardware. We summarize emerging conceptual and methodological frameworks that are available to experimenters investigating a “brain in the loop” using non-invasive brain stimulation and briefly review the experimental and therapeutic implications. We take the view that closed-loop neuroscience in fact deals with two conceptually quite different loops: a “brain-state dynamics” loop, used to couple with and modulate the trajectory of neuronal activity patterns, and a “task dynamics” loop, that is the bidirectional motor-sensory interaction between brain and (simulated) environment, and which enables goal-directed behavioral tasks to be incorporated. Both loops need to be considered and combined to realize the full experimental and therapeutic potential of closed-loop neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Zrenner
- Brain Networks and Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurology and Stroke and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen Tübingen, Germany
| | - Paolo Belardinelli
- Brain Networks and Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurology and Stroke and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen Tübingen, Germany
| | - Florian Müller-Dahlhaus
- Brain Networks and Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurology and Stroke and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulf Ziemann
- Brain Networks and Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurology and Stroke and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen Tübingen, Germany
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137
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Abstract
The hippocampal local field potential (LFP) shows three major types of rhythms: theta, sharp wave-ripples and gamma. These rhythms are defined by their frequencies, they have behavioural correlates in several species including rats and humans, and they have been proposed to carry out distinct functions in hippocampal memory processing. However, recent findings have challenged traditional views on these behavioural functions. In this Review, I discuss our current understanding of the origins and the mnemonic functions of hippocampal theta, sharp wave-ripples and gamma rhythms on the basis of findings from rodent studies. In addition, I present an updated synthesis of their roles and interactions within the hippocampal network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lee Colgin
- Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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138
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Tsukerman VD. The neurodynamic bases of imitating learning and episodic memory. Biophysics (Nagoya-shi) 2016. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006350916020226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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139
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Coherence between Rat Sensorimotor System and Hippocampus Is Enhanced during Tactile Discrimination. PLoS Biol 2016; 14:e1002384. [PMID: 26890254 PMCID: PMC4758608 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhythms with time scales of multiple cycles per second permeate the mammalian brain, yet neuroscientists are not certain of their functional roles. One leading idea is that coherent oscillation between two brain regions facilitates the exchange of information between them. In rats, the hippocampus and the vibrissal sensorimotor system both are characterized by rhythmic oscillation in the theta range, 5–12 Hz. Previous work has been divided as to whether the two rhythms are independent or coherent. To resolve this question, we acquired three measures from rats—whisker motion, hippocampal local field potential (LFP), and barrel cortex unit firing—during a whisker-mediated texture discrimination task and during control conditions (not engaged in a whisker-mediated memory task). Compared to control conditions, the theta band of hippocampal LFP showed a marked increase in power as the rats approached and then palpated the texture. Phase synchronization between whisking and hippocampal LFP increased by almost 50% during approach and texture palpation. In addition, a greater proportion of barrel cortex neurons showed firing that was phase-locked to hippocampal theta while rats were engaged in the discrimination task. Consistent with a behavioral consequence of phase synchronization, the rats identified the texture more rapidly and with lower error likelihood on trials in which there was an increase in theta-whisking coherence at the moment of texture palpation. These results suggest that coherence between the whisking rhythm, barrel cortex firing, and hippocampal LFP is augmented selectively during epochs in which the rat collects sensory information and that such coherence enhances the efficiency of integration of stimulus information into memory and decision-making centers. In rats, the rhythms of whisking and hippocampal theta become coherent precisely when rats approach and explore a texture; higher coherence enhances the identification of texture. Many regions of the mammalian brain exhibit oscillations in electrical activity. In rats, the 5–12 Hz theta rhythm is present in the hippocampus and in diverse areas of the cerebral cortex. What is the function of this rhythm? One proposal is that the exchange of information between two brain regions is facilitated whenever their respective oscillations are coherent. To test this idea, we ask whether theta oscillation in the hippocampus, a crucial memory structure located deep in the brain, is coherent with the rat’s rhythm of moving its whiskers and sensing the physical environment with them. We acquired hippocampal local field potentials (LFP)—extracellular voltage fluctuations within a small volume—while rats classified textures using cyclical whisker motion (“whisking”). At the moment of texture palpation, coherence between whisking and hippocampal theta oscillations increased by nearly 50%. At the same time, neuronal firing in sensory cortex became more phase-locked to the hippocampal theta oscillations. Rats identified the texture more rapidly and with lower error likelihood on trials characterized by an increase in hippocampal theta-whisking coherence during texture palpation. These results suggest that, as rats collect touch signals, enhanced coherence between the whisking rhythm, sensory cortex, and hippocampal LFP facilitates the integration of sensory information into memory and decision-making centers in the brain.
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140
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Karalis N, Dejean C, Chaudun F, Khoder S, Rozeske RR, Wurtz H, Bagur S, Benchenane K, Sirota A, Courtin J, Herry C. 4-Hz oscillations synchronize prefrontal-amygdala circuits during fear behavior. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:605-12. [PMID: 26878674 PMCID: PMC4843971 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fear expression relies on the coordinated activity of prefrontal and amygdala circuits, yet the mechanisms allowing long-range network synchronization during fear remain unknown. Using a combination of extracellular recordings, pharmacological, and optogenetic manipulations we report that freezing, a behavioural expression of fear, temporally coincides with the development of sustained, internally generated 4 Hz oscillations within prefrontal-amygdala circuits. 4 Hz oscillations predict freezing onset and offset and synchronize prefrontal-amygdala circuits. Optogenetic induction of prefrontal 4 Hz oscillations coordinates prefrontal-amygdala activity and elicits fear behaviour. These results unravel a novel sustained oscillatory mechanism mediating prefrontal-amygdala coupling during fear behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Karalis
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Munich, Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Cyril Dejean
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France
| | - Fabrice Chaudun
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France
| | - Suzana Khoder
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France
| | - Robert R Rozeske
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France
| | - Hélène Wurtz
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sophie Bagur
- Team Memory, Oscillations and Brain states (MOBs), Brain Plasticity Unit, CNRS UMR 8249, ESPCI ParisTech, Ecole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Karim Benchenane
- Team Memory, Oscillations and Brain states (MOBs), Brain Plasticity Unit, CNRS UMR 8249, ESPCI ParisTech, Ecole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Anton Sirota
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Munich, Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Julien Courtin
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cyril Herry
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France.,Univ. Bordeaux, Neurocentre Magendie, U862, Bordeaux, France
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141
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Abstract
UNLABELLED There have been two recent revolutionary advances in neuroscience: First, genetically encoded activity sensors have brought the goal of optical detection of single action potentials in vivo within reach. Second, optogenetic actuators now allow the activity of neurons to be controlled with millisecond precision. These revolutions have now been combined, together with advanced microscopies, to allow "all-optical" readout and manipulation of activity in neural circuits with single-spike and single-neuron precision. This is a transformational advance that will open new frontiers in neuroscience research. Harnessing the power of light in the all-optical approach requires coexpression of genetically encoded activity sensors and optogenetic probes in the same neurons, as well as the ability to simultaneously target and record the light from the selected neurons. It has recently become possible to combine sensors and optical strategies that are sufficiently sensitive and cross talk free to enable single-action-potential sensitivity and precision for both readout and manipulation in the intact brain. The combination of simultaneous readout and manipulation from the same genetically defined cells will enable a wide range of new experiments as well as inspire new technologies for interacting with the brain. The advances described in this review herald a future where the traditional tools used for generations by physiologists to study and interact with the brain-stimulation and recording electrodes-can largely be replaced by light. We outline potential future developments in this field and discuss how the all-optical strategy can be applied to solve fundamental problems in neuroscience. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This review describes the nexus of dramatic recent developments in optogenetic probes, genetically encoded activity sensors, and novel microscopies, which together allow the activity of neural circuits to be recorded and manipulated entirely using light. The optical and protein engineering strategies that form the basis of this "all-optical" approach are now sufficiently advanced to enable single-neuron and single-action potential precision for simultaneous readout and manipulation from the same functionally defined neurons in the intact brain. These advances promise to illuminate many fundamental challenges in neuroscience, including transforming our search for the neural code and the links between neural circuit activity and behavior.
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142
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Sosa M, Gillespie AK, Frank LM. Neural Activity Patterns Underlying Spatial Coding in the Hippocampus. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2016; 37:43-100. [PMID: 27885550 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus is well known as a central site for memory processing-critical for storing and later retrieving the experiences events of daily life so they can be used to shape future behavior. Much of what we know about the physiology underlying hippocampal function comes from spatial navigation studies in rodents, which have allowed great strides in understanding how the hippocampus represents experience at the cellular level. However, it remains a challenge to reconcile our knowledge of spatial encoding in the hippocampus with its demonstrated role in memory-dependent tasks in both humans and other animals. Moreover, our understanding of how networks of neurons coordinate their activity within and across hippocampal subregions to enable the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of memories is incomplete. In this chapter, we explore how information may be represented at the cellular level and processed via coordinated patterns of activity throughout the subregions of the hippocampal network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marielena Sosa
- Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience and Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | | | - Loren M Frank
- Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience and Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, USA. .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Maryland, USA.
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143
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Niknazar M, Krishnan GP, Bazhenov M, Mednick SC. Coupling of Thalamocortical Sleep Oscillations Are Important for Memory Consolidation in Humans. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0144720. [PMID: 26671283 PMCID: PMC4699460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep, specifically non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, is thought to play a critical role in the consolidation of recent memories. Two main oscillatory activities observed during NREM, cortical slow oscillations (SO, 0.5–1.0Hz) and thalamic spindles (12–15Hz), have been shown to independently correlate with memory improvement. Yet, it is not known how these thalamocortical events interact, or the significance of this interaction, during the consolidation process. Here, we found that systemic administration of the GABAergic drug (zolpidem) increased both the phase-amplitude coupling between SO and spindles, and verbal memory improvement in humans. These results suggest that thalamic spindles that occur during transitions to the cortical SO Up state are optimal for memory consolidation. Our study predicts that the timely interactions between cortical and thalamic events during consolidation, contribute to memory improvement and is mediated by the level of inhibitory neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Niknazar
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA, 92521, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA, 92521, United States of America
| | - Giri P. Krishnan
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA, 92521, United States of America
| | - Maxim Bazhenov
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA, 92521, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MB); (SCM)
| | - Sara C. Mednick
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA, 92521, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MB); (SCM)
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144
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Colgin LL. Do slow and fast gamma rhythms correspond to distinct functional states in the hippocampal network? Brain Res 2015; 1621:309-15. [PMID: 25591484 PMCID: PMC4499490 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2014] [Revised: 01/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
For decades, hippocampal gamma was thought to be a single type of rhythm with a continuously varying frequency. However, an increasing body of evidence supports a new hypothesis regarding hippocampal gamma. The patterns traditionally defined as hippocampal gamma may actually comprise separate gamma subtypes with distinct frequencies and unique functions. The present review discusses the evidence for and against this new viewpoint. This review will also point out key questions that remain to be answered to validate the two-gamma hypothesis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Brain and Memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lee Colgin
- Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station Stop C7000, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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145
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Disconnected neuromagnetic networks in children born very preterm: Disconnected MEG networks in preterm children. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2015; 11:376-84. [PMID: 27330980 PMCID: PMC4589841 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2015.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Many children born very preterm (≤32 weeks) experience significant cognitive difficulties, but the biological basis of such problems has not yet been determined. Functional MRI studies have implicated altered functional connectivity; however, little is known regarding the spatiotemporal organization of brain networks in this population. We provide the first examination of resting-state neuromagnetic connectivity mapped in brain space in school age children born very preterm. Thirty-four subjects (age range 7–12 years old), consisting of 17 very preterm-born children and 17 full-term born children were included. Very preterm-born children exhibited global decreases in inter-regional synchrony in all analysed frequency ranges, from theta (4–7 Hz) to high gamma (80–150 Hz; p < 0.01, corrected). These reductions were expressed in spatially and frequency specific brain networks (p < 0.0005, corrected). Our results demonstrate that mapping connectivity with high spatiotemporal resolution offers new insights into altered organization of neurophysiological networks which may contribute to the cognitive difficulties in this vulnerable population. We recorded resting-state magnetoencephalography in school-age children born very preterm and healthy children. We examine functional connectivity across a wide frequency spectrum in brain space. Global reductions in neural synchrony were detected in children born very preterm. These reductions encompass networks related to executive function and overall cognitive flexibility. These effects may be relevant to cognitive and behavioural difficulties reported in the ex-preterm population.
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146
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Abstract
Over the past 10 years, the development and convergence of microbial opsin engineering, modular genetic methods for cell-type targeting and optical strategies for guiding light through tissue have enabled versatile optical control of defined cells in living systems, defining modern optogenetics. Despite widespread recognition of the importance of spatiotemporally precise causal control over cellular signaling, for nearly the first half (2005-2009) of this 10-year period, as optogenetics was being created, there were difficulties in implementation, few publications and limited biological findings. In contrast, the ensuing years have witnessed a substantial acceleration in the application domain, with the publication of thousands of discoveries and insights into the function of nervous systems and beyond. This Historical Commentary reflects on the scientific landscape of this decade-long transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Deisseroth
- Departments of Bioengineering and of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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147
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Dejean C, Courtin J, Rozeske RR, Bonnet MC, Dousset V, Michelet T, Herry C. Neuronal Circuits for Fear Expression and Recovery: Recent Advances and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 78:298-306. [PMID: 25908496 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent technological developments, such as single unit recordings coupled to optogenetic approaches, have provided unprecedented knowledge about the precise neuronal circuits contributing to the expression and recovery of conditioned fear behavior. These data have provided an understanding of the contributions of distinct brain regions such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and periaqueductal gray matter to the control of conditioned fear behavior. Notably, the precise manipulation and identification of specific cell types by optogenetic techniques have provided novel avenues to establish causal links between changes in neuronal activity that develop in dedicated neuronal structures and the short and long-lasting expression of conditioned fear memories. In this review, we provide an update on the key neuronal circuits and cell types mediating conditioned fear expression and recovery and how these new discoveries might refine therapeutic approaches for psychiatric conditions such as anxiety disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Dejean
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocenter Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, Bordeaux, France
| | - Julien Courtin
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocenter Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, Bordeaux, France
| | - Robert R Rozeske
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocenter Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, Bordeaux, France
| | - Mélissa C Bonnet
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocenter Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, Bordeaux, France.; Universitaire de Bordeaux, Institut de Bio-imagerie de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Vincent Dousset
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocenter Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, Bordeaux, France.; Universitaire de Bordeaux, Institut de Bio-imagerie de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France.; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Bordeaux, Service de NeuroImagerie Diagnostique et Thérapeutique, Bordeaux, France
| | - Thomas Michelet
- Unite Mixte de Recherche Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 5293, Institut des maladies Neurodégénératives, Bordeaux, France
| | - Cyril Herry
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocenter Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, Bordeaux, France..
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148
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Richter FR, Chanales AJH, Kuhl BA. Predicting the integration of overlapping memories by decoding mnemonic processing states during learning. Neuroimage 2015; 124:323-335. [PMID: 26327243 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampal memory system is thought to alternate between two opposing processing states: encoding and retrieval. When present experience overlaps with past experience, this creates a potential tradeoff between encoding the present and retrieving the past. This tradeoff may be resolved by memory integration-that is, by forming a mnemonic representation that links present experience with overlapping past experience. Here, we used fMRI decoding analyses to predict when - and establish how - past and present experiences become integrated in memory. In an initial experiment, we alternately instructed subjects to adopt encoding, retrieval or integration states during overlapping learning. We then trained across-subject pattern classifiers to 'read out' the instructed processing states from fMRI activity patterns. We show that an integration state was clearly dissociable from encoding or retrieval states. Moreover, trial-by-trial fluctuations in decoded evidence for an integration state during learning reliably predicted behavioral expressions of successful memory integration. Strikingly, the decoding algorithm also successfully predicted specific instances of spontaneous memory integration in an entirely independent sample of subjects for whom processing state instructions were not administered. Finally, we show that medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus differentially contribute to encoding, retrieval, and integration states: whereas hippocampus signals the tradeoff between encoding vs. retrieval states, medial prefrontal cortex actively represents past experience in relation to new learning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Brice A Kuhl
- Department of Psychology, New York University, United States; Center for Neural Science, New York University, 10003 New York, NY, United States
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149
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Wolff AR, Bilkey DK. Prenatal immune activation alters hippocampal place cell firing characteristics in adult animals. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 48:232-43. [PMID: 25843370 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenatal maternal immune activation (MIA) is a risk factor for several developmental neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Adults with these disorders display alterations in memory function that may result from changes in the structure and function of the hippocampus. In the present study we use an animal model to investigate the effect that a transient prenatal maternal immune activation episode has on the spatially-modulated firing activity of hippocampal neurons in adult animals. MIA was induced in pregnant rat dams with a single injection of the synthetic cytokine inducer polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) on gestational day 15. Control dams were given a saline equivalent. Firing activity and local field potentials (LFPs) were recorded from the CA1 region of the adult male offspring of these dams as they moved freely in an open arena. Most neurons displayed characteristic spatially-modulated 'place cell' firing activity and while there was no between-group difference in mean firing rate between groups, place cells had smaller place fields in MIA-exposed animals when compared to control-group cells. Cells recorded in MIA-group animals also displayed an altered firing-phase synchrony relationship to simultaneously recorded LFPs. When the floor of the arena was rotated, the place fields of MIA-group cells were more likely to shift in the same direction as the floor rotation, suggesting that local cues may have been more salient for these animals. In contrast, place fields in control group cells were more likely to shift firing position to novel spatial locations suggesting an altered response to contextual cues. These findings show that a single MIA intervention is sufficient to change several important characteristics of hippocampal place cell activity in adult offspring. These changes could contribute to the memory dysfunction that is associated with MIA, by altering the encoding of spatial context and by disrupting plasticity mechanisms that are dependent on spike timing synchrony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy R Wolff
- Department of Psychology, Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - David K Bilkey
- Department of Psychology, Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Mandelblat-Cerf Y, Ramesh RN, Burgess CR, Patella P, Yang Z, Lowell BB, Andermann ML. Arcuate hypothalamic AgRP and putative POMC neurons show opposite changes in spiking across multiple timescales. eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 26159614 PMCID: PMC4498165 DOI: 10.7554/elife.07122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Agouti-related-peptide (AgRP) neurons—interoceptive neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC)—are both necessary and sufficient for driving feeding behavior. To better understand the functional roles of AgRP neurons, we performed optetrode electrophysiological recordings from AgRP neurons in awake, behaving AgRP-IRES-Cre mice. In free-feeding mice, we observed a fivefold increase in AgRP neuron firing with mounting caloric deficit in afternoon vs morning recordings. In food-restricted mice, as food became available, AgRP neuron firing dropped, yet remained elevated as compared to firing in sated mice. The rapid drop in spiking activity of AgRP neurons at meal onset may reflect a termination of the drive to find food, while residual, persistent spiking may reflect a sustained drive to consume food. Moreover, nearby neurons inhibited by AgRP neuron photostimulation, likely including satiety-promoting pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons, demonstrated opposite changes in spiking. Finally, firing of ARC neurons was also rapidly modulated within seconds of individual licks for liquid food. These findings suggest novel roles for antagonistic AgRP and POMC neurons in the regulation of feeding behaviors across multiple timescales. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.07122.001 Appetite is controlled in part by the opposing actions of the ‘hunger hormone’ (called ghrelin) and the ‘satiety hormone’ (called leptin). Ghrelin is released by the stomach when empty and stimulates appetite, whereas leptin is released by fat stores and induces feelings of fullness. Both hormones travel via the bloodstream and are detected by a region of the brain called the hypothalamus. Ghrelin and leptin act specifically on a group of cells in the hypothalamus that contains at least two major cell types: AgRP neurons and POMC neurons. Electrode recordings from slices of mouse brain show that AgRP neurons fire more rapidly at night—when mice normally feed—than during the day, whereas POMC neurons do the opposite. This suggests that the activity of AgRP neurons drives food-seeking behavior, whereas POMC firing inhibits it. However, the absence of circulating hormones such as leptin and ghrelin in brain slices makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the role of these cells in controlling appetite. Mandelblat-Cerf, Ramesh, Burgess et al. have addressed this issue by performing the first recordings of spiking activity in individual AgRP neurons and other cells that are likely to be POMC neurons in awake mice. Consistent with the results of slice experiments, the firing rate of AgRP neurons increased steadily over the course of the day, suggesting that their activity signals an increasing need for food. Furthermore, as soon as food became available, the firing rate of the AgRP neurons suddenly dropped—even though the animals' energy reserves would still have been low. These results are consistent with the findings of two recent studies reported earlier this year that used different methods to indirectly measure neuronal activity in awake mice. Notably, even after the drop in activity, the firing rates of AgRP neurons remained above those recorded in fully sated mice—which possibly reflects the fact that the animals' energy reserves were still low. The putative POMC neurons generally showed opposite effects to the AgRP neurons. The results of these electrode recordings in awake mice thus suggest that AgRP and POMC neurons together maintain a drive to seek out food sources as energy reserves fall, and to refrain from doing so when energy reserves are plentiful. Moreover, the seemingly paradoxical drop in AgRP firing and increase in POMC firing upon receiving food may act as a signal to temporarily stop searching for food, so that feeding itself can begin. Alternatively, since the release of satiety hormones after eating a meal is slow, these rapid changes in firing may provide more immediate feedback to the neuronal circuits that regulate the drives to seek and consume food. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.07122.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Mandelblat-Cerf
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Rohan N Ramesh
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Christian R Burgess
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Paola Patella
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Zongfang Yang
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Bradford B Lowell
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Mark L Andermann
- Department of Endocrinology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, United States
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