151
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Hyenne V, Apaydin A, Rodriguez D, Spiegelhalter C, Hoff-Yoessle S, Diem M, Tak S, Lefebvre O, Schwab Y, Goetz JG, Labouesse M. RAL-1 controls multivesicular body biogenesis and exosome secretion. J Cell Biol 2016; 211:27-37. [PMID: 26459596 PMCID: PMC4602040 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201504136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are secreted vesicles arising from the fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. Despite their importance in various processes, the molecular mechanisms controlling their formation and release remain unclear. Using nematodes and mammary tumor cells, we show that Ral GTPases are involved in exosome biogenesis. In Caenorhabditis elegans, RAL-1 localizes at the surface of secretory MVBs. A quantitative electron microscopy analysis of RAL-1-deficient animals revealed that RAL-1 is involved in both MVB formation and their fusion with the plasma membrane. These functions do not involve the exocyst complex, a common Ral guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) effector. Furthermore, we show that the target membrane SNARE protein SYX-5 colocalizes with a constitutively active form of RAL-1 at the plasma membrane, and MVBs accumulate under the plasma membrane when SYX-5 is absent. In mammals, RalA and RalB are both required for the secretion of exosome-like vesicles in cultured cells. Therefore, Ral GTPases represent new regulators of MVB formation and exosome release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Hyenne
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France MN3T, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U1109), LabEx Medalis, Université de Strasbourg, 67200 Strasbourg, France Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, 67200 Strasbourg, France
| | - Ahmet Apaydin
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - David Rodriguez
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Coralie Spiegelhalter
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire Imaging Center, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Sarah Hoff-Yoessle
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Maxime Diem
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Saurabh Tak
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Olivier Lefebvre
- MN3T, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U1109), LabEx Medalis, Université de Strasbourg, 67200 Strasbourg, France Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, 67200 Strasbourg, France
| | - Yannick Schwab
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire Imaging Center, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jacky G Goetz
- MN3T, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U1109), LabEx Medalis, Université de Strasbourg, 67200 Strasbourg, France Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, 67200 Strasbourg, France
| | - Michel Labouesse
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Development and Stem Cells Program, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (UMR7104), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (U964), Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France Institut de Biologie Paris (UMR7622), UPMC, 75005 Paris, France
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152
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Wilson CM, Naves T, Al Akhrass H, Vincent F, Melloni B, Bonnaud F, Lalloué F, Jauberteau MO. A new role under sortilin's belt in cancer. Commun Integr Biol 2016; 9:e1130192. [PMID: 27066187 PMCID: PMC4802778 DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2015.1130192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurotensin receptor-3 also known as sortilin was the first member of the small family of vacuolar protein sorting 10 protein domain (Vps10p) discovered two decades ago in the human brain. The expression of sortilin is not confined to the nervous system but sortilin is ubiquitously expressed in many tissues. Sortilin has multiple roles in the cell as a receptor or a co-receptor, in protein transport of many interacting partners to the plasma membrane, to the endocytic pathway and to the lysosomes for protein degradation. Sortilin could be considered as the cells own shuttle system. In many human diseases including neurological diseases and cancer, sortilin expression has been shown to be deregulated. In addition, some studies have highlighted that the extracellular domain of sortilin is shedded into the culture media by an unknown mechanism. Sortilin can be released in exosomes and appears to control some mechanisms of exosome biogenesis. In lung cancer cells, sortilin can associate with two receptor tyrosine kinase receptors called the TES complex found in exosomes. Exosomes carrying the TES complex can convey a microenvironment control through the activation of ErbB signaling pathways and the release of angiogenic factors. Deregulation of sortilin function is now emerging to be implicated in four major human diseases- cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer disease and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia M Wilson
- EA3842 Homéostasie cellulaire et pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges, Limoges, France; University of Liverpool, Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Molecular & Clinical Cancer Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Thomas Naves
- EA3842 Homéostasie cellulaire et pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges , Limoges, France
| | - Hussein Al Akhrass
- EA3842 Homéostasie cellulaire et pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges , Limoges, France
| | - François Vincent
- EA3842 Homéostasie cellulaire et pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges, Limoges, France; Service de Pathologie Respiratoire, Center Hospitalier et Universitaire de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - Boris Melloni
- Service de Pathologie Respiratoire, Center Hospitalier et Universitaire de Limoges , Limoges, France
| | - François Bonnaud
- Service de Pathologie Respiratoire, Center Hospitalier et Universitaire de Limoges , Limoges, France
| | - Fabrice Lalloué
- EA3842 Homéostasie cellulaire et pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges , Limoges, France
| | - Marie-Odile Jauberteau
- EA3842 Homéostasie cellulaire et pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges , Limoges, France
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153
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Carrière J, Barnich N, Nguyen HTT. Exosomes: From Functions in Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Diagnostic and Therapeutic Opportunities. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 2016; 172:39-75. [PMID: 27600934 DOI: 10.1007/112_2016_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since their first description in the 1980s, exosomes, small endosomal-derived extracellular vesicles, have been involved in innate and adaptive immunity through modulating immune responses and mediating antigen presentation. Increasing evidence has reported the role of exosomes in host-pathogen interactions and particularly in the activation of antimicrobial immune responses. The growing interest concerning exosomes in infectious diseases, their accessibility in various body fluids, and their capacity to convey a rich content (e.g., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) to distant recipient cells led the scientific community to consider the use of exosomes as potential new diagnostic and therapeutic tools. In this review, we summarize current understandings of exosome biogenesis and their composition and highlight the function of exosomes as immunomodulators in pathological states such as in infectious disorders. The potential of using exosomes as diagnostic and therapeutic tools is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Carrière
- University of Clermont Auvergne, M2iSH, UMR 1071 INSERM/University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France.,INRA USC 2018, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France
| | - Nicolas Barnich
- University of Clermont Auvergne, M2iSH, UMR 1071 INSERM/University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France.,INRA USC 2018, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France
| | - Hang Thi Thu Nguyen
- University of Clermont Auvergne, M2iSH, UMR 1071 INSERM/University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France. .,INRA USC 2018, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France.
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154
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Vilette D, Laulagnier K, Huor A, Alais S, Simoes S, Maryse R, Provansal M, Lehmann S, Andreoletti O, Schaeffer L, Raposo G, Leblanc P. Efficient inhibition of infectious prions multiplication and release by targeting the exosomal pathway. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:4409-27. [PMID: 26047659 PMCID: PMC11113226 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1945-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are secreted membrane vesicles of endosomal origin present in biological fluids. Exosomes may serve as shuttles for amyloidogenic proteins, notably infectious prions, and may participate in their spreading in vivo. To explore the significance of the exosome pathway on prion infectivity and release, we investigated the role of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery and the need for ceramide, both involved in exosome biogenesis. Silencing of HRS-ESCRT-0 subunit drastically impairs the formation of cellular infectious prion due to an altered trafficking of cholesterol. Depletion of Tsg101-ESCRT-I subunit or impairment of the production of ceramide significantly strongly decreases infectious prion release. Together, our data reveal that ESCRT-dependent and -independent pathways can concomitantly regulate the exosomal secretion of infectious prion, showing that both pathways operate for the exosomal trafficking of a particular cargo. These data open up a new avenue to regulate prion release and propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier Vilette
- UMR INRA/ENVT 1225, Interactions Hôte Agent Pathogène, Toulouse, France.
| | - Karine Laulagnier
- CNRS, UMR5239, Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire de la Cellule (LBMC), ENS Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon 7, France
- Inserm, U836, Neurodégénérescence et Plasticité, Institute of Neuroscience, Grenoble, France
| | - Alvina Huor
- UMR INRA/ENVT 1225, Interactions Hôte Agent Pathogène, Toulouse, France
| | - Sandrine Alais
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie (CIRI), INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR5308, UCBL, ENS Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Sabrina Simoes
- Institut Curie, CNRS-UMR144-Structure and Membrane Compartments, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Romao Maryse
- Institut Curie, CNRS-UMR144-Structure and Membrane Compartments, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Monique Provansal
- Institut de Médecine Régénératrice et de Biothérapie (I.M.R.B.), Physiopathologie, diagnostic et thérapie cellulaire des affections neurodégénératives, INSERM Université Montpellier 1 U1040 CHU de Montpellier, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France
| | - Sylvain Lehmann
- Institut de Médecine Régénératrice et de Biothérapie (I.M.R.B.), Physiopathologie, diagnostic et thérapie cellulaire des affections neurodégénératives, INSERM Université Montpellier 1 U1040 CHU de Montpellier, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Laurent Schaeffer
- CNRS, UMR5239, Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire de la Cellule (LBMC), ENS Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon 7, France
| | - Graça Raposo
- Institut Curie, CNRS-UMR144-Structure and Membrane Compartments, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Pascal Leblanc
- CNRS, UMR5239, Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire de la Cellule (LBMC), ENS Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon 7, France.
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155
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The Dual Role of an ESCRT-0 Component HGS in HBV Transcription and Naked Capsid Secretion. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005123. [PMID: 26431433 PMCID: PMC4592276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) is an important cellular machinery for the sorting and trafficking of ubiquitinated cargos. It is also known that ESCRT is required for the egress of a number of viruses. To investigate the relationship between ESCRT and hepatitis B virus (HBV), we conducted an siRNA screening of ESCRT components for their potential effect on HBV replication and virion release. We identified a number of ESCRT factors required for HBV replication, and focused our study here on HGS (HRS, hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate) in the ESCRT-0 complex. Aberrant levels of HGS suppressed HBV transcription, replication and virion secretion. Hydrodynamic delivery of HGS in a mouse model significantly suppressed viral replication in the liver and virion secretion in the serum. Surprisingly, overexpression of HGS stimulated the release of HBV naked capsids, irrespective of their viral RNA, DNA, or empty contents. Mutant core protein (HBc 1-147) containing no arginine-rich domain (ARD) failed to secrete empty virions with or without HGS. In contrast, empty naked capsids of HBc 1-147 could still be promoted for secretion by HGS. HGS exerted a strong positive effect on the secretion of naked capsids, at the expense of a reduced level of virions. The association between HGS and HBc appears to be ubiquitin-independent. Furthermore, HBc is preferentially co-localized with HGS near the cell periphery, instead of near the punctate endosomes in the cytoplasm. In summary, our work demonstrated the importance of an optimum level of HGS in HBV propagation. In addition to an effect on HBV transcription, HGS can diminish the pool size of intracellular nucleocapsids with ongoing genome maturation, probably in part by promoting the secretion of naked capsids. The secretion routes of HBV virions and naked capsids can be clearly distinguished based on the pleiotropic effect of HGS involved in the ESCRT-0 complex.
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156
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Les exosomes en pratique clinique : exemple du cancer bronchique. ONCOLOGIE 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10269-015-2545-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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157
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Smith VL, Jackson L, Schorey JS. Ubiquitination as a Mechanism To Transport Soluble Mycobacterial and Eukaryotic Proteins to Exosomes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:2722-30. [PMID: 26246139 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1403186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles of endocytic origin that function in intercellular communication. Our previous studies indicate that exosomes released from Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected macrophages contain soluble mycobacterial proteins. However, it was unclear how these secreted proteins were targeted to exosomes. In this study, we determined that exosome production by the murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7 requires the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport and that trafficking of mycobacterial proteins from phagocytosed bacilli to exosomes was dependent on protein ubiquitination. Moreover, soluble mycobacterial proteins, when added exogenously to RAW264.7 or human HEK293 cells, were endocytosed, ubiquitinated, and released via exosomes. This suggested that endocytosed proteins could be recycled from cells through exosomes. This hypothesis was supported using the tumor-associated protein He4, which, when endocytosed by RAW264.7 or HEK293 cells, was transported to exosomes in a ubiquitin-dependent manner. Our data suggest that ubiquitination is a modification sufficient for trafficking soluble proteins within the phagocytic/endocytic network to exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - Liam Jackson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - Jeffrey S Schorey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
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158
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Exosomes and Their Role in the Life Cycle and Pathogenesis of RNA Viruses. Viruses 2015; 7:3204-25. [PMID: 26102580 PMCID: PMC4488737 DOI: 10.3390/v7062770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles actively released into the extracellular space, whose content reflect the physiological/pathological state of the cells they originate from. These vesicles participate in cell-to-cell communication and transfer of biologically active proteins, lipids, and RNAs. Their role in viral infections is just beginning to be appreciated. RNA viruses are an important class of pathogens and affect millions of people worldwide. Recent studies on Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV), and Dengue Virus (DENV) have demonstrated that exosomes released from infected cells harbor and deliver many regulatory factors including viral RNA and proteins, viral and cellular miRNA, and other host functional genetic elements to neighboring cells, helping to establish productive infections and modulating cellular responses. Exosomes can either spread or limit an infection depending on the type of pathogen and target cells, and can be exploited as candidates for development of antiviral or vaccine treatments. This review summarizes recent progress made in understanding the role of exosomes in RNA virus infections with an emphasis on their potential contribution to pathogenesis.
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159
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Li J, Lee Y, Johansson HJ, Mäger I, Vader P, Nordin JZ, Wiklander OPB, Lehtiö J, Wood MJA, Andaloussi SE. Serum-free culture alters the quantity and protein composition of neuroblastoma-derived extracellular vesicles. J Extracell Vesicles 2015; 4:26883. [PMID: 26022510 PMCID: PMC4447833 DOI: 10.3402/jev.v4.26883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a significant role in cell–cell communication in numerous physiological processes and pathological conditions, and offer promise as novel biomarkers and therapeutic agents for genetic diseases. Many recent studies have described different molecular mechanisms that contribute to EV biogenesis and release from cells. However, little is known about how external stimuli such as cell culture conditions can affect the quantity and content of EVs. While N2a neuroblastoma cells cultured in serum-free (OptiMEM) conditions did not result in EVs with significant biophysical or size differences compared with cells cultured in serum-containing (pre-spun) conditions, the quantity of isolated EVs was greatly increased. Moreover, the expression levels of certain vesicular proteins (e.g. small GTPases, G-protein complexes, mRNA processing proteins and splicing factors), some of which were previously reported to be involved in EV biogenesis, were found to be differentially expressed in EVs under different culture conditions. These data, therefore, contribute to the understanding of how extracellular factors and intracellular molecular pathways affect the composition and release of EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghuan Li
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yi Lee
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Henrik J Johansson
- Cancer Proteomics Mass Spectrometry, Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Imre Mäger
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Pieter Vader
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joel Z Nordin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Janne Lehtiö
- Cancer Proteomics Mass Spectrometry, Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Matthew J A Wood
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom;
| | - Samir El Andaloussi
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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160
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Edgar JR, Willén K, Gouras GK, Futter CE. ESCRTs regulate amyloid precursor protein sorting in multivesicular bodies and intracellular amyloid-β accumulation. J Cell Sci 2015; 128:2520-8. [PMID: 26002056 PMCID: PMC4510853 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.170233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation is a key feature of early Alzheimer's disease and precedes the appearance of Aβ in extracellular plaques. Aβ is generated through proteolytic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP), but the intracellular site of Aβ production is unclear. APP has been localized to multivesicular bodies (MVBs) where sorting of APP onto intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) could promote amyloidogenic processing, or reduce Aβ production or accumulation by sorting APP and processing products to lysosomes for degradation. Here, we show that APP localizes to the ILVs of a subset of MVBs that also traffic EGF receptor (EGFR), and that it is delivered to lysosomes for degradation. Depletion of the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) components, Hrs (also known as Hgs) or Tsg101, inhibited targeting of APP to ILVs and the subsequent delivery to lysosomes, and led to increased intracellular Aβ accumulation. This was accompanied by dramatically decreased Aβ secretion. Thus, the early ESCRT machinery has a dual role in limiting intracellular Aβ accumulation through targeting of APP and processing products to the lysosome for degradation, and promoting Aβ secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Edgar
- Department of Cell Biology, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London EC1 V9EL, UK Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Katarina Willén
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund 22184, Sweden
| | - Gunnar K Gouras
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund 22184, Sweden
| | - Clare E Futter
- Department of Cell Biology, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London EC1 V9EL, UK
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161
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Chen J, Hou N, Zhang C, Teng Y, Cheng X, Li Z, Ren J, Zeng J, Li R, Wang W, Yang X, Lan Y. Smooth Muscle Hgs Deficiency Leads to Impaired Esophageal Motility. Int J Biol Sci 2015; 11:794-802. [PMID: 26078721 PMCID: PMC4466460 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.12248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a master component of endosomal sorting complex required for transport proteins, hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (Hgs) participates multiple cellular behaviors. However, the physiological role of Hgs in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) is by far unknown. Here we explored the in vivo function of Hgs in SMCs by using a conditional gene knockout strategy. Hgs deficiency in SMCs uniquely led to a progressive dilatation of esophagus with a remarkable thinning muscle layer. Of note, the mutant esophagus showed a decreased contractile responsiveness to potassium chloride and acetylcholine stimulation. Furthermore, an increase in the inhibitory neurites along with an intense infiltration of T lymphocytes in the mucosa and muscle layer were observed. Consistently, Hgs deficiency in SMCs resulted in a disturbed expression of a set of genes involved in neurotrophin and inflammation, suggesting that defective SMC might be a novel source for excessive production of cytokines and chemokines which may trigger the neuronal dysplasia and ultimately contribute to the compromised esophageal motility. The data suggest potential implications in the pathogenesis of related diseases such as gastroesophageal reflux disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jicheng Chen
- 1. Model Organism Division, E-institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200025, China ; 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Ning Hou
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Chong Zhang
- 1. Model Organism Division, E-institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200025, China ; 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yan Teng
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Xuan Cheng
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Zhenhua Li
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jie Ren
- 3. Department of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology Research, College of Basic Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Jian Zeng
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Rui Li
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Wei Wang
- 3. Department of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology Research, College of Basic Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- 1. Model Organism Division, E-institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200025, China ; 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yu Lan
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
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162
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Extracellular vesicles shuffling intercellular messages: for good or for bad. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2015; 35:69-77. [PMID: 26001269 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2015.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 348] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a highly conserved process exploited by diverse organisms as a mode of intercellular communication. Vesicles of sizes ranging from 30 to 1000nm, or even larger, are generated by blebbing of the plasma membrane (microvesicles) or formed in multivesicular endosomes (MVEs) to be secreted by exocytosis as exosomes. Exosomes, microvesicles and other EVs contain membrane and cytosolic components that include proteins, lipids and RNAs, a composition that differs related to their site of biogenesis. Several mechanisms are involved in vesicle formation at the plasma membrane or in endosomes, which is reflected in their heterogeneity, size and composition. EVs have significant promise for therapeutics and diagnostics and for understanding physiological and pathological processes all of which have boosted research to find modulators of their composition, secretion and targeting.
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163
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Sung BH, Ketova T, Hoshino D, Zijlstra A, Weaver AM. Directional cell movement through tissues is controlled by exosome secretion. Nat Commun 2015; 6:7164. [PMID: 25968605 PMCID: PMC4435734 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 410] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Directional cell movement through tissues is critical for multiple biological processes and requires maintenance of polarity in the face of complex environmental cues. Here we use intravital imaging to demonstrate that secretion of exosomes from late endosomes is required for directionally persistent and efficient in vivo movement of cancer cells. Inhibiting exosome secretion or biogenesis leads to defective tumour cell migration associated with increased formation of unstable protrusions and excessive directional switching. In vitro rescue experiments with purified exosomes and matrix coating identify adhesion assembly as a critical exosome function that promotes efficient cell motility. Live-cell imaging reveals that exosome secretion directly precedes and promotes adhesion assembly. Fibronectin is found to be a critical motility-promoting cargo whose sorting into exosomes depends on binding to integrins. We propose that autocrine secretion of exosomes powerfully promotes directionally persistent and effective cell motility by reinforcing otherwise transient polarization states and promoting adhesion assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bong Hwan Sung
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Tatiana Ketova
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Daisuke Hoshino
- Division of Cancer Cell Research, Kanagawa Cancer Center, Yokohama 241-8515, Japan
| | - Andries Zijlstra
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Alissa M. Weaver
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
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164
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Falcone G, Felsani A, D'Agnano I. Signaling by exosomal microRNAs in cancer. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2015; 34:32. [PMID: 25886763 PMCID: PMC4391656 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-015-0148-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A class of small non-coding RNAs, the microRNAs (miRNAs), have recently attracted great attention in cancer research since they play a central role in regulation of gene-expression and miRNA aberrant expression is found in almost all types of human cancer. The discovery of circulating miRNAs in body fluids and the finding that they are often tumor specific and can be detected early in tumorigenesis has soon led to the evaluation of their possible use as cancer biomarkers and treatment-response predictors. The evidence that tumor cells communicate via the secretion and delivery of miRNAs packed into tumor-released microvesicles has prompted to investigate miRNA contribution as signaling molecules to the establishment and maintenance of the tumor microenvironment and the metastatic niche in cancer. In this review we highlight the recent advances on the role of exosomal miRNAs as mediators of cancer cell-to-cell communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Germana Falcone
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, CNR, Via Ramarini 32-00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy.
| | - Armando Felsani
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, CNR, Via Ramarini 32-00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy. .,Genomnia srl, Via Nerviano, 31/B - 20020, Lainate, MI, Italy.
| | - Igea D'Agnano
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, CNR, Via Ramarini 32-00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy.
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165
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Abstract
Kufor-Rakeb syndrome (KRS) is caused by loss-of-function mutations in ATP13A2 (PARK9) and characterized by juvenile-onset parkinsonism, pyramidal signs, and cognitive decline. Previous studies suggested that PARK9 deficiency causes lysosomal dysfunction and α-synuclein (α-syn) accumulation, whereas PARK9 overexpression suppresses toxicity of α-syn. However, the precise mechanism of PARK9 effect on lysosomes and α-syn has been unknown. Here, we found that overexpressed PARK9 localized to multivesicular bodies (MVBs) in the human H4 cell line. The results from patient fibroblasts showed that loss of PARK9 function leads to decreased number of the intraluminal vesicles in MVBs and diminished release of exosomes into culture media. By contrast, overexpression of PARK9 results in increased release of exosomes in H4 cells and mouse primary cortical neurons. Moreover, loss of PARK9 function resulted in decreased secretion of α-syn into extracellular space, whereas overexpressed PARK9 promotes secretion of α-syn, at least in part via exosomes. Finally, we found that PARK9 regulates exosome biogenesis through functional interaction with the endosomal sorting complex required for transport machinery. Together, these data suggest the involvement of PARK9 in the biogenesis of exosomes and α-syn secretion and raise a possibility that disruption of these pathways in patients with KRS contributes to the disease pathogenesis.
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166
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167
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Phuyal S, Skotland T, Hessvik NP, Simolin H, Øverbye A, Brech A, Parton RG, Ekroos K, Sandvig K, Llorente A. The ether lipid precursor hexadecylglycerol stimulates the release and changes the composition of exosomes derived from PC-3 cells. J Biol Chem 2014; 290:4225-37. [PMID: 25519911 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.593962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are vesicles released by cells after fusion of multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane. In this study, we have investigated whether ether lipids affect the release of exosomes in PC-3 cells. To increase the cellular levels of ether lipids, the ether lipid precursor hexadecylglycerol was added to cells. Lipidomic analysis showed that this compound was in fact able to double the cellular levels of ether lipids in these cells. Furthermore, increased levels of ether lipids were also found in exosomes released by cells containing high levels of these lipids. Interestingly, as measured by nanoparticle tracking analysis, cells containing high levels of ether lipids released more exosomes than control cells, and these exosomes were similar in size to control exosomes. Moreover, silver staining and Western blot analyses showed that the protein composition of exosomes released in the presence of hexadecylglycerol was changed; the levels of some proteins were increased, and the levels of others were reduced. In conclusion, this study clearly shows that an increase in cellular ether lipids is associated with changes in the release and composition of exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh Phuyal
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | - Nina Pettersen Hessvik
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Anders Øverbye
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | - Andreas Brech
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | - Robert G Parton
- the Institute for Molecular Bioscience and Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4067, Australia, and
| | - Kim Ekroos
- the Zora Biosciences Oy, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Alicia Llorente
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway, the Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway,
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168
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Schorey JS, Cheng Y, Singh PP, Smith VL. Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles in host-pathogen interactions. EMBO Rep 2014; 16:24-43. [PMID: 25488940 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201439363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 501] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
An effective immune response requires the engagement of host receptors by pathogen-derived molecules and the stimulation of an appropriate cellular response. Therefore, a crucial factor in our ability to control an infection is the accessibility of our immune cells to the foreign material. Exosomes-which are extracellular vesicles that function in intercellular communication-may play a key role in the dissemination of pathogen- as well as host-derived molecules during infection. In this review, we highlight the composition and function of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles produced during viral, parasitic, fungal and bacterial infections and describe how these vesicles could function to either promote or inhibit host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Schorey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Yong Cheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Prachi P Singh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Victoria L Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
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169
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Lässer C. Exosomes in diagnostic and therapeutic applications: biomarker, vaccine and RNA interference delivery vehicle. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2014; 15:103-17. [DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2015.977250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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170
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Colombo M, Raposo G, Théry C. Biogenesis, Secretion, and Intercellular Interactions of Exosomes and Other Extracellular Vesicles. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2014; 30:255-89. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-101512-122326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3537] [Impact Index Per Article: 353.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Colombo
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris, F-75248 France; ,
- Structure and Membrane Compartments CNRS, UMR144, Paris F-75248, France
- INSERM U932, Paris F-75248, France
- Paris Sciences et Lettres, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Graça Raposo
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris, F-75248 France; ,
- Structure and Membrane Compartments CNRS, UMR144, Paris F-75248, France
- Paris Sciences et Lettres, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Clotilde Théry
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris, F-75248 France; ,
- INSERM U932, Paris F-75248, France
- Paris Sciences et Lettres, Paris F-75005, France
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171
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Andreu Z, Yáñez-Mó M. Tetraspanins in extracellular vesicle formation and function. Front Immunol 2014; 5:442. [PMID: 25278937 PMCID: PMC4165315 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 903] [Impact Index Per Article: 90.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a novel mechanism of intercellular communication as vehicles for intercellular transfer of functional membrane and cytosolic proteins, lipids, and RNAs. Microvesicles, ectosomes, shedding vesicles, microparticles, and exosomes are the most common terms to refer to the different kinds of EVs based on their origin, composition, size, and density. Exosomes have an endosomal origin and are released by many different cell types, participating in different physiological and/or pathological processes. Depending on their origin, they can alter the fate of recipient cells according to the information transferred. In the last two decades, EVs have become the focus of many studies because of their putative use as non-invasive biomarkers and their potential in bioengineering and clinical applications. In order to exploit this ability of EVs many aspects of their biology should be deciphered. Here, we review the mechanisms involved in EV biogenesis, assembly, recruitment of selected proteins, and genetic material as well as the uptake mechanisms by target cells in an effort to understand EV functions and their utility in clinical applications. In these contexts, the role of proteins from the tetraspanin superfamily, which are among the most abundant membrane proteins of EVs, will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoraida Andreu
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa , Madrid , Spain
| | - María Yáñez-Mó
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa , Madrid , Spain
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172
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Corrigan L, Redhai S, Leiblich A, Fan SJ, Perera SMW, Patel R, Gandy C, Wainwright SM, Morris JF, Hamdy F, Goberdhan DCI, Wilson C. BMP-regulated exosomes from Drosophila male reproductive glands reprogram female behavior. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 206:671-88. [PMID: 25154396 PMCID: PMC4151142 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201401072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Male Drosophila reproductive glands secrete exosomes in a BMP-dependent manner that fuse with sperm after mating and suppress female remating. Male reproductive glands secrete signals into seminal fluid to facilitate reproductive success. In Drosophila melanogaster, these signals are generated by a variety of seminal peptides, many produced by the accessory glands (AGs). One epithelial cell type in the adult male AGs, the secondary cell (SC), grows selectively in response to bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling. This signaling is involved in blocking the rapid remating of mated females, which contributes to the reproductive advantage of the first male to mate. In this paper, we show that SCs secrete exosomes, membrane-bound vesicles generated inside late endosomal multivesicular bodies (MVBs). After mating, exosomes fuse with sperm (as also seen in vitro for human prostate-derived exosomes and sperm) and interact with female reproductive tract epithelia. Exosome release was required to inhibit female remating behavior, suggesting that exosomes are downstream effectors of BMP signaling. Indeed, when BMP signaling was reduced in SCs, vesicles were still formed in MVBs but not secreted as exosomes. These results demonstrate a new function for the MVB–exosome pathway in the reproductive tract that appears to be conserved across evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Corrigan
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Siamak Redhai
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Aaron Leiblich
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Shih-Jung Fan
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Sumeth M W Perera
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Rachel Patel
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Carina Gandy
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - S Mark Wainwright
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - John F Morris
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Freddie Hamdy
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Deborah C I Goberdhan
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
| | - Clive Wilson
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, England, UK
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173
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Salido-Guadarrama I, Romero-Cordoba S, Peralta-Zaragoza O, Hidalgo-Miranda A, Rodríguez-Dorantes M. MicroRNAs transported by exosomes in body fluids as mediators of intercellular communication in cancer. Onco Targets Ther 2014; 7:1327-38. [PMID: 25092989 PMCID: PMC4114916 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s61562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer-cell communication is an important and complex process, achieved through a diversity of mechanisms that allows tumor cells to mold and influence their environment. In recent years, evidence has accumulated indicating that cells communicate via the release and delivery of microRNAs (miRNAs) packed into tumor-released (TR) exosomes. Understanding the role and mode of action of miRNAs from TR exosomes is of paramount importance in the field of cancer biomarker discovery and for the development of new biomedical applications for cancer therapeutics. In this review, we focus on miRNAs secreted via TR exosomes, which by acting in a paracrine or endocrine manner, facilitate a diversity of signaling mechanisms between cancer cells. We address their contribution as signaling molecules, to the establishment, maintenance, and enhancement of the tumor microenvironment and the metastatic niche in cancer. Finally, we address the potential role of these molecules as biomarkers in cancer diagnosis and prognosis and their impact as a biomedical tool in cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra Romero-Cordoba
- Oncogenomics Laboratory, National Institute of Genomics Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Oscar Peralta-Zaragoza
- Direction of Chronic Infections and Cancer, Research Center in Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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174
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Wilson CM, Naves T, Vincent F, Melloni B, Bonnaud F, Lalloué F, Jauberteau MO. Sortilin mediates the release and transfer of exosomes in concert with two tyrosine kinase receptors. J Cell Sci 2014; 127:3983-97. [PMID: 25037567 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.149336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The transfer of exosomes containing both genetic and protein materials is necessary for the control of the cancer cell microenvironment to promote tumor angiogenesis. The nature and function of proteins found in the exosomal cargo, and the mechanism of their action in membrane transport and related signaling events are not clearly understood. In this study, we demonstrate, in human lung cancer A549 cells, that the exosome release mechanism is closely linked to the multifaceted receptor sortilin (also called neurotensin receptor 3). Sortilin is already known to be important for cancer cell function. Here, we report for the first time its role in the assembly of a tyrosine kinase complex and subsequent exosome release. This new complex (termed the TES complex) is found in exosomes and results in the linkage of the two tyrosine kinase receptors TrkB (also known as NTRK2) and EGFR with sortilin. Using in vitro models, we demonstrate that this sortilin-containing complex exhibits a control on endothelial cells and angiogenesis activation through exosome transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia M Wilson
- EA3842 Homéostasie Cellulaire et Pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Université de Limoges, Faculté de Médecine, 2 Rue du Dr Raymond Marcland, 87025 Limoges CEDEX-France
| | - Thomas Naves
- EA3842 Homéostasie Cellulaire et Pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Université de Limoges, Faculté de Médecine, 2 Rue du Dr Raymond Marcland, 87025 Limoges CEDEX-France
| | - François Vincent
- EA3842 Homéostasie Cellulaire et Pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Université de Limoges, Faculté de Médecine, 2 Rue du Dr Raymond Marcland, 87025 Limoges CEDEX-France Service de Pathologie Respiratoire, Centre Hospitalier et Universitaire de Limoges, 87000 Limoges CEDEX-France
| | - Boris Melloni
- Service de Pathologie Respiratoire, Centre Hospitalier et Universitaire de Limoges, 87000 Limoges CEDEX-France
| | - François Bonnaud
- Service de Pathologie Respiratoire, Centre Hospitalier et Universitaire de Limoges, 87000 Limoges CEDEX-France
| | - Fabrice Lalloué
- EA3842 Homéostasie Cellulaire et Pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Université de Limoges, Faculté de Médecine, 2 Rue du Dr Raymond Marcland, 87025 Limoges CEDEX-France
| | - Marie-Odile Jauberteau
- EA3842 Homéostasie Cellulaire et Pathologies and Chaire de Pneumologie Expérimentale, Université de Limoges, Faculté de Médecine, 2 Rue du Dr Raymond Marcland, 87025 Limoges CEDEX-France
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175
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Nagashima S, Jirintai S, Takahashi M, Kobayashi T, Tanggis, Nishizawa T, Kouki T, Yashiro T, Okamoto H. Hepatitis E virus egress depends on the exosomal pathway, with secretory exosomes derived from multivesicular bodies. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:2166-2175. [PMID: 24970738 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.066910-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous studies indicated that hepatitis E virus (HEV) forms membrane-associated particles in the cytoplasm, most likely by budding into intracellular vesicles, and requires the multivesicular body (MVB) pathway to release virus particles, and the released HEV particles with a lipid membrane retain the trans-Golgi network protein 2 on their surface. To examine whether HEV utilizes the exosomal pathway to release the virus particles, we analysed whether the virion release from PLC/PRF/5 cells infected with genotype 3 HEV (strain JE03-1760F) is affected by treatment with bafilomycin A1 or GW4869, or by the introduction of a small interfering RNA (siRNA) against Rab27A or Hrs. The extracellular HEV RNA titre was increased by treatment with bafilomycin A1, but was decreased by treatment with GW4869. The relative levels of virus particles released from cells depleted of Rab27A or Hrs were decreased to 16.1 and 11.5 %, respectively, of that released from cells transfected with negative control siRNA. Electron microscopic observations revealed the presence of membrane-associated virus-like particles with a diameter of approximately 50 nm within the MVB, which possessed internal vesicles in infected cells. Immunoelectron microscopy showed positive immunogold staining for the HEV ORF2 protein on the intraluminal vesicles within the MVB. Additionally, immunofluorescence analysis indicated the triple co-localization of the ORF2, ORF3 and CD63 proteins in the cytoplasm, as specific loculated signals, supporting the presence of membrane-associated HEV particles within the MVB. These findings indicate that membrane-associated HEV particles are released together with internal vesicles through MVBs by the cellular exosomal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeo Nagashima
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Suljid Jirintai
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Masaharu Takahashi
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Tominari Kobayashi
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Tanggis
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Nishizawa
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Tom Kouki
- Division of Histology and Cell Biology, Department of Anatomy, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Takashi Yashiro
- Division of Histology and Cell Biology, Department of Anatomy, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Okamoto
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
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176
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Kowal J, Tkach M, Théry C. Biogenesis and secretion of exosomes. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2014; 29:116-25. [PMID: 24959705 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1262] [Impact Index Per Article: 126.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Although observed for several decades, the release of membrane-enclosed vesicles by cells into their surrounding environment has been the subject of increasing interest in the past few years, which led to the creation, in 2012, of a scientific society dedicated to the subject: the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles. Convincing evidence that vesicles allow exchange of complex information fuelled this rise in interest. But it has also become clear that different types of secreted vesicles co-exist, with different intracellular origins and modes of formation, and thus probably different compositions and functions. Exosomes are one sub-type of secreted vesicles. They form inside eukaryotic cells in multivesicular compartments, and are secreted when these compartments fuse with the plasma membrane. Interestingly, different families of molecules have been shown to allow intracellular formation of exosomes and their subsequent secretion, which suggests that even among exosomes different sub-types exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Kowal
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, 26 rue d'Ulm, Paris F-75248, France; INSERM U932, Paris F-75248, France
| | - Mercedes Tkach
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, 26 rue d'Ulm, Paris F-75248, France; INSERM U932, Paris F-75248, France
| | - Clotilde Théry
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, 26 rue d'Ulm, Paris F-75248, France; INSERM U932, Paris F-75248, France; Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL*), Paris F-75005, France.
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177
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Tamai K, Nakamura M, Mizuma M, Mochizuki M, Yokoyama M, Endo H, Yamaguchi K, Nakagawa T, Shiina M, Unno M, Muramoto K, Sato I, Satoh K, Sugamura K, Tanaka N. Suppressive expression of CD274 increases tumorigenesis and cancer stem cell phenotypes in cholangiocarcinoma. Cancer Sci 2014; 105:667-74. [PMID: 24673799 PMCID: PMC4317902 DOI: 10.1111/cas.12406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cholangiocarcinoma is an aggressive malignant tumor originating from intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts. Its malignant phenotypes may be assumed by cancer stem cells (CSC). Here, we demonstrate that CD274 (PD-L1), known as an immunomodulatory ligand, has suppressive effects on CSC-related phenotypes of cholangiocarcinoma. Using two human cholangiocarcinoma cell lines, RBE and HuCCT1, we attempted to isolate the CD274low and CD274high cells from each cell line, and xenografted them into immunodeficient NOD/scid/γcnull (NOG) mice. We found that the CD274low cells isolated from both RBE and HuCCT1 are highly tumorigenic in NOG mice compared with CD274high cells. Furthermore, the CD274low cells possess several CSC-related characteristics, such as high aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity, reduced reactive oxygen species production and a dormant state in the cell cycle. Furthermore, depletion of CD274 expression by shRNA in RBE cells enhances their tumorigenicity and increases ALDH activity. These findings are compatible with our observation that clinical cholangiocarcinoma specimens are classified into low and high groups for CD274 expression, and the CD274 low group shows poorer prognosis when compared with the CD274 high group. These results strongly suggest that CD274 has a novel function in the negative regulation of CSC-related phenotypes in human cholangiocarcinoma, which is distinct from its immunomodulatory actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichi Tamai
- Division of Cancer Biology and Therapeutics, Miyagi Cancer Center Research Institute, Natori, Japan; Department of Cancer Science, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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178
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Villarroya-Beltri C, Baixauli F, Gutiérrez-Vázquez C, Sánchez-Madrid F, Mittelbrunn M. Sorting it out: regulation of exosome loading. Semin Cancer Biol 2014; 28:3-13. [PMID: 24769058 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2014.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 545] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), a term that includes both exosomes of endocytic origin and vesicles derived from plasma membranes, are continuously secreted by cells to the extracellular environment, and represent a novel vehicle for cell-cell communication. Exosomes contain specific repertoires of proteins and RNAs, indicating the existence of mechanisms that control the sorting of molecules into them. Although the molecular mechanisms that regulate the loading of proteins into exosomes have been studied for years, the sorting of RNA has been elusive until recently. Here we review the molecular mechanisms that control the sorting of molecules into exosomes, with special attention to the sorting of RNA. We also discuss how the cellular context affects the composition of exosomes, and thus the outcome of the communication between the exosome-producer and recipient cells, with particular focus on the communication between tumor cells and with cells of the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Villarroya-Beltri
- Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain; Servicio de Inmunología, Hospital de la Princesa, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francesc Baixauli
- Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain; Servicio de Inmunología, Hospital de la Princesa, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Gutiérrez-Vázquez
- Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain; Servicio de Inmunología, Hospital de la Princesa, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Sánchez-Madrid
- Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain; Servicio de Inmunología, Hospital de la Princesa, Madrid, Spain.
| | - María Mittelbrunn
- Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain
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179
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Phuyal S, Hessvik NP, Skotland T, Sandvig K, Llorente A. Regulation of exosome release by glycosphingolipids and flotillins. FEBS J 2014; 281:2214-27. [PMID: 24605801 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Revised: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are released by cells after fusion of multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane. The molecular mechanism of this process is still unclear. We investigated the role of sphingolipids and flotillins, which constitute a raft-associated family of proteins, in the release of exosomes. Interestingly, our results show that dl-threo-1-phenyl-2-decanoylamino-3-morpholino-1-propanol, an inhibitor of glucosylceramide synthase, seemed to affect the composition of exosomes released from PC-3 cells. However, the inhibition of ceramide formation from the de novo pathway by fumonisin B1 did not affect exosome secretion. Moreover, in contrast to findings obtained with other cell lines published so far, inhibition of neutral sphingomyelinase 2, an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of ceramide from sphingomyelin, did not inhibit the secretion of exosomes in PC-3 cells. Finally, small interfering RNA-mediated downregulation of flotillin-1 and flotillin-2 did not significantly change the levels of released exosomes as such, but seemed to affect the composition of exosomes. In conclusion, our results reveal the involvement of glycosphingolipids and flotillins in the release of exosomes from PC-3 cells, and indicate that the role of ceramide in exosome formation may be cell-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh Phuyal
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital - The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Norway; Center for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway
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180
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Exosome secretion is enhanced by invadopodia and drives invasive behavior. Cell Rep 2013; 5:1159-68. [PMID: 24290760 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2013.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 395] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Unconventional secretion of exosome vesicles from multivesicular endosomes (MVEs) occurs across a broad set of systems and is reported to be upregulated in cancer, where it promotes aggressive behavior. However, regulatory control of exosome secretion is poorly understood. Using cancer cells, we identified specialized invasive actin structures called invadopodia as specific and critical docking and secretion sites for CD63- and Rab27a-positive MVEs. Thus, inhibition of invadopodia formation greatly reduced exosome secretion into conditioned media. Functionally, addition of purified exosomes or inhibition of exosome biogenesis or secretion greatly affected multiple invadopodia life cycle steps, including invadopodia formation, stabilization, and exocytosis of proteinases, indicating a key role for exosome cargoes in promoting invasive activity and providing in situ signaling feedback. Exosome secretion also controlled cellular invasion through three-dimensional matrix. These data identify a synergistic interaction between invadopodia biogenesis and exosome secretion and reveal a fundamental role for exosomes in promoting cancer cell invasiveness.
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181
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Shifrin DA, Demory Beckler M, Coffey RJ, Tyska MJ. Extracellular vesicles: communication, coercion, and conditioning. Mol Biol Cell 2013; 24:1253-9. [PMID: 23630232 PMCID: PMC3639038 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e12-08-0572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells communicate with neighboring cells and condition their local environment by secreting soluble factors into the extracellular space. These well-studied facets of cell biology are essential for the establishment and maintenance of physiological homeostasis. However, accumulating evidence has revealed that specific ligands, enzymes, and macromolecules are distributed into the extracellular space by virtue of their association with small vesicles, which are released by a variety of cell types. Although the biological significance of such vesicles was initially debated, purification and subsequent functional studies have shown that these extracellular vesicles are bioactive organelles carrying a wide range of protein and nucleic acid cargoes. In many cases these vesicles are laden with molecules that are involved in cell signaling, although other diverse functions are being revealed at a rapid pace. In this Perspective, we discuss recent developments in the understanding of the major pathways of extracellular vesicle biogenesis and how these vesicles contribute to the maintenance of physiological homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Shifrin
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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182
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Colombo M, Moita C, van Niel G, Kowal J, Vigneron J, Benaroch P, Manel N, Moita LF, Théry C, Raposo G. Analysis of ESCRT functions in exosome biogenesis, composition and secretion highlights the heterogeneity of extracellular vesicles. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:5553-65. [PMID: 24105262 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.128868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 849] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted upon fusion of endosomal multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. The mechanisms involved in their biogenesis have not yet been fully identified although they could be used to modulate exosome formation and therefore are a promising tool in understanding exosome functions. We have performed an RNA interference screen targeting 23 components of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery and associated proteins in MHC class II (MHC II)-expressing HeLa-CIITA cells. Silencing of HRS, STAM1 or TSG101 reduced the secretion of EV-associated CD63 and MHC II but each gene altered differently the size and/or protein composition of secreted EVs, as quantified by immuno-electron microscopy. By contrast, depletion of VPS4B augmented this secretion while not altering the features of EVs. For several other ESCRT subunits, it was not possible to draw any conclusions about their involvement in exosome biogenesis from the screen. Interestingly, silencing of ALIX increased MHC II exosomal secretion, as a result of an overall increase in intracellular MHC II protein and mRNA levels. In human dendritic cells (DCs), ALIX depletion also increased MHC II in the cells, but not in the released CD63-positive EVs. Such differences could be attributed to a greater heterogeneity in size, and higher MHC II and lower CD63 levels in vesicles recovered from DCs as compared with HeLa-CIITA. The results reveal a role for selected ESCRT components and accessory proteins in exosome secretion and composition by HeLa-CIITA. They also highlight biogenetic differences in vesicles secreted by a tumour cell line and primary DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Colombo
- Institut Curie Section Recherche, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248 Paris cedex 05, France
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183
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Wendler F, Bota-Rabassedas N, Franch-Marro X. Cancer becomes wasteful: emerging roles of exosomes(†) in cell-fate determination. J Extracell Vesicles 2013; 2:22390. [PMID: 24223259 PMCID: PMC3823269 DOI: 10.3402/jev.v2i0.22390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, have been widely recognized for their role in intercellular communication of the immune response system. In the past few years, significance has been given to exosomes in the induction and modulation of cell-fate-inducing signalling pathways, such as the Hedgehog (Hh), Wnts, Notch, transforming growth factor (TGF-β), epidermal growth factor (EGF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) pathways, placing them in the wider context of development and also of cancer. These protein families induce signalling cascades responsible for tissue specification, homeostasis and maintenance. Exosomes contribute to cell-fate signal secretion, and vice versa exosome secretion can be induced by these proteins. Interestingly, exosomes can also transfer their mRNA to host cells or modulate the signalling pathways directly by the removal of downstream effector molecules from the cell. Surprisingly, much of what we know about the function of exosomes in cell determination is gathered from pathological transformed cancer cells and wound healing while data about their biogenesis and biology in normal developing and adult tissue lag behind. In this report, we will summarize some of the published literature and point to current advances and questions in this fast-developing topic. In a brief foray, we will also update and shortly discuss their potential in diagnosis and targeted cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Wendler
- past address: CNRS UMR, Inserm UMR, Institute de Biologie Valrose (IBV), Centre de Biochemie, Nice, France
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184
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Yin W, Ouyang S, Li Y, Xiao B, Yang H. Immature dendritic cell-derived exosomes: a promise subcellular vaccine for autoimmunity. Inflammation 2013; 36:232-40. [PMID: 22956173 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-012-9539-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes, 60-90-nm-sized vesicles, are produced by a large number of cell types, including tumor cells, neurons, astrocytes, hemocytes, intestinal epithelial cells, and so on. Dendritic cell (DC), the most potent professional antigen-presenting cell in the immune system, produces exosomes in the course of maturation. Mature DCs produce exosomes with the ability to elicit potent immunoactivation, resulting in tumor eradication and bacterial or virus elimination. Given the notion that exosomes are stable and easy to be modified artificially, autologous mature DC-derived exosomes have been vaccinated into patients with malignant diseases. In clinical trials utilizing exosomes as therapeutic approaches, researchers observed considerable curative effect with little side effect. However, immature or suppressive DC-derived exosomes harbor anti-inflammatory properties distinct from mature DC-derived exosomes. In murine models of autoimmune disease and transplantation, immature DC-derived exosomes reduced T cell-dependent immunoactivation, relieved clinical manifestation of autoimmune disease, and prolonged survival time of transplantation. Although the exact mechanism of how immature DC-derived exosomes function in vivo is still unclear, and there are no clinical trials regarding application of exosome vaccine into patients with autoimmune disease, we will analyze the promise of immature DC-derived exosomes as a subcellular vaccine in autoimmunity in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weifan Yin
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China, 410008
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185
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Fang DY, King HW, Li JY, Gleadle JM. Exosomes and the kidney: blaming the messenger. Nephrology (Carlton) 2013; 18:1-10. [PMID: 23113949 DOI: 10.1111/nep.12005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-bound vesicles of endosomal origin, present in a wide range of biological fluids, including blood and urine. They range between 30 and 100 nm in diameter, and consist of a limiting lipid bilayer, transmembrane proteins and a hydrophilic core containing proteins, mRNAs and microRNAs (miRNA). Exosomes can act as extracellular vehicles by which cells communicate, through the delivery of their functional cargo to recipient cells, with many important biological, physiological and pathological implications. The exosome release pathway contributes towards protein secretion, antigen presentation, pathogen transfer and cancer progression. Exosomes and exosome-mediated signalling have been implicated in disease processes such as atherosclerosis, calcification and kidney diseases. Circulating levels of exosomes and extracellular vesicles can be influenced by the progression of renal disease. Advances in methods for purification and analysis of exosomes are leading to potential diagnostic and therapeutic avenues for kidney diseases. This review will focus on biophysical properties and biogenesis of exosomes, their pathophysiological roles and their potential as biomarkers and therapeutics in kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doreen Yp Fang
- Department of Renal Medicine, Flinders Medical Centre, School of Medicine, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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186
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Abstract
Cells release into the extracellular environment diverse types of membrane vesicles of endosomal and plasma membrane origin called exosomes and microvesicles, respectively. These extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent an important mode of intercellular communication by serving as vehicles for transfer between cells of membrane and cytosolic proteins, lipids, and RNA. Deficiencies in our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms for EV formation and lack of methods to interfere with the packaging of cargo or with vesicle release, however, still hamper identification of their physiological relevance in vivo. In this review, we focus on the characterization of EVs and on currently proposed mechanisms for their formation, targeting, and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graça Raposo
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, F-75248 Paris, Cedex 05, France.
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187
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Signaling pathways in exosomes biogenesis, secretion and fate. Genes (Basel) 2013; 4:152-70. [PMID: 24705158 PMCID: PMC3899971 DOI: 10.3390/genes4020152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (30–100 nm) derived from the endosomal system, which have raised considerable interest in the last decade. Several studies have shown that they mediate cell-to-cell communication in a variety of biological processes. Thus, in addition to cell-to-cell direct interaction or secretion of active molecules, they are now considered another class of signal mediators. Exosomes can be secreted by several cell types and retrieved in many body fluids, such as blood, urine, saliva and cerebrospinal fluid. In addition to proteins and lipids, they also contain nucleic acids, namely mRNA and miRNA. These features have prompted extensive research to exploit them as a source of biomarkers for several pathologies, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. In this context, exosomes also appear attractive as gene delivery vehicles. Furthermore, exosome immunomodulatory and regenerative properties are also encouraging their application for further therapeutic purposes. Nevertheless, several issues remain to be addressed: exosome biogenesis and secretion mechanisms have not been clearly understood, and physiological functions, as well as pathological roles, are far from being satisfactorily elucidated.
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188
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Dreux M, Garaigorta U, Boyd B, Décembre E, Chung J, Whitten-Bauer C, Wieland S, Chisari FV. Short-range exosomal transfer of viral RNA from infected cells to plasmacytoid dendritic cells triggers innate immunity. Cell Host Microbe 2013; 12:558-70. [PMID: 23084922 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2012.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 363] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Viral nucleic acids often trigger an innate immune response in infected cells. Many viruses, including hepatitis C virus (HCV), have evolved mechanisms to evade intracellular recognition. Nevertheless, HCV-permissive cells can trigger a viral RNA-, TLR7-, and cell-contact-dependent compensatory interferon response in nonpermissive plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Here we report that these events are mediated by transfer of HCV-RNA-containing exosomes from infected cells to pDCs. The exosomal viral RNA transfer is dependent on the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery and on Annexin A2, an RNA-binding protein involved in membrane vesicle trafficking, and is suppressed by exosome release inhibitors. Further, purified concentrated HCV-RNA-containing exosomes are sufficient to activate pDCs. Thus, vesicular sequestration and exosomal export of viral RNA may serve both as a viral strategy to evade pathogen sensing within infected cells and as a host strategy to induce an unopposed innate response in replication-nonpermissive bystander cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlène Dreux
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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189
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Colombo M, Moita C, van Niel G, Kowal J, Vigneron J, Benaroch P, Manel N, Moita LF, Théry C, Raposo G. Analysis of ESCRT functions in exosome biogenesis, composition and secretion highlights the heterogeneity of extracellular vesicles. J Cell Sci 2013. [DOI: 78495111110.1242/jcs.128868' target='_blank'>'"<>78495111110.1242/jcs.128868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [78495111110.1242/jcs.128868','', '10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.07.083')">Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
78495111110.1242/jcs.128868" />
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted upon fusion of endosomal multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. The mechanisms involved in their biogenesis remain so far unclear although they constitute targets to modulate exosome formation and therefore are a promising tool to understand their functions. We have performed an RNA interference screen targeting twenty-three components of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery and associated proteins in MHC class II (MHC II)-expressing HeLa-CIITA cells. Silencing of HRS, STAM1, or TSG101 reduced the secretion of EV-associated CD63 and MHC II but each gene altered differently the size and/or protein composition of secreted EV, as quantified by immuno-electron microscopy. By contrast, depletion of VPS4B augmented this secretion while not altering the features of EVs. For several other ESCRT subunits, the screen did not allow to conclude on their involvement in exosome biogenesis. Interestingly, silencing of ALIX increased MHC II exosomal secretion, due to an overall increase in intracellular MHC II protein and mRNA levels. In human dendritic cells (DCs), ALIX depletion also increased MHC II in the cells, but not in the released CD63-positive EVs. Such differences could be attributed to a higher heterogeneity in size, and higher MHC II and lower CD63 contents in vesicles recovered from DCs as compared to HeLa-CIITA. The results reveal a role for selected ESCRT components and accessory proteins in exosome secretion and composition by HeLa-CIITA. They also highlight biogenetic differences in vesicles secreted by a tumour cell line and primary DCs.
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190
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Beckett K, Monier S, Palmer L, Alexandre C, Green H, Bonneil E, Raposo G, Thibault P, Le Borgne R, Vincent JP. Drosophila S2 cells secrete wingless on exosome-like vesicles but the wingless gradient forms independently of exosomes. Traffic 2013; 14:82-96. [PMID: 23035643 PMCID: PMC4337976 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Wingless acts as a morphogen in Drosophila wing discs, where it specifies cell fates and controls growth several cell diameters away from its site of expression. Thus, despite being acylated and membrane associated, Wingless spreads in the extracellular space. Recent studies have focussed on identifying the route that Wingless follows in the secretory pathway and determining how it is packaged for release. We have found that, in medium conditioned by Wingless-expressing Drosophila S2 cells, Wingless is present on exosome-like vesicles and that this fraction activates signal transduction. Proteomic analysis shows that Wingless-containing exosome-like structures contain many Drosophila proteins that are homologous to mammalian exosome proteins. In addition, Evi, a multipass transmembrane protein, is also present on exosome-like vesicles. Using these exosome markers and a cell-based RNAi assay, we found that the small GTPase Rab11 contributes significantly to exosome production. This finding allows us to conclude from in vivo Rab11 knockdown experiments, that exosomes are unlikely to contribute to Wingless secretion and gradient formation in wing discs. Consistent with this conclusion, extracellularly tagged Evi expressed from a Bacterial Artificial Chromosome is not released from imaginal disc Wingless-expressing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Beckett
- Division of Developmental Biology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, NW7 1AA, UK.
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191
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Gross JC, Chaudhary V, Bartscherer K, Boutros M. Active Wnt proteins are secreted on exosomes. Nat Cell Biol 2012; 14:1036-45. [PMID: 22983114 DOI: 10.1038/ncb2574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 725] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Wnt signalling has important roles during development and in many diseases. As morphogens, hydrophobic Wnt proteins exert their function over a distance to induce patterning and cell differentiation decisions. Recent studies have identified several factors that are required for the secretion of Wnt proteins; however, how Wnts travel in the extracellular space remains a largely unresolved question. Here we show that Wnts are secreted on exosomes both during Drosophila development and in human cells. We demonstrate that exosomes carry Wnts on their surface to induce Wnt signalling activity in target cells. Together with the cargo receptor Evi/WIs, Wnts are transported through endosomal compartments onto exosomes, a process that requires the R-SNARE Ykt6. Our study demonstrates an evolutionarily conserved functional role of extracellular vesicular transport of Wnt proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Christina Gross
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division Signaling and Functional Genomics and Heidelberg University, Department for Cell and Molecular Biology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Im Neuenheimer Feld 580, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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192
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Lee Y, El Andaloussi S, Wood MJA. Exosomes and microvesicles: extracellular vesicles for genetic information transfer and gene therapy. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 21:R125-34. [PMID: 22872698 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 677] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes and microvesicles are extracellular nanovesicles released by most but not all cells. They are specifically equipped to mediate intercellular communication via the transfer of genetic information, including the transfer of both coding and non-coding RNAs, to recipient cells. As a result, both exosomes and microvesicles play a fundamental biological role in the regulation of normal physiological as well as aberrant pathological processes, via altered gene regulatory networks and/or via epigenetic programming. For example, microvesicle-mediated genetic transfer can regulate the maintenance of stem cell plasticity and induce beneficial cell phenotype modulation. Alternatively, such vesicles play a role in tumor pathogenesis and the spread of neurodegenerative diseases via the transfer of specific microRNAs and pathogenic proteins. Given this natural property for genetic information transfer, the possibility of exploiting these vesicles for therapeutic purposes is now being investigated. Stem cell-derived microvesicles appear to be naturally equipped to mediate tissue regeneration under certain conditions, while recent evidence suggests that exosomes might be harnessed for the targeted delivery of human genetic therapies via the introduction of exogenous genetic cargoes such as siRNA. Thus, extracellular vesicles are emerging as potent genetic information transfer agents underpinning a range of biological processes and with therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Lee
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
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193
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Wurdinger T, Gatson NN, Balaj L, Kaur B, Breakefield XO, Pegtel DM. Extracellular vesicles and their convergence with viral pathways. Adv Virol 2012; 2012:767694. [PMID: 22888349 PMCID: PMC3410301 DOI: 10.1155/2012/767694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (microvesicles), such as exosomes and shed microvesicles, contain a variety of molecules including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Microvesicles appear mostly to originate from multivesicular bodies or to bud from the plasma membrane. Here, we review the convergence of microvesicle biogenesis and aspects of viral assembly and release pathways. Herpesviruses and retroviruses, amongst others, recruit several elements from the microvesicle biogenesis pathways for functional virus release. In addition, noninfectious pleiotropic virus-like vesicles can be released, containing viral and cellular components. We highlight the heterogeneity of microvesicle function during viral infection, addressing microvesicles that can either block or enhance infection, or cause immune dysregulation through bystander action in the immune system. Finally, endogenous retrovirus and retrotransposon elements deposited in our genomes millions of years ago can be released from cells within microvesicles, suggestive of a viral origin of the microvesicle system or perhaps of an evolutionary conserved system of virus-vesicle codependence. More research is needed to further elucidate the complex function of the various microvesicles produced during viral infection, possibly revealing new therapeutic intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wurdinger
- Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Neuroscience Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
- Neuro-oncology Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - NaTosha N. Gatson
- Dardinger Laboratory for Neuro-oncology and Neurosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Leonora Balaj
- Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Neuroscience Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Balveen Kaur
- Dardinger Laboratory for Neuro-oncology and Neurosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Xandra O. Breakefield
- Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Neuroscience Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - D. Michiel Pegtel
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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194
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van der Pol E, Böing AN, Harrison P, Sturk A, Nieuwland R. Classification, Functions, and Clinical Relevance of Extracellular Vesicles. Pharmacol Rev 2012; 64:676-705. [PMID: 22722893 DOI: 10.1124/pr.112.005983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1276] [Impact Index Per Article: 106.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Edwin van der Pol
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Academic Medical Centre of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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195
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Koles K, Nunnari J, Korkut C, Barria R, Brewer C, Li Y, Leszyk J, Zhang B, Budnik V. Mechanism of evenness interrupted (Evi)-exosome release at synaptic boutons. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:16820-34. [PMID: 22437826 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.342667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Wnt signaling plays critical roles during synaptic development and plasticity. However, the mechanisms by which Wnts are released and travel to target cells are unresolved. During synaptic development, the secretion of Drosophila Wnt1, Wingless, requires the function of Evenness Interrupted (Evi)/Wls, a Wingless-binding protein that is secreted along with Wingless at the neuromuscular junction. Given that Evi is a transmembrane protein, these studies suggested the presence of a novel vesicular mechanism of trans-synaptic communication, potentially in the form of exosomes. To establish the mechanisms for the release of Evi vesicles, we used a dsRNA assay in cultured cells to screen for genes that when down-regulated prevent the release of Evi vesicles. We identified two proteins, Rab11 and Syntaxin 1A (Syx1A), that were required for Evi vesicle release. To determine whether the same mechanisms were used in vivo at the neuromuscular junction, we altered the activity of Rab11 and Syx1A in motoneurons and determined the impact on Evi release. We found that Syx1A, Rab11, and its effector Myosin5 were required for proper Evi vesicle release. Furthermore, ultrastructural analysis of synaptic boutons demonstrated the presence of multivesicular bodies, organelles involved in the production and release of exosomes, and these multivesicular bodies contained Evi. We also used mass spectrometry, electron microscopy, and biochemical techniques to characterize the exosome fraction from cultured cells. Our studies revealed that secreted Evi vesicles show remarkable conservation with exosomes in other systems. In summary, our observations unravel some of the in vivo mechanisms required for Evi vesicle release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Koles
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA.
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196
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Regulation of hepatitis C virus secretion by the Hrs-dependent exosomal pathway. Virology 2011; 422:377-85. [PMID: 22138215 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of assembly and budding of hepatitis C virus (HCV) remain poorly understood. The budding of several enveloped viruses requires an endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT), which is part of the cellular machinery used to form multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Here, we demonstrated that Hrs, an ESCRT-0 component, is critical for the budding of HCV through the exosomal secretion pathway. Hrs depletion caused reduced exosome production, which paralleled with the decrease of HCV replication in the host cell, and that in the culture supernatant. Sucrose-density gradient separation of the culture supernatant of HCV-infected cells revealed the co-existence of HCV core proteins and the exosome marker. Furthermore, both the core protein and an envelope protein of HCV were detected in the intraluminal vesicles of MVBs. These results suggested that HCV secretion from host cells requires Hrs-dependent exosomal pathway in which the viral assembly is also involved.
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197
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Abstract
Cells secrete various membrane-enclosed microvesicles from their cell surface (shedding microvesicles) and from internal, endosome-derived membranes (exosomes). Intriguingly, these vesicles have many characteristics in common with enveloped viruses, including biophysical properties, biogenesis, and uptake by cells. Recent discoveries describing the microvesicle-mediated intercellular transfer of functional cellular proteins, RNAs, and mRNAs have revealed additional similarities between viruses and cellular microvesicles. Apparent differences include the complexity of viral entry, temporally regulated viral expression, and self-replication proceeding to infection of new cells. Interestingly, many virally infected cells secrete microvesicles that differ in content from their virion counterparts but may contain various viral proteins and RNAs. For the most part, these particles have not been analyzed for their content or functions during viral infection. However, early studies of microvesicles (L-particles) secreted from herpes simplex virus-infected cells provided the first evidence of microvesicle-mediated intercellular communication. In the case of Epstein-Barr virus, recent evidence suggests that this tumorigenic herpesvirus also utilizes exosomes as a mechanism of cell-to-cell communication through the transfer of signaling competent proteins and functional microRNAs to uninfected cells. This review focuses on aspects of the biology of microvesicles with an emphasis on their potential contributions to viral infection and pathogenesis.
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198
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Bobrie A, Colombo M, Raposo G, Théry C. Exosome Secretion: Molecular Mechanisms and Roles in Immune Responses. Traffic 2011; 12:1659-68. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2011.01225.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 747] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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199
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Silverman JM, Reiner NE. Exosomes and other microvesicles in infection biology: organelles with unanticipated phenotypes. Cell Microbiol 2010; 13:1-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01537.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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