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Diverse roles of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in neuroinflammation and cerebral ischemia. Neuroscience 2008; 158:983-94. [PMID: 18621108 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 397] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2008] [Revised: 06/04/2008] [Accepted: 06/08/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Regulation of the extracellular matrix by proteases and protease inhibitors is a fundamental biological process for normal growth, development and repair in the CNS. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are the major extracellular-degrading enzymes. Two other enzyme families, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM), and the serine proteases, plasminogen/plasminogen activator (P/PA) system, are also involved in extracellular matrix degradation. Normally, the highly integrated action of these enzyme families remodels all of the components of the matrix and performs essential functions at the cell surface involved in signaling, cell survival, and cell death. During the inflammatory response induced in infection, autoimmune reactions and hypoxia/ischemia, abnormal expression and activation of these proteases lead to breakdown of the extracellular matrix, resulting in the opening of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), preventing normal cell signaling, and eventually leading to cell death. There are several key MMPs and ADAMs that have been implicated in neuroinflammation: gelatinases A and B (MMP-2 and -9), stromelysin-1 (MMP-3), membrane-type MMP (MT1-MMP or MMP-14), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha converting enzyme (TACE). In addition, TIMP-3, which is bound to the cell surface, promotes cell death and impedes angiogenesis. Inhibitors of metalloproteinases are available, but balancing the beneficial and detrimental effects of these agents remains a challenge.
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152
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TATSUMI R, ALLEN RE. Mechano-biology of resident myogenic stem cells: Molecular mechanism of stretch-induced activation of satellite cells. Anim Sci J 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2008.00528.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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153
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Alvarez JI, Teale JM. Multiple expression of matrix metalloproteinases in murine neurocysticercosis: Implications for leukocyte migration through multiple central nervous system barriers. Brain Res 2008; 1214:145-58. [PMID: 18466882 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2008] [Revised: 03/08/2008] [Accepted: 03/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
During the course of murine neurocysticercosis (NCC), disruption of the unique protective barriers in the central nervous system (CNS) is evidenced by extravasation of leukocytes. This process varies according to the anatomical sites and diverse vascular beds analyzed. To examine mechanisms involved in the observed differences, the expression and activity of eight matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) were analyzed in a murine model of NCC. The mRNA expression of the MMPs studied was upregulated as a result of infection, and active MMPs were mainly detected in leukocytes migrating into the brain. Polarized expression and gelatinolytic activity of several MMPs were identified in immune cells extravasating pial vessels as early as 1 day post infection. In contrast, leukocytes expressing active MMPs and extravasating parenchymal vessels were not observed until 5 weeks post infection. In ventricular areas, most of the MMP activity was detected in leukocytes traversing the ependyma from leptomeningeal infiltrates. In addition, immune cells continued to express active MMPs after exiting vessels suggesting that enzymatic activity of MMPs is not just required for diapedesis. These results correlate with our previous studies showing differential kinetics in the disruption of the CNS barriers upon infection and help document the important role of MMPs during leukocyte infiltration and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge I Alvarez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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154
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Leonardo CC, Eakin AK, Ajmo JM, Gottschall PE. Versican and brevican are expressed with distinct pathology in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic injury. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:1106-14. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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155
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Ginsberg MD. Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke: past, present and future. Neuropharmacology 2008; 55:363-89. [PMID: 18308347 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 535] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2007] [Revised: 12/03/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke refers to strategies, applied singly or in combination, that antagonize the injurious biochemical and molecular events that eventuate in irreversible ischemic injury. There has been a recent explosion of interest in this field, with over 1000 experimental papers and over 400 clinical articles appearing within the past 6 years. These studies, in turn, are the outgrowth of three decades of investigative work to define the multiple mechanisms and mediators of ischemic brain injury, which constitute potential targets of neuroprotection. Rigorously conducted experimental studies in animal models of brain ischemia provide incontrovertible proof-of-principle that high-grade protection of the ischemic brain is an achievable goal. Nonetheless, many agents have been brought to clinical trial without a sufficiently compelling evidence-based pre-clinical foundation. At this writing, around 160 clinical trials of neuroprotection for ischemic stroke have been initiated. Of the approximately 120 completed trials, two-thirds were smaller early-phase safety-feasibility studies. The remaining one-third were typically larger (>200 subjects) phase II or III trials, but, disappointingly, only fewer than one-half of these administered neuroprotective therapy within the 4-6h therapeutic window within which efficacious neuroprotection is considered to be achievable. This fact alone helps to account for the abundance of "failed" trials. This review presents a close survey of the most extensively evaluated neuroprotective agents and classes and considers both the strengths and weakness of the pre-clinical evidence as well as the results and shortcomings of the clinical trials themselves. Among the agent-classes considered are calcium channel blockers; glutamate antagonists; GABA agonists; antioxidants/radical scavengers; phospholipid precursor; nitric oxide signal-transduction down-regulator; leukocyte inhibitors; hemodilution; and a miscellany of other agents. Among promising ongoing efforts, therapeutic hypothermia, high-dose human albumin therapy, and hyperacute magnesium therapy are considered in detail. The potential of combination therapies is highlighted. Issues of clinical-trial funding, the need for improved translational strategies and clinical-trial design, and "thinking outside the box" are emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myron D Ginsberg
- Department of Neurology (D4-5), University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33101, USA.
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156
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Amantea D, Corasaniti M, Mercuri N, Bernardi G, Bagetta G. Brain regional and cellular localization of gelatinase activity in rat that have undergone transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Neuroscience 2008; 152:8-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2007] [Revised: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/14/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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157
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Abstract
Deregulated lipid metabolism may be of particular importance for CNS injuries and disorders, as this organ has the highest lipid concentration next to adipose tissue. Atherosclerosis (a risk factor for ischemic stroke) results from accumulation of LDL-derived lipids in the arterial wall. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha and IL-1), secretory phospholipase A2 IIA and lipoprotein-PLA2 are implicated in vascular inflammation. These inflammatory responses promote atherosclerotic plaques, formation and release of the blood clot that can induce ischemic stroke. TNF-alpha and IL-1 alter lipid metabolism and stimulate production of eicosanoids, ceramide, and reactive oxygen species that potentiate CNS injuries and certain neurological disorders. Cholesterol is an important regulator of lipid organization and the precursor for neurosteroid biosynthesis. Low levels of neurosteroids were related to poor outcome in many brain pathologies. Apolipoprotein E is the principal cholesterol carrier protein in the brain, and the gene encoding the variant Apolipoprotein E4 is a significant risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Parkinson's disease is to some degree caused by lipid peroxidation due to phospholipases activation. Niemann-Pick diseases A and B are due to acidic sphingomyelinase deficiency, resulting in sphingomyelin accumulation, while Niemann-Pick disease C is due to mutations in either the NPC1 or NPC2 genes, resulting in defective cholesterol transport and cholesterol accumulation. Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune inflammatory demyelinating condition of the CNS. Inhibiting phospholipase A2 attenuated the onset and progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. The endocannabinoid system is hypoactive in Huntington's disease. Ethyl-eicosapetaenoate showed promise in clinical trials. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis causes loss of motorneurons. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition reduced spinal neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis transgenic mice. Eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation provided improvement in schizophrenia patients, while the combination of (eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexaenoic acid) provided benefit in bipolar disorders. The ketogenic diet where >90% of calories are derived from fat is an effective treatment for epilepsy. Understanding cytokine-induced changes in lipid metabolism will promote novel concepts and steer towards bench-to-bedside transition for therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rao Muralikrishna Adibhatla
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI
- Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI
- William S. Middleton Veterans Affairs Hospital, Madison, WI
| | - J. F. Hatcher
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI
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158
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Yamada M, Sankoda Y, Tatsumi R, Mizunoya W, Ikeuchi Y, Sunagawa K, Allen RE. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 mediates stretch-induced activation of skeletal muscle satellite cells in a nitric oxide-dependent manner. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2008; 40:2183-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2008.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2007] [Revised: 01/30/2008] [Accepted: 02/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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159
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Kelly PJ, Morrow JD, Ning M, Koroshetz W, Lo EH, Terry E, Milne GL, Hubbard J, Lee H, Stevenson E, Lederer M, Furie KL. Oxidative stress and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in acute ischemic stroke: the Biomarker Evaluation for Antioxidant Therapies in Stroke (BEAT-Stroke) study. Stroke 2007; 39:100-4. [PMID: 18063832 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.107.488189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Experimental stroke studies indicate that oxidative stress is a major contributing factor to ischemic cerebral injury. Oxidative stress is also implicated in activation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and blood-brain barrier injury after ischemia-reperfusion. Plasma biomarkers of oxidative stress may have utility as early indicators of efficacy in Phase 2 trials of antioxidant therapies in human stroke. To date, a valid biomarker has been unavailable. We measured F2-isoprostanes (F2IPs), free-radical induced products of neuronal arachadonic acid peroxidation, in acute ischemic stroke. We aimed to determine the change in plasma F2IP levels over time and relationship with plasma MMP-9 in tPA-treated and tPA-untreated stroke patients. METHODS We performed a case-control study of consecutive ischemic stroke patients (25 tPA-treated and 27 tPA-untreated) presenting within 8 hours of stroke onset. Controls were individuals without prior stroke from a primary care clinic network serving the source population from which cases were derived. Infarct volume was determined on acute diffusion-weighted MRI (DWI) performed within 48 hours using a semi-automated computerized segmentation algorithm. Phlebotomy was performed at <8 hours, 24 hours, 2 to 5 days, and 4 to 6 weeks. F2IPs were measured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and MMP-9 by ELISA. Prestroke antioxidant dietary intake was measured by the 24-hour recall method. RESULTS In 52 cases and 27 controls, early (median 6 hours postonset) F2IPs were elevated in stroke cases compared with controls (medians 0. 041 versus 0.0295 pg/mL, P=0.012). No difference in F2IPSs was present at later time points. Early plasma F2IPs correlated with MMP-9 in all patients (P=0.01) and the tPA-treated subgroup (P=0.02). No correlation was found with NIHSS, DWI infarct volume, 90-day Rankin score, or C-reactive protein (P>0.05 for all). CONCLUSIONS In early human stroke we found evidence of increased oxidative stress and a relationship with MMP-9 expression, supporting findings from experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Kelly
- Neurovascular Clinical Science Unit, Mater University Hospital and University College Dublin, Ireland.
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160
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CAI ZY, YAN Y, YAN L, Wang FY, Huang H, Wang YL, Zhao Y. Serum level of MMP-2, MMP-9 and Ox-LDL in Alzheimer's disease with hyperlipoidemia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/s1000-1948(08)60017-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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161
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Jung S, Moon KS, Kim ST, Ryu HH, Lee YH, Jeong YI, Jung TY, Kim IY, Kim KK, Kang SS. Increased expression of intracystic matrix metalloproteinases in brain tumors: relationship to the pathogenesis of brain tumor-associated cysts and peritumoral edema. J Clin Neurosci 2007; 14:1192-8. [PMID: 17964788 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2006.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2006] [Revised: 11/27/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Although several types of brain tumors are commonly associated with cyst formation, the pathogenesis of tumor-associated cysts (TAC) is unknown. We investigated the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression of cyst fluids to elucidate the pathogenesis of TAC in brain tumors. We also examined the relationship between the severity of peritumoral edema and the expression of intracystic MMP. We collected 40 cyst fluid samples from 34 patients with TAC and studied the expression of MMP-2 and -9 in the cyst fluid using gelatin zymography. Radiological studies were used to estimate the severity of the peritumoral edema and to determine the presence of TAC. Although gelatin zymography of the cyst fluid showed high levels of MMPs, there was no correlation between the expression of MMPs in the cyst fluid and that in the tumor tissue. The level of MMP expression in the cyst fluid did not reflect the pathologic grade of the individual tumors. However, the total and activated MMP-9 levels were significantly associated with the severity of the peritumoral edema (p<0.05). These results suggest that MMPs may be partly involved in the pathogenesis of TAC and peritumoral edema in brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Jung
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chonnam National University, Hwasun Hospital and Medical School, Gwangju, South Korea.
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162
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Rajanikant GK, Zemke D, Senut MC, Frenkel MB, Chen AF, Gupta R, Majid A. Carnosine is neuroprotective against permanent focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Stroke 2007; 38:3023-31. [PMID: 17916766 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.107.488502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide with multiple neuroprotective properties. In addition, it is well tolerated in high doses with minimal side effects. The purposes of this study were to determine whether carnosine is neuroprotective in permanent focal cerebral ischemia and to determine potential mechanisms of neuroprotection. METHODS We investigated the efficacy of carnosine in a mouse model of permanent focal cerebral ischemia. The effects of carnosine were investigated with respect to neuronal damage and infarct formation, endogenous antioxidant status, and matrix metalloproteinase activity. RESULTS Carnosine significantly decreased infarct size and neuronal damage when administered at time points both before and after the induction of ischemia. Carnosine also decreased reactive oxygen species levels in the ischemic brain, preserved normal glutathione levels, and decreased matrix metalloproteinase protein levels and activity. CONCLUSIONS Carnosine is neuroprotective in focal cerebral ischemia and appears to influence deleterious pathological processes that are activated after the onset of ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- G K Rajanikant
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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163
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Mukhopadhyay S, Tulis DA. Endocannabinoid regulation of matrix metalloproteinases: implications in ischemic stroke. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem 2007; 5:311-8. [PMID: 17979695 PMCID: PMC3638791 DOI: 10.2174/187152507782109917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a major cause of morbidity and mortality and follows heart disease and cancer as the third leading cause of death in Western societies [1]. Despite many advances in stroke research and pharmacotherapy, clinical treatment of this debilitating disorder is still inadequate. Recent findings from several laboratories have identified the endocannabinoid signaling pathway, comprised of the endocannabinoid agonist anandamide and its pharmacological targets, CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors and associated anandamide receptors, as a physiological system with capacity to mitigate cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disorders through neuronal and endothelial actions. Variability in experimental stroke models and modes of outcome evaluation, however, have provoked controversy regarding the precise roles of endocannabinoid signals in mediating neural and/or vascular protection versus neurovascular damage. Clinical trials of the CB1 antagonist rimonabant demonstrate that modulation of endocannabinoid signaling during metabolic regulation of vascular disorders can significantly impact clinical outcomes, thus providing strong argument for therapeutic utility of endocannabinoids and/or cannabinoid receptors as targets for therapeutic intervention in cases of stroke and associated vascular disorders. The purpose of this review is to provide updated information from basic science and clinical perspectives on endocannabinoid ligands and their effects in the pathophysiologic genesis of stroke. Particular emphasis will be placed on the endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonylglycerol and CB1 receptor-mediated mechanisms in the neurovascular unit during stroke pathogenesis. Deficiencies in our knowledge of endocannabinoids in the etiology and pathogenesis of stroke, caveats and limitations of existing studies, and future directions for investigation will be addressed.
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164
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Abstract
Many drugs that have been developed to treat neurodegenerative diseases fail to gain approval for clinical use because they are not well tolerated in humans. In this article, I describe a series of strategies for the development of neuroprotective therapeutics that are both effective and well tolerated. These strategies are based on the principle that drugs should be activated by the pathological state that they are intended to inhibit. This approach has already met with success, and has led to the development of the potentially neuroprotective drug memantine, an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type and glutamate receptor antagonist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart A Lipton
- Burnham Institute for Medical Research, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, The Scripps Research Institute, and the University of California at San Diego 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 29,037, USA.
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165
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Thornton P, Pinteaux E, Allan SM, Rothwell NJ. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 and urokinase plasminogen activator mediate interleukin-1-induced neurotoxicity. Mol Cell Neurosci 2007; 37:135-42. [PMID: 17939964 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2007.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2007] [Revised: 08/31/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are endopeptidases known to mediate acute neuronal injury, but it is unclear whether these proteases are induced by the primary insult or by inflammation associated with injury. We have reported recently that interleukin-1 (IL-1) induces neurotoxicity by an astrocyte-dependent mechanism. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that MMPs mediate IL-1 neurotoxicity in rat, glial-neuronal cocultures. IL-1beta induced the release of astrocytic MMP-9 in cocultures, whilst an antagonist of MMP-9 inhibited IL-1beta-induced neuronal death. Urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) was constitutively expressed on neuronal membrane fractions, and amiloride (an antagonist of uPA) or plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 significantly reduced IL-1beta-induced neurotoxicity. Thus, neuronal uPA contributes to IL-1 neurotoxicity, and may be responsible for activating MMP-9 released from IL-1-primed astrocytes. In summary, IL-1-induced neurotoxicity is dependent on extracellular protease activity, and these mechanisms may contribute to neuronal cell death in CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Thornton
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
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166
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Lucivero V, Prontera M, Mezzapesa DM, Petruzzellis M, Sancilio M, Tinelli A, Di Noia D, Ruggieri M, Federico F. Different roles of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and -9 after human ischaemic stroke. Neurol Sci 2007; 28:165-70. [PMID: 17690845 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-007-0814-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/21/2007] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating data suggest that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), in particular MMP-2 and MMP-9, are deleterious after acute ischaemic stroke. A beneficial effect of MMPs in the repairing phases of cerebral ischaemia has also been proposed. This study investigated the relationship between MMP-2 and MMP-9 and stroke subtypes, clinical recovery and haemorrhagic transformation (HT). We measured MMP-9 and MMP-2 plasma levels in 29 patients with ischaemic stroke at days one and seven. MMP-2 levels increased only in lacunar strokes, whilst MMP-9 increased only in patients with more severe stroke. Basal MMP-2 levels were higher in patients with stable or recovering symptoms whilst MMP-9 values at day seven were correlated with worse clinical outcome. No differences related to the presence of HT were found. This study sustains a different behaviour of MMPs after ischaemic stroke. MMP-2 seems to be expressed early and related to better outcome, whilst MMP-9 seems to be late and related to more severe stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Lucivero
- Department of Neurological and Psychiatric Sciences, University of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 12, 1-70124, Bari, Italy
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167
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Hu J, Van den Steen PE, Sang QXA, Opdenakker G. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors as therapy for inflammatory and vascular diseases. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007; 6:480-98. [PMID: 17541420 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 575] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have outgrown the field of extracellular-matrix biology and have progressed towards being important regulatory molecules in cancer and inflammation. This rise in status was accompanied by the development of various classes of inhibitors. Although clinical trials with synthetic inhibitors for the treatment of cancer were disappointing, recent data indicate that the use of selective inhibitors might lead to new therapies for acute and chronic inflammatory and vascular diseases. In this Review, we compare the major classes of MMP inhibitors and advocate that future drug discovery should be based on crucial insights into the differential roles of specific MMPs in pathophysiology obtained with animal models, including knockout studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialiang Hu
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Catholic University of Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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168
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Abstract
Lipid metabolism is of particular interest due to its high concentration in CNS. The importance of lipids in cell signaling and tissue physiology is demonstrated by many CNS disorders and injuries that involve deregulated metabolism. The long suffering lipid field is gaining reputation and respect as evidenced through the Center of Biomedical Research Excellence in Lipidomics and Pathobiology (COBRE), Lipid MAPS (Metabolites And Pathways Strategy) Consortium sponsored by NIH, European initiatives for decoding the lipids through genomic approaches, and Genomics of Lipid-associated Disorder (GOLD) project initiated by Austrian government. This review attempts to provide an overview of the lipid imbalances associated with neurological disorders (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's; Niemann-Pick; Multiple sclerosis, Huntington, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, schizophrenia, bipolar disorders and epilepsy) and CNS injury (Stroke, traumatic brain injury; and spinal cord injury) and a few provocative thoughts. Lipidomic analyses along with RNA silencing will provide new insights into the role of lipid intermediates in cell signaling and hopefully open new avenues for prevention or treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rao Muralikrishna Adibhatla
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
- Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
- Veterans Administration Hospital, Madison, WI
| | - J. F. Hatcher
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
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169
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Saeed SA, Shad KF, Saleem T, Javed F, Khan MU. Some new prospects in the understanding of the molecular basis of the pathogenesis of stroke. Exp Brain Res 2007; 182:1-10. [PMID: 17665180 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-007-1050-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2007] [Accepted: 06/25/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in advanced countries of the world. Despite the fact that reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) are the by-products of normal metabolic processes and mediate important physiological processes, they can inflict damage to the cell if produced in excess due to oxidative stress. In the present review, we focus on the cellular and molecular aspects of ROS and RNS generation and its role in the pathogenesis of stroke produced by hypoxia-reperfusion (H-R) phenomena that elicit oxidative stress. We outline the reasons for the vulnerability of the brain to ischaemic insult, chronic infection and inflammation as well as the natural defence mechanisms against radical mediated injury. We deal with the effect of ROS and RNS on intracellular signaling pathways together with the phenomena of apoptosis, mitochondrial injury and survival associated with these pathways. The intracellular signaling mechanisms influenced by reactive species can have significant effects on the outcome of the condition. Future studies should focus on understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the action of anti-radicals agents, and their mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheikh Arshad Saeed
- Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan.
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170
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Burggraf D, Martens HK, Dichgans M, Hamann GF. rt-PA causes a dose-dependent increase in the extravasation of cellular and non-cellular blood elements after focal cerebral ischemia. Brain Res 2007; 1164:55-62. [PMID: 17644075 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.05.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Revised: 05/02/2007] [Accepted: 05/31/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
While recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) is successfully used for thrombolysis in human stroke, it may increase the risk of hemorrhagic complications. We describe the effects of different doses of rt-PA (saline, 0.9, 9, or 18 mg rt-PA/kg body weight) on the extravasation of blood components following experimental cerebral ischemia (3 h, 24 h reperfusion, suture model) in rats. The damage to the blood-brain barrier and the hemoglobin extravasation were quantified by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Both were significantly elevated in the ischemic cortex and basal ganglia. As rt-PA doses rose, the hemoglobin content as well as the damage to the blood-brain barrier in the ischemic side also rose significantly (p<0.001). This correlated significantly with the rising MMP-9 (matrix metalloproteinase) after increasing doses of rt-PA. Despite various benefits, rt-PA is responsible for a dose-dependent increase of edema and hemorrhage after cerebral ischemia. Clinicians should consider using the lowest effective dose of rt-PA in stroke patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothe Burggraf
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Klinikum Grosshadern, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany
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171
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Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating clinical event without effective therapies. Increasing evidence suggests that inflammatory mechanisms are involved in the progression of ICH-induced brain injury. Inflammation is mediated by cellular components, such as leukocytes and microglia, and molecular components, including prostaglandins, chemokines, cytokines, extracellular proteases, and reactive oxygen species. Better understanding of the role of the ICH-induced inflammatory response and its potential for modulation might have profound implications for patient treatment. In this review, a summary of the available literature on the inflammatory responses after ICH is presented along with discussion of some of the emerging opportunities for potential therapeutic strategies. In the near future, additional strategies that target inflammation could offer exciting new promise in the therapeutic approach to ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology/Critical Care Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
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172
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Hamby AM, Suh SW, Kauppinen TM, Swanson RA. Use of a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor to suppress inflammation and neuronal death after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. Stroke 2007; 38:632-6. [PMID: 17261705 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000250742.61241.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Most stroke patients do not present for medical treatment until several hours after onset of brain ischemia. Consequently, neuroprotective strategies are required with comparably long therapeutic windows. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors such as PJ34 are known to suppress microglial activation, a postischemic event that may contribute to neuronal death. We evaluated the effects of PJ34 administered 8 hours after transient forebrain ischemia. METHODS Rats were subjected to 10 minutes of forebrain ischemia and treated with PJ34 for 7 days beginning 8 hours after reperfusion. Activated microglia and infiltrating macrophages were evaluated at serial time points between zero and 14 days after ischemia by immunostaining for CD11b. CA1 neuronal survival was evaluated 7 days after ischemia. RESULTS Rats treated with PJ34 showed a near-complete inhibition of microglia/macrophage activation (evaluated on day 5) and an 84% reduction in CA1 neuronal death. CONCLUSIONS Administration of PJ34 as late as 8 hours after transient ischemia-reperfusion has a large protective effect on CA1 survival. This effect may be mediated by suppression of the postischemic brain inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Hamby
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, USA
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173
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Gosselin D, Rivest S. Role of IL-1 and TNF in the brain: twenty years of progress on a Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde duality of the innate immune system. Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21:281-9. [PMID: 17275255 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2006.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2006] [Revised: 12/05/2006] [Accepted: 12/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune-privileged status of the central nervous system (CNS) has changed quite dramatically during the past two decades. Leukocytes have the ability to infiltrate the CNS and cytokines are produced by resident cells, especially during injuries and diseases. Although the cellular source and role of these immune ligands are better known, their exact contribution to brain protection, repair or diseases still remains highly debated today. The ultimate fate of the immune reaction depends on the cytokines involved and the experimental models. It is now generally accepted that microglia play a central role in this response, at least for the production of cytokines participating in the innate immune system. As macrophages, resident microglia produce numerous cytokines and two of them have been largely studied since the beginning of this field of research. Twenty years ago, interleukin 1 (IL-1) and tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) were cloned and recombinant forms were used to investigate their functions ranging from normal neurophysiological responses to pathological conditions. This review presents the history of these two cytokines during immune responses in the brain and where we are now two decades later.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Gosselin
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, CHUL Research Center and Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Laval University 2705, Boulevard Laurier, Que., Canada G1V 4G2
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174
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Wasserman JK, Schlichter LC. Neuron death and inflammation in a rat model of intracerebral hemorrhage: Effects of delayed minocycline treatment. Brain Res 2007; 1136:208-18. [PMID: 17223087 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2006] [Revised: 12/07/2006] [Accepted: 12/09/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
After intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), blood entry is followed by neuron death and an inflammatory response, but development of pharmacological therapies has been hampered by an inadequate understanding of the spatial and temporal relationship between neuron death and inflammation. Using a rat model of ICH, we first investigated these relationships at 6 h, and 1, 3 and 7 days. At the edge of the hematoma, no degenerating neurons were observed at 6 h; however, dying neurons were present between 1 and 3 days, with peak neuron death occurring at 1 day. This is apparently the first report of ongoing neuron death at the edge of the hematoma during a time window that is appropriate for human therapy. Neuron death was limited to the edge of the hematoma, with no degenerating neurons in the striatum surrounding the hematoma, despite robust and prolonged microglia activation. Importantly, neuron loss at the edge of the hematoma was spatially and temporally associated with accumulation and activation of microglia/macrophages. We then tested the hypothesis that treatment with the tetracycline derivative, minocycline, after the hematoma had reached a maximal size, will reduce inflammation and neuron damage. Minocycline injection (45 mg/kg i.v. at 6 h, and i.p. at 24, 48 and 72 h) failed to reduce neuron loss outside the hematoma or striatal tissue loss (assessed at 7 days), despite reducing the number of neutrophils and activated microglia/macrophages. Thus, minocycline does not appear to target the mechanisms responsible for cell death in this model of ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason K Wasserman
- Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network, Canada
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175
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Kamada H, Yu F, Nito C, Chan PH. Influence of hyperglycemia on oxidative stress and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activation after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in rats: relation to blood-brain barrier dysfunction. Stroke 2007; 38:1044-9. [PMID: 17272778 PMCID: PMC1828129 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000258041.75739.cb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Hyperglycemia is linked to a worse outcome after ischemic stroke. Among the manifestations of brain damage caused by ischemia are blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and edema formation. Oxidative stress and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activation are implicated in BBB dysfunction after ischemia/reperfusion injury. Our present study was designed to clarify the relation among hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and MMP-9 activation associated with BBB dysfunction after transient focal cerebral ischemia (tFCI). METHODS We used a model of 60 minutes of middle cerebral artery occlusion on the following animals: normoglycemic wild-type rats, wild-type rats with hyperglycemia induced by streptozotocin, and human copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) transgenic rats with streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia. We evaluated edema volume, Evans blue leakage, and oxidative stress, such as the carbonyl groups and oxidized hydroethidine (HEt), SOD activity, and gelatinolytic activity, including MMP-9. RESULTS Hyperglycemia significantly increased edema volume and Evans blue leakage. Moreover, it enhanced the levels of the carbonyl groups, the oxidized HEt signals, and MMP-9 activity after tFCI without alteration in SOD activity. Gelatinolytic activity and oxidized HEt signals had a clear spatial relation in the hyperglycemic rats. SOD1 overexpression reduced the hyperglycemia-enhanced Evans blue leakage and MMP-9 activation after tFCI. CONCLUSIONS Hyperglycemia increases oxidative stress and MMP-9 activity, exacerbating BBB dysfunction after ischemia/reperfusion injury. Superoxide overproduction may be a causal link among hyperglycemia, MMP-9 activation, and BBB dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kamada
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5487, USA
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176
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Nagel S, Genius J, Heiland S, Horstmann S, Gardner H, Wagner S. Diphenyleneiodonium and dimethylsulfoxide for treatment of reperfusion injury in cerebral ischemia of the rat. Brain Res 2006; 1132:210-7. [PMID: 17184751 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2006] [Revised: 11/03/2006] [Accepted: 11/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) is an inhibitor of the free radical producing NAD(P)H-oxidase. We tested whether DPI shows neuroprotective properties after focal cerebral ischemia and we used dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), a nonspecific free radical scavenger, as a solvent. In male Wistar rats middle cerebral artery occlusion (1.5 h) and subsequent reperfusion (48 h) (MCAO/R) was induced with the filament model. Immediately after reperfusion the animals received either 0.25 ml normal saline, DMSO, or a combination of DMSO and DPI; each group consisted of 10 animals. MRI was performed at different times after reperfusion. Gelatine zymography of brain tissue for MMP-2 and MMP-9 was performed. The infarct sizes and BBB damage showed a significant difference between controls and the DPI/DMSO group for almost all points in time in all sequences. The activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 was significantly reduced by DPI/DMSO but not by DMSO alone. DMSO treatment alone resulted in a protective effect with reduced lesion sizes measured by MRI at selected points of time, consistent with its known free radical scavenger effect. The combination of DMSO with DPI partly augmented this effect, presumably due to the additional inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by DPI. Moreover, the neurological outcome in both therapeutic groups was improved compared to controls with a significant difference between the therapeutic groups in favour of DPI and DMSO. The combination of DPI and DMSO reduced the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9, attenuated the postischemic blood-brain barrier damage and improved neurological outcome. This was most likely due to reduced oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nagel
- Department of Neurology University of Heidelberg, Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany.
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177
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Thouvenot E, Lafon-Cazal M, Demettre E, Jouin P, Bockaert J, Marin P. The proteomic analysis of mouse choroid plexus secretome reveals a high protein secretion capacity of choroidal epithelial cells. Proteomics 2006; 6:5941-52. [PMID: 17051638 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200600096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Choroid plexuses (CP) are involved in multiple functions related to their unique architecture and localization at the interface between the blood and cerebrospinal fluid compartments. These include the release by choroidal epithelial cells (CEC) of biologically active molecules, such as polypeptides, which are distributed globally to the brain. Here, we have used a proteomic approach to get an unbiased overview of the proteins that are secreted by primary cultures enriched in epithelial cells from mice CP. We identified a total of 43 proteins secreted through the classical vesicular pathway in CEC -conditioned medium. They include transport proteins, collagen subunits and other cell matrix proteins, proteases, protease inhibitors and neurotrophic factors. Treating CEC cultures with lipopolysaccharide, increased the secretion of four protein species and induced the release of two additional proteins. Our study also reveals a higher protein secretion capacity of CECs compared with other CP cells or cultured astrocytes. In conclusion, this study provides for the first time the characterization of the major proteins that are secreted by CECs. These proteins may play a critical role in neuronal growth, differentiation and function as well as in brain pathologies.
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178
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Fornage M, Mosley TH, Jack CR, de Andrade M, Kardia SLR, Boerwinkle E, Turner ST. Family-based association study of matrix metalloproteinase-3 and -9 haplotypes with susceptibility to ischemic white matter injury. Hum Genet 2006; 120:671-80. [PMID: 17024375 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-006-0236-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2006] [Revised: 07/17/2006] [Accepted: 07/20/2006] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Susceptibility to ischemic damage to the subcortical white matter of the brain has a strong genetic basis. Dysregulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) contributes to loss of cerebrovascular integrity and white matter injury. We investigated whether sequence variation in the genes encoding MMP3 and MMP9 is associated with variation in leukoaraiosis volume, determined by magnetic resonance imaging, in non-Hispanic whites and African-Americans using family-based association tests. Seven hundred and fifty-six white and 671 African-American individuals from sibships ascertained through two or more siblings with hypertension were genotyped for 7 and 8 haplotype-tagging polymorphisms in the MMP3 and MMP9 genes, respectively. MMP3 sequence variation was significantly associated with variation in leukoaraiosis volume in Whites. Two common haplotypes with opposing relationships to leukoaraiosis volume were identified. MMP9 sequence variation was also significantly associated with variation in leukoaraiosis volume in both African-Americans and Whites. Different haplotypes contributed to these associations in the two racial groups. These findings add to the growing body of evidence from animal models and human clinical studies suggesting a role of MMPs in ischemic white matter injury. They provide the basis for further investigation of the role of these genes in susceptibility and/or progression to clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Fornage
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 1825 Pressler St., Room 530.G, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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179
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New chiral nitrones as precursors of α,α-disubstituted amino-acids, according to the SRS principle. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetasy.2006.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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180
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Blood-brain barrier: structural components and function under physiologic and pathologic conditions. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2006; 1:223-36. [PMID: 18040800 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-006-9025-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 592] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2006] [Accepted: 05/18/2006] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is the specialized system of brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVEC) that shields the brain from toxic substances in the blood, supplies brain tissues with nutrients, and filters harmful compounds from the brain back to the bloodstream. The close interaction between BMVEC and other components of the neurovascular unit (astrocytes, pericytes, neurons, and basement membrane) ensures proper function of the central nervous system (CNS). Transport across the BBB is strictly limited through both physical (tight junctions) and metabolic barriers (enzymes, diverse transport systems). A functional polarity exists between the luminal and abluminal membrane surfaces of the BMVEC. As a result of restricted permeability, the BBB is a limiting factor for the delivery of therapeutic agents into the CNS. BBB breakdown or alterations in transport systems play an important role in the pathogenesis of many CNS diseases (HIV-1 encephalitis, Alzheimer's disease, ischemia, tumors, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease). Proinflammatory substances and specific disease-associated proteins often mediate such BBB dysfunction. Despite seemingly diverse underlying causes of BBB dysfunction, common intracellular pathways emerge for the regulation of the BBB structural and functional integrity. Better understanding of tight junction regulation and factors affecting transport systems will allow the development of therapeutics to improve the BBB function in health and disease.
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181
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Barer GR, Fairlie J, Slade JY, Ahmed S, Laude EA, Emery CJ, Thwaites-Bee D, Oakley AE, Barer DH, Kalaria RN. Effects of NOS inhibition on the cardiopulmonary system and brain microvascular markers after intermittent hypoxia in rats. Brain Res 2006; 1098:196-203. [PMID: 16793027 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.04.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2005] [Revised: 04/13/2006] [Accepted: 04/17/2006] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that rats subjected to intermittent hypoxia (IH) by exposure to 10% O(2) for 4 h daily for 56 days in a normobaric chamber, developed pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy and wall-thickening in pulmonary arterioles, compared with normoxic (N) controls. These changes were greater in rats subjected to continuous hypoxia (CH breathing 10% O(2) for 56 days). Cerebral angiogenesis was demonstrated by immunostaining with glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) antibody, in viable vessels, in CH and to a lesser degree in IH. In this study, adult Wistar rats were subjected to the same hypoxic regimes and given the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor N(6)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) in drinking water (NLN, IHLN and CHLN regimes) to induce hypertension. There was significant systemic hypertension in NLN and IHLN rats, compared with N and IH, but surprisingly not in CHLN compared with CH. Hematocrit rose in all hypoxic groups (up to 79% in CHLN). There was no significant pulmonary hypertension in IHLN versus NLN rats, although there was asymmetric wall thickening in pulmonary arterioles. Cerebral GLUT1 immunoreactivity increased with L-NAME, with or without hypoxia, especially in CHLN rats, but conspicuously there was no evidence of angiogenesis in brains of IHLN compared with NLN rats. NOS blockade may attenuate the cerebral and pulmonary vascular changes of IH while augmenting cerebral angiogenesis in continuous hypoxia. However, whether cerebral effects are due to systemic hypertension or changes in cerebral nitric oxide production needs to be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Barer
- Wolfson Research Centre, Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE4 6BE, UK.
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182
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Abstract
The search for an MMP inhibitor with anticancer efficacy is a nearly three-decade endeavor. This inhibitor is yet to be found. The reasons for this failure include shortcomings in the chemistry of these compounds (including broad MMP sub-type selectivity, metabolic lability, and toxicity) as well as the emerging, and arguably extraordinary, complexity of MMP cell (and cancer) biology. Together these suggest that the successful anticancer inhibitor must possess MMP selectivity against the MMP subtype whose involvement is critical, yet highly temporally (with respect to metastatic progression) and mechanistically (with respect to matrix degradation) regulated. This review summarizes the progression of chemical structure and mechanistic thinking toward these objectives, with emphasis on the disappointment, the perseverance, and the resilient optimism that such an inhibitor is there to be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jed F Fisher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556-5670, USA
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183
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Yamada M, Tatsumi R, Kikuiri T, Okamoto S, Nonoshita S, Mizunoya W, Ikeuchi Y, Shimokawa H, Sunagawa K, Allen RE. Matrix metalloproteinases are involved in mechanical stretch–induced activation of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Muscle Nerve 2006; 34:313-9. [PMID: 16810685 DOI: 10.1002/mus.20601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
When skeletal muscle is stretched or injured, myogenic satellite cells are activated to enter the cell cycle. This process depends on nitric oxide (NO) production, release of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) from the extracellular matrix, and presentation of HGF to the c-met receptor. Experiments reported herein provide new evidence that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are involved in the NO-dependent release of HGF in vitro. When rat satellite cells were treated with 10 ng/ml recombinant tissue inhibitor-1 of MMPs (TIMP-1) and subjected to treatments that induce activation in vitro, i.e., sodium nitroprusside (SNP) of an NO donor or mechanical cyclic stretch, the activation response was inhibited. In addition, conditioned medium generated by cultures treated with TIMP-1 plus SNP or mechanical stretch failed to activate cultured satellite cells and did not contain HGF. Moreover, NO(x) assay demonstrated that TIMP-1 does not impair NO synthase activity of stretched satellite cell cultures. Therefore, results from these experiments provide strong evidence that MMPs mediate HGF release from the matrix and that this step in the pathway is downstream from NO synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Yamada
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Kyushu University, Hakozaki, Hakozaki 6-10-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
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