The use of natural and synthetic phospholipids as pharmaceutical excipients

Nutraceutical Vegetable Oil Nanoformulations for Prevention and Management of Diseases

The scientific community is becoming increasingly interested in identifying, characterizing, and delivering nutraceuticals, which constitutes a multi-billion-dollar business. These bioactive agents are claimed to exhibit several health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of diseases such as arthritis, cancer, osteoporosis, cataracts, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's diseases, heart, brain and metabolic disorders, etc. Nutraceuticals are typically consumed as part of a regular human diet and are usually present within foods, comprising vegetable oil, although at low levels and variable composition. Thus, it is difficult to control the type, amount and frequency of their ingestion by individuals. Nanoformulations about vegetable oil-based bioactive compounds with nutraceutical properties are useful for overcoming these issues, while improving the uptake, absorption, and bioavailability in the body. The purpose of this current study is to review papers on such nanoformulations, particularly those relevant for health benefits and the prevention and management of diseases, as well as bioactives extracted from vegetable oils enhancing the drug effectiveness, retrieved through bibliographic databases by setting a timespan from January 2000 to April 2020 (about 1758 records).

Nano-emulgel: Emerging as a Smarter Topical Lipidic Emulsion-based Nanocarrier for Skin Healthcare Applications

BACKGROUND

In recent decades, enormous efforts for different drug discovery processes have led to a number of drug molecules available today to overcome different challenges of the health care system. Unfortunately, more than half of these drugs are listed in either BCS (biopharmaceutical classification system) class II/ IV or both are eliminated from the development pipeline due to their limited clinical use. A nanotechnological approach bears much hope and lipoidal fabrication is found to be suitable for the delivery of such drugs. Nanoemulsion based gel i.e. nanoemulgel out of different nanolipoidal formulations has been found to be a suitable approach to successful drug delivery through topical routes. In past few years many herbal and synthetic active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) has been patented as nano sized emulsified gel for various therapeutic activities.

METHODS

Nanoemulgel is basically an emulsion-based topical gel formulation, where nanosized emulsion globules can be prepared with the help of high energy or low energy methods and further converted into nanoemulgel by adding a suitable gelling agent. Nanoemulgel fabrication enlists various kinds of polymeric materials, surfactants and fatty substances of natural, synthetic and semi-synthetic nature with a globule size range from 5 to 500 nm.

RESULTS

Nanoemulgel can be applicable to various acute and chronic diseases through topical routes.

CONCLUSION

Nanoemulgel preparations of many recently approved drugs are being used successfully in different areas of health care and have re-defined the significance of topical route of delivery as compared to other routes. However, along with various improvements in the current state of the delivery system, the safety factor needs to be taken into account by toxicological studies of the materials used in such formulations.

Appraisal of the suitability of two-stage extraction process by combining compressed fluid technologies of polar lipid fractions from chia seed

Although triacylglycerols (TAG) are the major constituents of chia oil, it also contains minor lipid fractions that include phospholipids (PL) among other desirable components. Its amphiphilic character and excellent biocompatibility make PL appropriate for numerous applications with technological and nutritional significanceand potential health benefits. Given the difficulties entailed by the PL isolation, the efficiency for extracting such compounds using two environmental friendly techniques, pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) was evaluated. By using PLE with food-grade ethanol (EtOH), an oil recovery close to 100% was achieved in just 10 min. This oil extract was particularly rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA; 70%) as compared to the oil extracted by SFE (56%). In the case of SFE, the oil recovery was only 87% but increased to 99% when ethanol was added to CO₂. However the use of co-solvent did not affect the fatty acid profile of the supercritical extracts or their TAG composition, where the high molecular weight TAG species were the predominant in all cases. With the exception of SFE without co-solvent, all methods applied were capable of extracting the PL fraction, although the content and distribution of the individual components present in this fraction differed markedly depending on the extraction conditions used. In this context, the use of a sequential extraction process, combining SFE and PLE was particularly interesting. The re-extraction by PLE of the chia cake, previously defatted by SFE, allowed to obtain an oil extract highly enriched in PLs, whose content exceeded 16% and with a higher PL species than the rest of the oil extracts.

Enzymatic modification to produce health-promoting lipids from fish oil, algae and other new omega-3 sources: A review

Lipases are a versatile class of enzymes that have aroused great interest in the food and pharmaceutical industries due to their ability to modify and synthesize new lipids for functional foods. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 PUFAs), such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), have shown important biological functions promoting human health, especially in the development and maintenance of brain function and vision. Lipases allow selective production of functional lipids enriched in omega-3 PUFAs and are unique enzymatic tools to improve the natural composition of lipids and provide specific bioactivities. This review comprises recent research trends on the enzymatic production of bioactive, structured lipids with improved nutritional characteristics, using new enzymatic processing technologies in combination with novel raw materials, including microalgal lipids and new seed oils high in omega-3 fatty acids. An extensive number of lipase applications in the synthesis of health-promoting lipids enriched in omega-3 fatty acids by enzymatic modification is reviewed, considering the main advances in recent years for production of ethyl esters, 2-monoacylglycerols and structured triglycerides and phospholipids with omega-3 fatty acids, in order to achieve bioactive lipids as new foods and drugs.

Effects of lecithin-based nanoemulsions on skin: Short-time cytotoxicity MTT and BrdU studies, skin penetration of surfactants and additives and the delivery of curcumin

Surfactants are important ingredients in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations, as in creams, shampoos or shower gels. As conventional emulsifiers such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) have fallen into disrepute due to their skin irritation potential, the naturally occurring lecithins are being investigated as a potential alternative. Thus, lecithin-based nanoemulsions with and without the drug curcumin, known for its wound healing properties, were produced and characterised in terms of their particle size, polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential and compared to SDS-based formulations. In vitro toxicity of the produced blank nanoemulsions was assessed with primary human keratinocytes and fibroblasts using two different cell viability assays (BrdU and EZ4U). Further, we investigated the penetration profiles of the deployed surfactants and oil components using combined ATR-FTIR/tape stripping experiments and confirmed the ability of the lecithin-based nanoemulsions to deliver curcumin into the stratum corneum in tape stripping-UV/Vis experiments. All manufactured nanoemulsions showed droplet sizes under 250 nm with satisfying PDI and zeta potential values. Viability assays with human skin cells clearly indicated that lecithin-based nanoemulsions were superior to SDS-based formulations. ATR-FTIR tests showed that lecithin and oil components remained in the superficial layers of the stratum corneum, suggesting a low risk for skin irritation. Ex vivo tape stripping experiments revealed that the kind of oil used in the nanoemulsion seemed to influence the depth of curcumin penetration into the stratum corneum.

Adsorption process for phospholipids of different chain lengths at a fluorocarbon/water interface studied by Du Noüy ring and spinning drop

Fluorocarbons are novel systems in the fast-growing fields of diverse biomedical applications and fluorocarbon-water emulsions. However, characterization of these systems with modern measuring techniques such as drop profile analysis tensiometry is almost impossible because of practically identical refractive indexes and high-density differences. Due to the material properties of the fluorocarbon-water system, the invasive Du Noüy ring is the most appropriate method to measure interfacial tensions over long times. However, the influence of the ring on a fluorocarbon/water interface packed with phospholipids needs careful analysis. For the proof of methodology, the spinning drop tensiometry was used for comparison as a non-invasive technique to measure interfacial tension between water and perfluoroperhydrophenanthrene (PFPH) covered by 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) proving almost identical results. This demonstrates the validity of the invasive measurement technique for the studied system. The Du Noüy ring method was applied for further measurements of phospholipids with different chain lengths (1,2-dmyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phostphatidylcholine, DMPC; 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine, DSPC) which revealed a difference in interfacial adsorption kinetics and equilibrium tensions. The Du Noüy ring tensiometry is appropriate to examine the slow adsorption kinetics of phospholipids emulsifying fluorocarbons. The results enable functional optimization of fluorocarbon emulsions regarding physical emulsification parameters and the selection of lipids.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Cherry Extract: Nanosystems-Based Strategies to Improve Endothelial Function and Intestinal Absorption

Cherry fruit has a high content in flavonoids. These are important diet components protecting against oxidative stress, inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction, which are all involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, which is the major cause of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Since the seasonal availability of fresh fruit is limited, research has been focused on cherry extract (CE), which also possesses a high nutraceutical potential. Many clinical studies have demonstrated the nutraceutical efficacy of fresh cherries, but only a few studies on CE antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities have been carried out. Here, the results concerning the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of CE are reviewed. These were obtained by an in vitro model based on Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVEC). To clarify the CE mechanism of action, cells were stressed to induce inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Considering that antioxidants' polyphenol compounds are easily degraded in the gastrointestinal tract, recent strategies to reduce the degradation and improve the bioavailability of CE are also presented and discussed. In particular, we report on results obtained with nanoparticles (NP) based on chitosan derivatives (Ch-der), which improved the mucoadhesive properties of the chitosan polymers, as well as their positive charge, to favor high cellular interaction and polyphenols intestinal absorption, compared with a non-mucoadhesive negative surface charged poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid NP. The advantages and safety of different nanosystems loaded with natural CE or other nutraceuticals are also discussed.

Analysis of Phospholipids, Lysophospholipids, and Their Linked Fatty Acyl Chains in Yellow Lupin Seeds (Lupinus luteus L.) by Liquid Chromatography and Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and electrospray ionization (ESI) coupled to either Fourier-transform (FT) orbital-trap or linear ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry (LIT-MS/MS) was used to characterize the phospholipidome of yellow lupin (Lupinus luteus) seeds. Phosphatidylcholines (PC) were the most abundant species (41 ± 6%), which were followed by lyso-forms LPC (30 ± 11%), phosphatidylethanolamines (PE, 13 ± 4%), phosphatidylglycerols (PG, 5.1 ± 1.7%), phosphatidic acids (PA, 4.9 ± 1.8%), phosphatidylinositols (PI, 4.7 ± 1.1%), and LPE (1.2 ± 0.5%). The occurrence of both isomeric forms of several LPC and LPE was inferred by a well-defined fragmentation pattern observed in negative ion mode. An unprecedented characterization of more than 200 polar lipids including 52 PC, 42 PE, 42 PA, 35 PG, 16 LPC, 13 LPE, and 10 PI, is reported. The most abundant fatty acids (FA) as esterified acyl chains in PL were 18:1 (oleic), 18:2 (linoleic), 16:0 (palmitic), and 18:3 (linolenic) with relatively high contents of long fatty acyl chains such as 22:0 (behenic), 24:0 (lignoceric), 20:1 (gondoic), and 22:1 (erucic). Their occurrence was confirmed by reversed-phase (RP) LC-ESI-FTMS analysis of a chemically hydrolyzed sample extract in acid conditions at 100 °C for 45 min.

Synergy of Phospholipid-Drug Formulations Significantly Deactivates Profibrogenic Human Hepatic Stellate Cells

The pivotal role of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in orchestrating the bidirectional process of progression and regression of liver fibrosis makes them an ideal target for exploring new antifibrotic therapies. Essential phospholipids (EPLs), with their polyenylphosphatidylcholine (PPC) fraction, either alone or combined with other hepatoprotective substances such as silymarin, are recommended in hepatic impairment, but a scientific rationale for their use is still lacking. Herein, we compared the ability of EPLs to restore quiescent-like features in HSCs with that of dilinoleoylphosphatidylcholine (DLPC), PPC fraction’s main component. Specifically, we screened at the cellular level the antifibrotic effects of PPC formulations in the presence and absence of silymarin, by using LX-2 cells (pro-fibrogenic HSCs) and by assessing the main biochemical hallmarks of the activated and deactivated states of this cell line. We also proved the formulations’ direct effect on the motional order of cell membranes of adherent cells. LX-2 cells, examined for lipid droplets as a quiescence marker, showed that PPCs led to a more prominent deactivation than DLPC. This result was confirmed by a reduction of collagen and α-SMA expression, and by a profound alteration in the cell membrane fluidity. PPC–silymarin formulations deactivated HSCs with a significant synergistic effect. The remarkable bioactivity of PPCs in deactivating fibrogenic HSCs paves the way for the rational design of new therapeutics aimed at managing hepatic fibrosis.

Internal Lamellar and Inverse Hexagonal Liquid Crystalline Phases During the Digestion of Krill and Astaxanthin Oil-in-Water Emulsions

Krill oil represents an important alternative natural source of omega-3 (ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Considering the beneficial health effects of these essential fatty acids, particularly in various disorders including cancer, cardiovascular, and inflammation diseases, it is of paramount importance to gain insight into the digestibility of krill oil. In this work, we study the fate of krill oil-in-water emulsion, stabilized by sodium caseinate, during lipolysis by coupling time-resolved synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to flow-through lipolysis model. For gaining further insight into the effect of ω-3 PUFA-containing oil type on the dynamic structural features occurring during lipolysis, two additional astaxanthin oil-in-water emulsions, stabilized using either sodium caseinate or citrem, were subjected to lipolysis under identical experimental conditions. In addition to the difference in lipid composition in both oils, ω-3 PUFAs in astaxanthin oil, similar to fish oil, exist in the form of triacylglycerols; whereas most of those in krill oil are bound to phospholipids. SAXS showed the formation of highly ordered nanostructures on exposure of these food emulsions to the lipolysis medium: the detection of a biphasic feature of coexisting inverse hexagonal (H₂) and lamellar (L_α) liquid crystalline phases in the digested krill oil droplets' interiors, as compared to a neat L_α phase in the digested astaxanthin oil droplets. We discuss the dynamic phase behavior and describe the suggested important role of these phases in facilitating the delivery of nutrients throughout the body. In addition, the potential implication in the development of food and drug nanocarriers is briefly described.

Bolalipid-Doped Liposomes: Can Bolalipids Increase the Integrity of Liposomes Exposed to Gastrointestinal Fluids?

The use of archaeal lipids and their artificial analogues, also known as bolalipids, represents a promising approach for the stabilization of classical lipid vesicles for oral application. In a previous study, we investigated the mixing behavior of three single-chain alkyl-branched bolalipids PC-C32(1,32Cn)-PC (n = 3, 6, 9) with either saturated or unsaturated phosphatidyl-cholines. We proved, that the bolalipids PC-C32(1,32C6)-PC and PC-C32(1,32C9)-PC show miscibility with 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC). In the present work, we extended our vesicle system to natural lipid mixtures using phosphatidylcholine from soy beans, and we investigated the effect of incorporated bolalipids on the integrity of these mixed liposomes (bolasomes) in different gastrointestinal fluids using a dithionite assay and a calcein release assay in combination with particle size measurements. Finally, we also studied the retention of calcein within the bolasomes during freeze-drying. As a main result, we could show that in particular PC-C32(1,32C6)-PC is able to increase the stability of bolasomes in simulated gastric fluid-a prerequisite for the further use of liposomes as oral drug delivery vehicles.

Transferosomes as nanocarriers for drugs across the skin: Quality by design from lab to industrial scale

Transferosomes, also known as transfersomes, are ultradeformable vesicles for transdermal applications consisting of a lipid bilayer with phospholipids and an edge activator and an ethanol/aqueous core. Depending on the lipophilicity of the active substance, it can be encapsulated within the core or amongst the lipid bilayer. Compared to liposomes, transferosomes are able to reach intact deeper regions of the skin after topical administration delivering higher concentrations of active substances making them a successful drug delivery carrier for transdermal applications. Most transferosomes contain phosphatidylcholine (C18) as it is the most abundant lipid component of the cell membrane, and hence, it is highly tolerated for the skin, decreasing the risk of undesirable effects, such as hypersensitive reactions. The most common edge activators are surfactants such as sodium deoxycholate, Tween® 80 and Span® 80. Their chain length is optimal for intercalation within the C18 phospholipid bilayer. A wide variety of drugs has been successfully encapsulated within transferosomes such as phytocompounds like sinomenine or apigenin for rheumatoid arthritis and leukaemia respectively, small hydrophobic drugs but also macromolecules like insulin. The main factors to develop optimal transferosomal formulations (with high drug loading and nanometric size) are the optimal ratio between the main components as well as the critical process parameters for their manufacture. Application of quality by design (QbD), specifically design of experiments (DoE), is crucial to understand the interplay among all these factors not only during the preparation at lab scale but also in the scale-up process. Clinical trials of a licensed topical ketoprofen transferosomal gel have shown promising results in the alleviation of symptons in orthreothritis with non-severe skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders. However, the product was withdrawn from the market which probably was related to the higher cost of the medicine linked to the expensive manufacturing process required in the production of transferosomes compared to other conventional gel formulations. This example brings out the need for a careful formulation design to exploit the best properties of this drug delivery system as well as the development of manufacturing processes easily scalable at industrial level.

Comparative Investigation of Frankincense Nutraceuticals: Correlation of Boswellic and Lupeolic Acid Contents with Cytokine Release Inhibition and Toxicity against Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

For centuries, frankincense extracts have been commonly used in traditional medicine, and more recently, in complementary medicine. Therefore, frankincense constituents such as boswellic and lupeolic acids are of considerable therapeutic interest. Sixteen frankincense nutraceuticals were characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), revealing major differences in boswellic and lupeolic acid compositions and total contents, which varied from 0.4% to 35.7%. Frankincense nutraceuticals significantly inhibited the release of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8, by LPS-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and whole blood. Moreover, boswellic and lupeolic acid contents correlated with TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 inhibition. The nutraceuticals also exhibited toxicity against the human triple-negative breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-453, and CAL-51 in vitro. Nutraceuticals with total contents of boswellic and lupeolic acids >30% were the most active ones against MDA-MB-231 with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) ≤ 7.0 µg/mL. Moreover, a frankincense nutraceutical inhibited tumor growth and induced apoptosis in vivo in breast cancer xenografts grown on the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). Among eight different boswellic and lupeolic acids tested, β-ABA exhibited the highest cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 with an IC50 = 5.9 µM, inhibited growth of cancer xenografts in vivo, and released proinflammatory cytokines. Its content in nutraceuticals correlated strongly with TNF-, IL-6, and IL-8 release inhibition.

Formulation and evaluation of itraconazole liposomes for Hedgehog pathway inhibition

Itraconazole (ITZ) is an FDA-approved antifungal agent that has recently been explored for novel biological properties. In particular, ITZ was identified as a potent inhibitor of the hedgehog (Hh) pathway, a cell signalling pathway that has been linked to a variety of cancers and accounts for ∼25% of paediatric medulloblastoma (MB) cases. To date, there is not a targeted therapeutic option for paediatric MB, resulting in long-term side effects such as hormone deficiency, organ damage and secondary cancers. A primary obstacle for developing targeted therapy for brain ailments is the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which protects the brain from potentially harmful substances. Due to its size and hydrophobicity, ITZ does not penetrate the BBB. Alternatively, liposomes are being increasingly used within the clinic to increase drug bioavailability, target specificity and BBB permeability. With this in mind, we have successfully developed ITZ-containing liposomes with an optimal size for BBB penetration (<100 nm) and encapsulation efficiency (∼95%) by utilizing a continuous manufacturing approach-turbulent coaxial jet in co-flow. Our preliminary in vitro data demonstrate that these liposomes inhibit the Hh pathway, albeit at a reduced level in comparison to free ITZ. (196/250 words).

Insight into the Modification of Phosphatidylcholine with n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids-Rich Ethyl Esters by Immobilized MAS1 Lipase

This study reported the modification of phosphatidylcholine (PC) with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)-rich ethyl esters (EE) by immobilized MAS1 lipase-catalyzed transesterification in the solvent-free system. Effects of n-3 PUFA-rich EE/PC mass ratio, enzyme loading, reaction temperature, and water dosage on the incorporation of n-3 PUFA into PC were investigated, respectively. The results indicate that the maximum incorporation of n-3 PUFA into PC reached 33.5% (24 h) under the following conditions: n-3 PUFA-rich EE/PC mass ratio of 6:1, enzyme loading of 20%, reaction temperature of 55 °C, and water dosage of 1.0%. After 72 h of reaction, the incorporation of n-3 PUFA into PC was 43.55% and the composition of the reaction mixture was analyzed by ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results show that the reaction product consisted of 32.68% PC, 28.76% 1-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-lysophosphatidylcholine (sn-1 LPC), 4.90% 2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-lysophosphatidylcholine (sn-2 LPC), and 33.60% sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (GPC). This study offers insight into the phospholipase activity of immobilized MAS1 lipase and suggests the extended applications of immobilized MAS1 lipase in the modification of phospholipids for industrial purpose.

Soy Lecithin-Derived Liposomal Delivery Systems: Surface Modification and Current Applications

The development of natural phospholipids for nanostructured drug delivery systems has attracted much attention in the past decades. Lecithin that was derived from naturally occurring in soybeans (SL) has introduced some auspicious accomplishments to the drug carrying aspect, like effectual encapsulation, controlled release, and successful delivery of the curative factors to intracellular regions in which they procure these properties from their flexible physicochemical and biophysical properties, such as large aqueous center and biocompatible lipid, self-assembly, tunable properties, and high loading capacity. Despite the almost perfect properties as a drug carrier, liposome is known to be quite quickly eliminated from the body systems. The surface modification of liposomes has been investigated in many studies to overcome this drawback. In this review, we intensively discussed the surface-modified liposomes that enhancing the targeting, cellular uptake, and therapeutic response. Moreover, the recent applications of soy lecithin-derived liposome, focusing on cancer treatment, brain targeting, and vaccinology, are also summarized.

Fluorescence-based techniques to assess the miscibility and physical stability of a drug–lipid complex

The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using fluorescence-based techniques to assess the miscibility and physical stability of a drug–lipid complex pharmaceutical dosage form under a solvent-free condition. An indomethacin–phospholipid complex (IDM–DPC) was used as model complex for this study. The miscibility of indomethacin within the phospholipid was assessed by fluorescence spectroscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and infrared spectroscopy. The miscibility limit of the complex system was determined by fluorescence to be 20%–30% drug loading content, showing good correlation with infrared spectroscopy. The physical stability of the IDM–DPC stored at 40 °C was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy. Indomethacin formulated in the lipid complex with an indomethacin loading not more than 30% remained in an amorphous state within a period of 21 days, whereas the samples with a drug loading over 30% started to crystallize earlier with increasing drug content. IDM–DPC having higher miscibilities were found to be more resistant to recrystallization under heating, thus having better physical stability. Fluorescence-based techniques showed convenience and promise in characterizing drug–lipid miscibility and predicting storage stability under a solvent-free condition.

Investigating the Phospholipid Effect on the Bioaccessibility of Rosmarinic Acid-Phospholipid Complex through a Dynamic Gastrointestinal in Vitro Model

Phyto-phospholipid complexes have been developed as a common way of improving the oral bioavailability of poorly absorbable phyto-pharmaceuticals; however, the complexation with phospholipids can induce positive or negative effects on the bioaccessibility of such plant-derived active ingredients in different parts of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of phospholipid complexation on the bioaccessibility of a rosmarinic acid-phospholipid complex (RA-PLC) using the TNO dynamic intestinal model-1 (TIM-1). Preparation of RA-PLC was confirmed using X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, partition coefficient measurement, and Caco-2 monolayer permeation test. Bioaccessibility parameters in different GIT compartments were investigated. Complexation by phospholipids reduced the bioaccessibility of RA in jejunum compartment, while maintaining the ileum bioaccessibility. The overall bioaccessibility of RA-PLC was lower than the unformulated drug, suggesting that the improved oral absorption from a previous animal study could be considered as a net result of decreased bioaccessibility overwhelmed by enhanced intestinal permeability. This study provides insights into the effects of phospholipid on the bioaccessibility of hydrophilic compounds, and analyzes them based on the relationship between bioaccessibility, membrane permeability, and bioavailability. Additionally, TIM-1 shows promise in the evaluation of dosage forms containing materials with complicated effects on bioaccessibility.

Lecithin nano-liposomal particle as a CRISPR/Cas9 complex delivery system for treating type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Protein-based Cas9 in vivo gene editing therapeutics have practical limitations owing to their instability and low efficacy. To overcome these obstacles and improve stability, we designed a nanocarrier primarily consisting of lecithin that can efficiently target liver disease and encapsulate complexes of Cas9 with a single-stranded guide RNA (sgRNA) ribonucleoprotein (Cas9-RNP) through polymer fusion self-assembly.

RESULTS

In this study, we optimized an sgRNA sequence specifically for dipeptidyl peptidase-4 gene (DPP-4) to modulate the function of glucagon-like peptide 1. We then injected our nanocarrier Cas9-RNP complexes directly into type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) db/db mice, which disrupted the expression of DPP-4 gene in T2DM mice with remarkable efficacy. The decline in DPP-4 enzyme activity was also accompanied by normalized blood glucose levels, insulin response, and reduced liver and kidney damage. These outcomes were found to be similar to those of sitagliptin, the current chemical DPP-4 inhibition therapy drug which requires recurrent doses.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that a nano-liposomal carrier system with therapeutic Cas9-RNP has great potential as a platform to improve genomic editing therapies for human liver diseases.

How Can the Value and Use of Egg Yolk Be Increased?

The major driving force for the egg consumption in the United States over the past few decades was processed egg. However, the consumption of egg through the processed egg reached the plateau in recent years because of the imbalance in the demands between the egg white and yolk products. The consumer demands for egg white products are very high while those for the egg yolk, the co-product of dried egg white, are low because of the negative perceptions on egg yolk. Two key approaches that can be used to increase the value and use of egg yolk are: (1) developing new commodity products by fractionating egg yolk and apply them in various food processing, and (2) separating functional proteins and lipids from yolk and use them as is or further develop functional peptides and functional lipids and use them as pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical agents. These approaches can diversify the use of egg yolk, which eventually will help increase the consumption of egg. This review (1) discusses the current use of egg yolk products and the development of new functional commodity products from egg yolk, (2) review the important functional components in egg yolk and overview the current separation methods and their applications, (3) discuss the production of functional peptides and lipids using the separated egg proteins and lipids, and (4) suggest the future directions for the best use of egg yolk components. Development of scale-up production methods, which is vital for the practical applications, is discussed when appropriate.

Exploring the water/oil/water interface of phospholipid stabilized double emulsions by micro-focusing synchrotron SAXS

Surfactant stabilized water/oil/water (w/o/w) double emulsions have received much attention in the last years motivated by their wide applications.

Disulfide phosphatidylcholines: alternative phospholipids for the preparation of functional liposomes

Disulfide phosphatidylcholine-based liposomes can be triggered and completely destroyed in a reductive tumor microenvironment resulting in a fast release of encapsulated drugs.

Enhancement of Aqueous Solubility and Dissolution of Celecoxib through Phosphatidylcholine-Based Dispersion Systems Solidified with Adsorbent Carriers

This study aimed to design phosphatidylcholine (PC)-based solid dispersion (SD) systems for enhancing the apparent aqueous solubility and dissolution of celecoxib (CLC), a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor with a highly hydrophobic property. Although PC-based dispersion formulations considerably increased solubilities of CLC, the lipidic texture of PC was not appropriate as a solid dosage form for oral administration of CLC. To mask the lipidic texture of PC-based matrices, Neusilin^® US2, an adsorbent material with a porous structure and large surface area widely used in the pharmaceutical industry, was employed and thereby fully powderized PC-based dispersion formulations could be fabricated. However, PC matrices containing CLC strongly adsorbed to the pores of Neusilin^® US2 was not able to be rapidly released. To address this problem, different hydrophilic materials were examined to promote the release of the CLC-dispersed PC matrices from Neusilin^® US2. Among tested hydrophilic materials, croscarmellose sodium was the most suitable to facilitate fast drug dissolution from Neusilin^® US2 particles, showing significantly enhanced apparent aqueous solubility and dissolution behavior of CLC. Through differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis, a considerably reduced crystallinity of CLC dispersed in the PC-based dispersion formulations was demonstrated. The PC-based SD formulations developed in this study would be useful for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs such as CLC.

Chelation, formulation, encapsulation, retention, and in vivo biodistribution of hydrophobic nanoparticles labelled with 57Co-porphyrin: Oleylamine ensures stable chelation of cobalt in nanoparticles that accumulate in tumors

BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION

While small molecules can be used in cancer diagnosis there is a need for imageable diagnostic NanoParticles (NPs) that act as surrogates for the therapeutic NPs. Many NPs are composed of hydrophobic materials so the challenge is to formulate hydrophobic imaging agents. To develop individualized medical treatments based on NP, a first step should be the selection of patients who are likely responders to the treatment as judged by imaging tumor accumulation of NPs. This requires NPs with the same size and structure as the subsequent therapeutic NPs but labelled with a long-lived radionuclide. Cobalt isotopes are good candidates for NP labelling since ⁵⁵Co has half-life of 17.5 h and positron energy of 570 keV while ⁵⁷Co (t_1/2 271.6 d) is an isotope suited for preclinical single photon emission tomography (SPECT) to visualize biodistribution and pharmacokinetics of NPs. We used the hydrophobic octaethyl porphyrin (OEP) to chelate cobalt and to encapsulate it inside hydrophobic liquid NPs (LNPs). We hypothesized that at least two additional hydrophobic axial ligands (oleylamine, OA) must be provided to the OEP-Co complex in order to encapsulate and retain Co inside LNP.

RESULTS

1. Cobalt chelation by OEP and OA. The association constant of cobalt to OEP was 2.49 × 10⁵ M^-1 and the formation of the hexacoordinate complex OEP-Co-4OA was measured by spectroscopy. 2. NP formulation and characterization: LNPs were prepared by the fast ethanol injection method and were composed of a liquid core (triolein) surrounded by a lipid monolayer (DSPC:Cholesterol:DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀). The size of the LNPs loaded with the cobalt complex was 40 ± 5 nm, 3. Encapsulation of OEP-Co-OA: The loading capacity of OEP-Co-OA in LNP was 5 mol%. 4. Retention of OEP-⁵⁷Co-4OA complex in the LNPs: the positive effect of the OA ligands was demonstrated on the stability of the OEP-⁵⁷Co-4OA complex, providing a half-life for retention in PBS of 170 h (7 days) while in the absence of the axial OA ligands was only 22 h. 5 Biodistribution Study: the in vivo biodistribution of LNP was studied in AR42J pancreatic tumor-bearing mice. The estimated half-life of LNPs in blood was about 7.2 h. Remarkably, the accumulation of LNPs in the tumor was as high as 9.4% ID/g 24 h after injection with a doubling time for tumor accumulation of 3.22 h. The most important result was that the nanoparticles could indeed accumulate in the AR42J tumors up to levels greater than those of other NPs previously measured in the same tumor model, and at about half the values reported for the molecular agent ⁵⁷Co-DOTATATE.

CONCLUSIONS

The additional hydrophobic chelator OA was indeed needed to obtain a stable octahedral OEP-Co-4OA. Cobalt was actually well-retained inside LNP in the OEP-Co-4OA complex. The method described in the present work for the core-labelling of LNPs with cobalt is now ready for labeling of NPs with ⁵⁵Co, or indeed other hexadentate radionuclides of interest for preclinical in vivo PET-imaging and radio-therapeutics.

Implementation of phospholipids as pharmacological modalities for postoperative adhesions prevention

Adhesions formation is considered a significant clinical entity implicating the healing process following major abdominal surgery, with serious clinical consequences and need for substantial health care expenditures. Several agents and substances applied either locally or systematically could potentially function as inhibitors of the formation of peritoneal adhesions endowed by limiting tissue apposition during the critical stages of mesothelial repair. Phospholipids are identified as surfactant-like substances, acting as a temporary membrane-like coverage of serosal defects. The experimental use of phospholipids for adhesions formation totals 24 publications. All retrieved studies, out of two, demonstrated the efficacy of phospholipids use in adhesions prevention. A single intraperitoneal dose of approximately 75 mg/kg of phosphatidylcholine, for a 30-min exposure time, emerges as the standard practice in terms of efficacy in both surgical alone or combined to peritonitis settings. The findings revealing an unimpeded healing of anastomoses and laparotomy wounds support the safety of this agent. The two additional properties of intraperitoneal use of phospholipids involve the inhibition of bacterial adherence/growth following impregnation of intra-abdominal drainages with phospholipids, without influencing bacterial translocation and the elimination of peritoneal carcinosis, through inhibition of intraperitoneal adhesion of tumor cells. The latter effect is achieved by a dose of phospholipids equal to 150 mg/kg. These experimental data, support that the intraperitoneal phospholipids administration can forestall adhesions formation following intra-abdominal surgical trauma, with no considerable overdosing-related adverse effects. Furthermore, these substances could possibly attenuate posttraumatic inflammation, and inhibit intraperitoneal tumor cell adhesion.

Molecular bionics - engineering biomaterials at the molecular level using biological principles

Life and biological units are the result of the supramolecular arrangement of many different types of molecules, all of them combined with exquisite precision to achieve specific functions. Taking inspiration from the design principles of nature allows engineering more efficient and compatible biomaterials. Indeed, bionic (from bion-, unit of life and -ic, like) materials have gained increasing attention in the last decades due to their ability to mimic some of the characteristics of nature systems, such as dynamism, selectivity, or signalling. However, there are still many challenges when it comes to their interaction with the human body, which hinder their further clinical development. Here we review some of the recent progress in the field of molecular bionics with the final aim of providing with design rules to ensure their stability in biological media as well as to engineer novel functionalities which enable navigating the human body.

Polar Lipids from Olives and Olive Oil: A Review on Their Identification, Significance and Potential Biotechnological Applications

Polar lipids are minor components of olives and olive oil and include a myriad of molecules such as phospholipids and glycolipids. Even though sensitive and high-resolution analytical approaches have been used to unveil the polar lipidome of these matrices, new insights on their composition are needed. In this review, we will describe the findings on the identification and characterization of polar lipids from olives and olive oil and the underlying analytical challenges. The significance of polar lipids will also be discussed as potential markers of identity and traceability of olives and olive oil and in detecting adulteration of olive oil. Their potential impact on nutrition and health will be presented as a valuable source of bioactive compounds and as promising ingredients for different uses from olive-derived industrial by-products.

Recent Advances in the Therapeutic and Diagnostic Use of Liposomes and Carbon Nanomaterials in Ischemic Stroke

The complexity of the central nervous system (CNS), its limited self-repairing capacity and the ineffective delivery of most CNS drugs to the brain contribute to the irreversible and progressive nature of many neurological diseases and also the severity of the outcome. Therefore, neurological disorders belong to the group of pathologies with the greatest need of new technologies for diagnostics and therapeutics. In this scenario, nanotechnology has emerged with innovative and promising biomaterials and tools. This review focuses on ischemic stroke, being one of the major causes of death and serious long-term disabilities worldwide, and the recent advances in the study of liposomes and carbon nanomaterials for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Ischemic stroke occurs when blood flow to the brain is insufficient to meet metabolic demand, leading to a cascade of physiopathological events in the CNS including local blood brain barrier (BBB) disruption. However, to date, the only treatment approved by the FDA for this pathology is based on the potentially toxic tissue plasminogen activator. The techniques currently available for diagnosis of stroke also lack sensitivity. Liposomes and carbon nanomaterials were selected for comparison in this review, because of their very distinct characteristics and ranges of applications. Liposomes represent a biomimetic system, with composition, structural organization and properties very similar to biological membranes. On the other hand, carbon nanomaterials, which are not naturally encountered in the human body, exhibit new modes of interaction with biological molecules and systems, resulting in unique pharmacological properties. In the last years, several neuroprotective agents have been evaluated under the encapsulated form in liposomes, in experimental models of stroke. Effective drug delivery to the brain and neuroprotection were achieved using stealth liposomes bearing targeting ligands onto their surface for brain endothelial cells and ischemic tissues receptors. Carbon nanomaterials including nanotubes, fullerenes and graphene, started to be investigated and potential applications for therapy, biosensing and imaging have been identified based on their antioxidant action, their intrinsic photoluminescence, their ability to cross the BBB, transitorily decrease the BBB paracellular tightness, carry oligonucleotides and cells and induce cell differentiation. The potential future developments in the field are finally discussed.

Supersaturable Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System of Krill Oil with Improved Oral Absorption and Hypotriglyceridemic Function

This study aimed to develop a supersaturable self-emulsifying drug delivery system (S-SEDDS) of krill oil (KO), a rich source of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), to improve its hypotriglyceridemic function. S-SEDDS of KO (KO/S-SEDDS) was prepared by the addition of lysolecithin, glycerin, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). Self-emulsifying drug delivery system of KO (KO/SEDDS) and KO with HPMC (KO/HPMC) were also prepared for comparison purposes. The physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of KO samples were characterized, and the hypotriglyceridemic function of KO/S-SEDDS was evaluated. Micronized droplets in KO/SEDDS and KO/S-SEDDS with a mean diameter of ca. 270 nm could be observed in comparison to KO and KO/HPMC. Both KO/HPMC and KO/S-SEDDS tended to enhance the dissolution behavior of KO, and the S-SEDDS formulation improved the dissolution behavior of KO as a result of micronized droplets and the addition of HPMC. KO/S-SEDDS (60 mg of EPA/kg) improved the oral absorption of KO based on the pharmacokinetic profiling of EPA, and repeated oral administration of KO/S-SEDDS (250 mg of KO kg^-1 day^-1) for 7 days had a potent hypotriglyceridemic effect on rats with corn-oil-induced hypertriglyceridemia compared to orally administered KO. On the basis of these findings, the S-SEDDS approach might be an efficacious dosage option to enhance the nutraceutical properties of KO.

Development of nanoemulsion for efficient brain parenteral delivery of cefuroxime: designs, characterizations, and pharmacokinetics

Background and aim

Drugs that are effective against diseases in the central nervous system and reach the brain via blood must pass through the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a unique interface that protects against potential harmful molecules. This presents a major challenge in neuro-drug delivery. This study attempts to fabricate the cefuroxime-loaded nanoemulsion (CLN) to increase drug penetration into the brain when parenterally administered.

Methods

The nanoemulsions were formulated using a high-pressure homogenization technique and were characterized for their physicochemical properties.

Results

The characterizations revealed a particle size of 100.32±0.75 nm, polydispersity index of 0.18±0.01, zeta potential of -46.9±1.39 mV, viscosity of 1.24±0.34 cps, and osmolality of 285.33±0.58 mOsm/kg, indicating that the nanoemulsion has compatibility for parenteral application. CLN was physicochemically stable within 6 months of storage at 4°C, and the transmission electron microscopy revealed that the CLN droplets were almost spherical in shape. The in vitro release of CLN profile followed a sustained release pattern. The pharmacokinetic profile of CLN showed a significantly higher C_max, area under the curve (AUC)_0-t , prolonged half-life, and lower total plasma clearance, indicating that the systemic concentration of cefuroxime was higher in CLN-treated rats as compared to cefuroxime-free treated rats. A similar profile was obtained for the biodistribution of cefuroxime in the brain, in which CLN showed a significantly higher C_max, AUC_0-t , prolonged half-life, and lower clearance as compared to free cefuroxime solution.

Conclusion

Overall, CLN showed excellent physicochemical properties, fulfilled the requirements for parenteral administration, and presented improved in vivo pharmacokinetic profile, which reflected its practical approach to enhance cefuroxime delivery to the brain.