Aging is not a disease: distinguishing age-related macular degeneration from aging

Inflammation and Cell Death in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: An Immunopathological and Ultrastructural Model

The etiology of Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD) remains elusive despite the characterization of many factors contributing to the disease in its late-stage phenotypes. AMD features an immune system in flux, as shown by changes in macrophage polarization with age, expression of cytokines and complement, microglial accumulation with age, etc. These point to an allostatic overload, possibly due to a breakdown in self vs. non-self when endogenous compounds and structures acquire the appearance of non-self over time. The result is inflammation and inflammation-mediated cell death. While it is clear that these processes ultimately result in degeneration of retinal pigment epithelium and photoreceptor, the prevalent type of cell death contributing to the various phenotypes is unknown. Both molecular studies as well as ultrastructural pathology suggest pyroptosis, and perhaps necroptosis, are the predominant mechanisms of cell death at play, with only minimal evidence for apoptosis. Herein, we attempt to reconcile those factors identified by experimental AMD models and integrate these data with pathology observed under the electron microscope—particularly observations of mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA leakage, autophagy, and cell death.

Small Drusen and Age-Related Macular Degeneration: The Beaver Dam Eye Study

We tested the hypothesis that large areas of small hard drusen (diameter <63 µm) and intermediate drusen (diameter 63–124 µm) are associated with the incidence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Eyes of 3344 older adults with at least two consecutive visits spaced five years apart over a 20-year period were included. A 6-level severity scale, including no drusen, four levels of increasing area (from minimal (<2596 µm²) to large (>9086 µm²)) of only small hard drusen, and intermediate drusen, was used. The five-year incidence of AMD was 3% in eyes at the start of the interval with no, minimal, small, and moderate areas of only small drusen and 5% and 25% for eyes with large area of only small drusen and intermediate drusen, respectively. Compared to eyes with a moderate area of small drusen, the odds ratio (OR) of developing AMD in eyes with a large area of only small drusen was 1.8 (p < 0.001). Compared to eyes with large area of only small drusen, eyes with intermediate drusen had an OR of 5.5 (p < 0.001) of developing AMD. Our results are consistent with our hypothesis that large areas of only small drusen are associated with the incidence of AMD.

Age-related increases in amyloid beta and membrane attack complex: evidence of inflammasome activation in the rodent eye

BACKGROUND

The membrane attack complex (MAC) is a key player in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and is a putative activator of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Amyloid beta (Aβ), a component of drusen deposits, has also been implicated in inflammasome activation by our work and those of others. However, the interactions of MAC and Aβ are still poorly understood, especially their roles in aging and retinal degenerative pathologies. Since inflammasome activation may represent a key cellular pathway underlying age-related chronic inflammation in the eye, the purpose of this study is to identify the effects associated with MAC and inflammasome activation in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)/choroid and to evaluate the therapeutic merits of MAC suppression.

METHODS

Adult Long-Evans rats were divided into treatment and control groups. Treatment groups received oral aurin tricarboxylic acid complex (ATAC), a MAC inhibitor, in drinking-water, and control groups received drinking-water alone (No ATAC). Groups were sacrificed at 7.5 or 11.5 months, after approximately 40 days of ATAC treatment. To study age-related changes of Aβ and MAC in RPE/choroid, naive animals were sacrificed at 2.5, 7.5, and 11.5 months. Eye tissues underwent immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis for MAC, Aβ, NF-κB activation, as well as cleaved caspase-1 and IL-18. Vitreal samples were collected and assessed by multiplex assays for secreted levels of IL-18 and IL-1β. Statistical analyses were performed, and significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS

In vivo studies demonstrated an age-dependent increase in MAC, Aβ, and NF-κB activation in the RPE/choroid. Systemic ATAC resulted in a prominent reduction in MAC formation and a concomitant reduction in inflammasome activation measured by cleaved caspase-1 and secreted levels of IL-18 and IL-1β, but not in NF-κB activation. In vitro studies demonstrated Aβ-induced MAC formation on RPE cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Age-dependent increases in Aβ and MAC are present in the rodent outer retina. Our results suggest that suppressing MAC formation and subsequent inflammasome activation in the RPE/choroid may reduce chronic low-grade inflammation associated with IL-18 and IL-1β in the outer retina.

Early and exudative age-related macular degeneration is associated with increased plasma levels of soluble TNF receptor II

PURPOSE

We have recently identified homeostatic alterations in the circulating T cells of patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). In cultures of retinal pigment epithelial cells, we have demonstrated that T-cell-derived cytokines induced the upregulation of complement, chemokines and other proteins implicated in AMD pathogenesis. The purpose of this study was to test whether increased plasma levels of cytokines were present in patients with AMD.

METHODS

We conducted a case-control study. Age-related macular degeneration status was assessed using standardized multimodal imaging techniques. Plasma was isolated from freshly drawn peripheral venous blood samples and analysed for interleukin (IL)15, IL18, interferon (IFN)γ, soluble tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor II (sTNFRII) and complement factor H (CFH) Y402H genotype.

RESULTS

We included 136 individuals with early or late forms of AMD and 74 controls. Significantly increased levels of sTNFRII were observed in patients with early or exudative AMD (p < 0.01). After adjusting for CFH Y402H genotype, age, sex and smoking history, the level of sTNFRII remained a significant predictor for prevalence of AMD with odds ratios at 3.0 in the middle and 3.6 in the highest tertiles. Levels of IL15, IL18 and IFNγ were low and not associated with AMD.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased plasma level of sTNFRII is found to be associated with AMD. The data supports the observations of low-grade, systemic inflammatory alterations in patients with AMD. However, it remains to be determined whether increased levels of TNFα can be found, which directly reflects an increased activity of macrophages and T cells.

Imaging of cellular aging in human retinal blood vessels

To date two main aging vascular lesions have been reported in elderly human retinas: acellular capillaries and microaneurysms. However, their exact mechanism of formation remains unclear. Using high resolution microscopy techniques we revise cellular alterations observed in aged human retinal vessels, such as lipofuscin accumulation, caveolae malfunction, blood basement membrane disruption and enhanced apoptosis that could trigger the development of these aging vascular lesions. Moreover, we have generated a set of original images comparing retinal vasculature between middle and old aged healthy humans to show in a comprehensive manner the main structural and ultrastructural alterations occurred during age in retinal blood vessels.

Contribution of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation to retinal degenerative diseases

Retinal degenerative diseases are major causes of vision loss and blindness worldwide and are characterized by chronic and progressive neuronal loss. One common feature of retinal degenerative diseases and brain neurodegenerative diseases is chronic neuroinflammation. There is growing evidence that retinal microglia, as in the brain, become activated in the course of retinal degenerative diseases, having a pivotal role in the initiation and propagation of the neurodegenerative process. A better understanding of the events elicited and mediated by retinal microglia will contribute to the clarification of disease etiology and might open new avenues for potential therapeutic interventions. This review aims at giving an overview of the roles of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in major retinal degenerative diseases like glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy.

Vitreous humor in the pathologic scope: insights from proteomic approaches

The vitreous humor (VH) is the largest component of the eye. It is a colorless, gelatinous, highly hydrated matrix that fills the posterior segment of the eye between the lens and retina in vertebrates. In VH, a diversity of proteins that can influence retinal physiology is present, including growth factors, hormones, proteins with transporter activity, and enzymes. More importantly, the protein composition of VH has been described as being altered in a number of disease states. Therefore, attempts aiming at establishing a map of VH proteins and detecting putative biomarkers for ocular illness or protein fluctuations with putative physiologic significance were conducted over the last two decades, using proteomic approaches. Proteomic strategies often involve gel-based or LC techniques as sample fractioning approaches, subsequently coupled with MS procedures. This set of studies resulted in the proteomic characterization of a range of ocular disease samples, with particular incidence on diabetic retinopathy. However, practical therapeutic applications arising from these studies are scarce at the moment. A pertinent example of therapeutic targets arising from VH proteomics has emerged concerning vasoproliferative factors present in the vitreous, which should be involved in neovascularization and subsequent fibrovascular proliferation of the retina, in ocular disease context. Therefore, this review attempts to sum up the information acquired from the proteomic approaches to ocular disease conducted in VH samples, highlighting its clinical potential for disclosing ocular disease mechanisms and engendering pharmacological therapeutic treatments.

Prevalence of anti-retinal autoantibodies in different stages of Age-related macular degeneration

Background

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of central vision loss in older adults. Anti-retinal autoantibodies (AAbs) have been found in individuals with AMD. The goal of the study was to determine the AAb specificity in different stages of AMD, and determine whether there is a prevalent AAb signature.

Methods

Sera of 134 participants in the Age-related Eye Disease Study were analyzed for anti-retinal AAbs by western blotting. The subjects were classified by diagnostic subgroups based upon their clinical classification: No AMD, Intermediate AMD, and Late AMD - geographic atrophy (GA) and Late AMD - neovascular (NV).

Results

The presence of anti-retinal AAb was detected in 58% patients with Intermediate and Late AMD, and 54% of those with no AMD. AAbs bound to fifteen different retinal antigens. Most individuals had 1 specific AAbs (67%), with the remainder having 2 to 4 different AAbs. Over 40% of patients with Intermediate AMD, and 46% of those with GA had anti-enolase AAbs, compared with 29% of individuals with NV and 29% with no AMD. Different AAbs signatures related to NV as compared to GA and/or Intermediate AMD were distinguished. Anti-40-kDa (10%) and 42-kDa (16%) autoantibodies were associated with Intermediate AMD, while anti-30-kDa AAbs (23%) were primarily present in GA. Anti-32-kDa (12%), 35-kDa (21%), and 60-kDa (8%) AAbs were more frequent in NV AMD.

Conclusions

A unique AAb pattern for each of the disease subgroups was present when AMD progressed from the intermediate to the late forms of severity. Differences in the frequency of specific AAbs between AMD subgroups suggested that they may participate in pathogenicity of AMD. Further studies are necessary to confirm these observations in the larger cohort and individual AMD patients over time.

Retinal microglia: just bystander or target for therapy?

Resident microglial cells can be regarded as the immunological watchdogs of the brain and the retina. They are active sensors of their neuronal microenvironment and rapidly respond to various insults with a morphological and functional transformation into reactive phagocytes. There is strong evidence from animal models and in situ analyses of human tissue that microglial reactivity is a common hallmark of various retinal degenerative and inflammatory diseases. These include rare hereditary retinopathies such as retinitis pigmentosa and X-linked juvenile retinoschisis but also comprise more common multifactorial retinal diseases such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and uveitis as well as neurological disorders with ocular manifestation. In this review, we describe how microglial function is kept in balance under normal conditions by cross-talk with other retinal cells and summarize how microglia respond to different forms of retinal injury. In addition, we present the concept that microglia play a key role in local regulation of complement in the retina and specify aspects of microglial aging relevant for chronic inflammatory processes in the retina. We conclude that this resident immune cell of the retina cannot be simply regarded as bystander of disease but may instead be a potential therapeutic target to be modulated in the treatment of degenerative and inflammatory diseases of the retina.

Microglia activation in a model of retinal degeneration and TUDCA neuroprotective effects

Background

Retinitis pigmentosa is a heterogeneous group of inherited neurodegenerative retinal disorders characterized by a progressive peripheral vision loss and night vision difficulties, subsequently leading to central vision impairment. Chronic microglia activation is associated with various neurodegenerative diseases including retinitis pigmentosa. The objective of this study was to quantify microglia activation in the retina of P23H rats, an animal model of retinitis pigmentosa, and to evaluate the therapeutic effects of TUDCA (tauroursodeoxycholic acid), which has been described as a neuroprotective compound.

Methods

For this study, homozygous P23H line 3 and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were injected weekly with TUDCA (500 mg/kg, ip) or vehicle (saline) from 20 days to 4 months old. Vertical retinal sections and whole-mount retinas were immunostained for specific markers of microglial cells (anti-CD11b, anti-Iba1 and anti-MHC-II). Microglial cell morphology was analyzed and the number of retinal microglial was quantified.

Results

Microglial cells in the SD rat retinas were arranged in regular mosaics homogenously distributed within the plexiform and ganglion cell layers. In the P23H rat retina, microglial cells increased in number in all layers compared with control SD rat retinas, preserving the regular mosaic distribution. In addition, a large number of amoeboid CD11b-positive cells were observed in the P23H rat retina, even in the subretinal space. Retinas of TUDCA-treated P23H animals exhibited lower microglial cell number in all layers and absence of microglial cells in the subretinal space.

Conclusions

These results report novel TUDCA anti-inflammatory actions, with potential therapeutic implications for neurodegenerative diseases, including retinitis pigmentosa.

Diabetes mellitus and risk of age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a major cause of severe vision loss in elderly people. Diabetes mellitus is a common endocrine disorder with serious consequences, and diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the main ophthalmic complication. DR and AMD are different diseases and we seek to explore the relationship between diabetes and AMD. MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library were searched for potentially eligible studies. Studies based on longitudinal cohort, cross-sectional, and case-control associations, reporting evaluation data of diabetes as an independent factor for AMD were included. Reports of relative risks (RRs), hazard ratios (HRs), odds ratio (ORs), or evaluation data of diabetes as an independent factor for AMD were included. Review Manager and STATA were used for the meta-analysis. Twenty four articles involving 27 study populations were included for meta-analysis. In 7 cohort studies, diabetes was shown to be a risk factor for AMD (OR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.00–1.14). Results of 9 cross-sectional studies revealed consistent association of diabetes with AMD (OR, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.00–1.45), especially for late AMD (OR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.44–1.51). Similar association was also detected for AMD (OR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.13–1.49) and late AMD (OR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.11–1.21) in 11 case-control studies. The pooled ORs for risk of neovascular AMD (nAMD) were 1.10 (95% CI, 0.96–1.26), 1.48 (95% CI, 1.44–1.51), and 1.15 (95% CI, 1.11–1.21) from cohort, cross-sectional and case-control studies, respectively. No obvious divergence existed among different ethnic groups. Therefore, we find diabetes a risk factor for AMD, stronger for late AMD than earlier stages. However, most of the included studies only adjusted for age and sex; we thus cannot rule out confounding as a potential explanation for the association. More well-designed prospective cohort studies are still warranted to further examine the association.

Cone structure in subjects with known genetic relative risk for AMD

PURPOSE

Utilize high-resolution imaging to examine retinal anatomy in patients with known genetic relative risk (RR) for developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

METHODS

Forty asymptomatic subjects were recruited (9 men, 31 women; age range, 51 to 69 years; mean age, 61.4 years). Comprehensive eye examination, fundus photography, and high-resolution retinal imaging using spectral domain optical coherence tomography and adaptive optics were performed on each patient. Genetic RR scores were developed using an age-independent algorithm. Adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscope images were acquired in the macula extending to 10 degrees temporal and superior from fixation and were used to calculate cone density in up to 35 locations for each subject.

RESULTS

Relative risk was not significantly predictive of fundus grade (p = 0.98). Only patients with a high RR displayed drusen on Cirrus or Bioptigen OCT. Compared to an eye with a grade of 0, an eye with a fundus grade equal to or greater than 1 had a 12% decrease in density (p < 0.0001) and a 5% increase in spacing (p = 0.0014). No association between genetic RR and either cone density (p = 0.435) or spacing (p = 0.538) was found. Three distinct adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscope phenotypical variations of photoreceptor appearance were noted in patients with grade 1 to 3 fundi. These included variable reflectivity of photoreceptors, decreased waveguiding, and altered photoreceptor mosaic overlying drusen.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrate the potential of multimodal assessment in the understanding of early anatomical changes associated with AMD. Adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscope imaging reveals a decrease in photoreceptor density and increased spacing in patients with grade 1 to 3 fundi, as well as a spectrum of photoreceptor changes, ranging from variability in reflectivity to decreased density. Future longitudinal studies are needed in genetically characterized subjects to assess the significance of these findings with respect to the development and progression of AMD.

Cellular responses following retinal injuries and therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases

Retinal neurodegenerative diseases like age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy and retinitis pigmentosa each have a different etiology and pathogenesis. However, at the cellular and molecular level, the response to retinal injury is similar in all of them, and results in morphological and functional impairment of retinal cells. This retinal degeneration may be triggered by gene defects, increased intraocular pressure, high levels of blood glucose, other types of stress or aging, but they all frequently induce a set of cell signals that lead to well-established and similar morphological and functional changes, including controlled cell death and retinal remodeling. Interestingly, an inflammatory response, oxidative stress and activation of apoptotic pathways are common features in all these diseases. Furthermore, it is important to note the relevant role of glial cells, including astrocytes, Müller cells and microglia, because their response to injury is decisive for maintaining the health of the retina or its degeneration. Several therapeutic approaches have been developed to preserve retinal function or restore eyesight in pathological conditions. In this context, neuroprotective compounds, gene therapy, cell transplantation or artificial devices should be applied at the appropriate stage of retinal degeneration to obtain successful results. This review provides an overview of the common and distinctive features of retinal neurodegenerative diseases, including the molecular, anatomical and functional changes caused by the cellular response to damage, in order to establish appropriate treatments for these pathologies.

Animal models of age-related macular degeneration and their translatability into the clinic

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of blindness in people over the age of 55. Despite its common nature, the etiology of the disease involves both genetic and environmental factors, the interaction of which is not fully understood. Animal models, including the mouse, rat, rabbit, pig and non-human primate, have been developed to study various aspects of the disease and to evaluate novel therapies; however, no single model has been developed to emulate all aspects of the disease. This review will discuss the various existing models of AMD, their strengths and limitations and examples of their use in current AMD research.

MiR-9 regulates the post-transcriptional level of VEGF165a by targeting SRPK-1 in ARPE-19 cells

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of the overexpression of miRNA-9 to the ratio of pro- and anti-angiogenic isoforms of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in human retinal pigment cells (ARPE-19).

METHODS

Oxidative stress was induced to ARPE-19 cells by 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BH), and hypoxia chamber with 1% O₂. Expression patterns of miRNAs were validated by qPCR. Relative mRNA levels of VEGF and PEDF were measured by semi-quantitative PCR. After the transfection of miR-9 mimic and inhibitor, transcriptional levels of VEGF165a, VEGF 165b, and SRPK-1 were measured by qPCR.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that miR-9 expression is decreased in ARPE-19 human retinal pigment cells under hypoxic stress induced by 4-HNE, a lipid peroxidation end-product. We observed that miR-9 mimic transfection of ARPE-19 inhibited one of its targets, serine-arginine protein kinase-1 (SRPK-1), modulating the transcriptional level of VEGF165b. Transfection of miR-9 reduced the alternative splicing of VEGF165a mRNA in ARPE-19 cells under hypoxic conditions, suggesting that miR-mediated regulation of alternative splicing could be a potential therapeutic target in neovascular pathologies.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypoxic stress decreased the miR-9 level in ARPE-19 cells, which increased the transcriptional level of SRPK-1, resulting in alternative splicing shift to pro-angiogenic isoforms of VEGF165 in human retinal pigment epithelial cells.

Implications of DNA leakage in eyes of mutant mice

Extranuclear DNA (enDNA) is not well studied ultrastructurally in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). We analyzed the retina and vastus medialis muscle of four mouse strains that are related to focal retinal degeneration by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and EM immunolabeling. Evaluation of enDNA would imply the involvements of enDNA is either limited to the affected tissue or generalized in the whole body. Ultrastructural analysis and EM immunolabeling revealed that enDNA was present in the RPE cells but not in the muscle. These data suggest that enDNA could be unique to unhealthy RPE and a potential biomarker for cellular abnormality.

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-C inhibits neuroretinal apoptosis in a murine model of focal retinal degeneration

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-C is a member of the PDGF family and is critical for neuronal survival in the central nervous system. We studied the possible survival and antiapoptotic effects of PDGF-C on focal retinal lesions in Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) on C57BL/6N [Crb1(rd8)] (DKO rd8) background mice, a model for progressive and focal retinal degeneration. We found no difference in transcript and protein expression of PDGF-C in the retina between DKO rd8 mice and wild type (WT, C57BL/6N). Recombinant PDGF-CC protein (500 ng/eye) was injected intravitreally into the right eye of DKO rd8 mice with phosphate-buffered saline as controls into the left eye. The retinal effects of PDGF-C were assessed by fundoscopy, ocular histopathology, A2E levels, apoptotic molecule analysis, and direct flat mount retinal vascular labeling. We found that the PDGF-CC-treated eyes showed slower progression or attenuation of the focal retinal lesions, lesser photoreceptor and retinal pigment epithelial degeneration resulting in better-preserved photoreceptor structure. Lower expression of apoptotic molecules was detected in the PDGF-CC-treated eyes than in controls. In addition, no retinal neovascularization was observed after PDGF-CC treatment. Our results demonstrate that PDGF-C potently ameliorates photoreceptor degeneration via the suppression of apoptotic pathways without inducing retinal angiogenesis. The protective effects of PDGF-C suggest a novel alternative approach for potential age-related retinal degeneration treatment.

Subfoveal choroidal thickness as a potential predictor of visual outcome and treatment response after intravitreal ranibizumab injections for typical exudative age-related macular degeneration

PURPOSE

To investigate the prognostic implication of subfoveal choroidal thickness on treatment outcome after intravitreal ranibizumab injections for typical exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

METHODS

A total of 40 eyes of 37 patients who completed 6-month follow-up were analyzed. Patients' data were retrieved from medical records including best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA). Subfoveal choroidal thickness at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months was measured by enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography and adjusted for age and sex before statistical analysis. Treatment response was after 3 monthly intravitreal ranibizumab injections. Responders (responder group) were defined as a 100 μm or more decrease or complete resolution of subretinal fluid, whereas nonresponders (nonresponder group) were defined as changes less than 100 μm or more than 100 μm increase of subretinal fluid by optical coherence tomography.

RESULTS

Mean age at diagnosis was 72.1 ± 8.1 years, and 22 eyes (55.0%) were responders. The responder group had thicker subfoveal choroid (257.2 ± 108.3 μm) and smaller lesions (1.3 ± 0.8 μm) at baseline than the nonresponder group (167.1 ± 62.4 μm, P = .003; and 2.0 ± 1.0 μm, P = .008). The responder group showed significantly better BCVA and thicker subfoveal choroid than the nonresponder group at 3 months (P = .002 and P = .023) and 6 months (P = .004 and P = .031). Stepwise and binary regression analysis demonstrated that subfoveal choroidal thickness was significantly correlated with visual outcome (B = -0.002, P = .003) and treatment response (B = 8.136, P = .018).

CONCLUSION

Subfoveal choroidal thickness may be a predictive factor for visual outcome and treatment response in typical exudative AMD after intravitreal ranibizumab injections.

Potential Sources and Roles of Adaptive Immunity in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Shall We Rename AMD into Autoimmune Macular Disease?

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of vision loss in the elderly throughout the industrialized world. Its most prominent pathologic features are lesions involving the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) the Bruch's membrane, the degeneration of photoreceptors, and, in the most aggressive cases, choroidal neovascularization. Genetic associations between the risk of developing AMD and polymorphism within components of the complement system, as well as chemokine receptors expressed on microglial cells and macrophages, have linked retinal degeneration and choroidal neovascularization to innate immunity (inflammation). In addition to inflammation, players of the adaptive immunity including cytokines, chemokines, antibodies, and T cells have been detected in animal models of AMD and in patients suffering from this pathology. These observations suggest that adaptive immunity might play a role in different processes associated with AMD such as RPE atrophy, neovascularization, and retinal degeneration. To this date however, the exact roles (if any) of autoantibodies and T cells in AMD remain unknown. In this review we discuss the potential effects of adaptive immune responses in AMD pathogenesis.

Interleukin-17 retinotoxicity is prevented by gene transfer of a soluble interleukin-17 receptor acting as a cytokine blocker: implications for age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a common yet complex retinal degeneration that causes irreversible central blindness in the elderly. Pathology is widely believed to follow loss of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptor degeneration. Here we report aberrant expression of interleukin-17A (IL17A) and the receptor IL17RC in the macula of AMD patients. In vitro, IL17A induces RPE cell death characterized by the accumulation of cytoplasmic lipids and autophagosomes with subsequent activation of pro-apoptotic Caspase-3 and Caspase-9. This pathology is reduced by siRNA knockdown of IL17RC. IL17-dependent retinal degeneration in a mouse model of focal retinal degeneration can be prevented by gene therapy with adeno-associated virus vector encoding soluble IL17 receptor. This intervention rescues RPE and photoreceptors in a MAPK-dependent process. The IL17 pathway plays a key role in RPE and photoreceptor degeneration and could hold therapeutic potential in AMD.

Chronologic versus biologic aging of the human choroid

Several aspects of chronologic and biologic aging in the human choroid are reviewed from the literature. They often reveal methodological problems for age-dependent changes of the following parameters: choroidal thickness, choroidal pigmentation, choroidal vasculature and blood flow, and choroidal innervation. On reinterpreting some data of studies concerning Bruch's membrane, changes observed at different age points seem more likely to be nonlinear. Concluding from the data presented so far, chronologic aging should not be used as a factor for physiological changes in the human choroid. Longitudinal study designs are necessary to further establish the impact of age. Meanwhile, a more biologic oriented model of aging processes in the choroid should be established, including specified conditions (e.g., light exposure and refractory state). This would help to define more individual strategies for prevention and early stages of a certain defined disease.