151
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Wu L, Wang S, Tao M, Xie P, Chen J. Quantitative analysis of glutathione and cysteine S-conjugates of microcystin-LR in the liver, kidney and muscle of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Lake Taihu. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2017; 15:300-307. [PMID: 28362311 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Tissue distribution of microcystin (MC)-LR-GSH, MC-LR-Cys and MC-LR of omnivorous fish in Lake Taihu was investigated. MC-LR and MC-LR-Cys were detected in liver, kidney and muscle. The concentration of MC-LR in liver and kidney was 0.052 μg g-1 DW and 0.067 μg g-1 DW, respectively. MC-LR-Cys appeared to be an important metabolite with average contents of 1.104 μg g-1 DW and 0.724 μg g-1 DW in liver and kidney, and the MC-LR-Cys/MC-LR ratio in liver and kidney reaching as high as 21.4 and 10.8. High MC-LR-Cys/MC-LR ratio and a significant correlation between MC-LR-Cys and MC-LR concentration in liver, suggest that liver is more active in detoxification of MC-LR by formation of MC-LR-Cys for omnivorous fish. Furthermore, there might be a balance between the accumulation and depuration/metabolism of MC-LR-Cys in kidney. The MC-LR-Cys can be formed in kidney directly, or transported from liver or other tissues, while the MC-LR-Cys in kidney might be dissociated to MC-LR or excreted. Although MC-LR and its metabolites were scarcely detected in muscle, it is necessary to investigate the distribution of toxic metabolites in edible muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laiyan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials Sciences of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission & Ministry of Education, College of Resources and Environmental Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Songbo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials Sciences of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission & Ministry of Education, College of Resources and Environmental Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Min Tao
- Life Sciences college of Neijiang Normal University, Neijiang 641000, China
| | - Ping Xie
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology of China, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Donghu South Road 7, Wuhan 430072, China E-mail:
| | - Jun Chen
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology of China, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Donghu South Road 7, Wuhan 430072, China E-mail:
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152
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Lee J, Lee S, Jiang X. Cyanobacterial Toxins in Freshwater and Food: Important Sources of Exposure to Humans. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2017; 8:281-304. [PMID: 28245155 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-030216-030116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A recent ecological study demonstrated a significant association between an increased risk of nonalcoholic liver disease mortality and freshwater cyanobacterial blooms. Moreover, previous epidemiology studies highlighted a relationship between cyanotoxins in drinking water with liver cancer and damage and colorectal cancer. These associations identified cyanobacterial blooms as a global public health and environmental problem, affecting freshwater bodies that are important sources for drinking water, agriculture, and aquafarms. Furthermore, as a result of climate change, it is expected that our freshwater environments will become more favorable for producing harmful blooms that produce various cyanotoxins. Food is an important source of cyanotoxin exposure to humans, but it has been less addressed. This paper synthesizes information from the studies that have investigated cyanotoxins in freshwater and food on a global scale. We also review and summarize the health effects and exposure routes of cyanotoxins and candidates for cyanotoxin treatment methods that can be applied to food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyoung Lee
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210; .,Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210; .,Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210;
| | - Seungjun Lee
- Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210;
| | - Xuewen Jiang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210;
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153
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Tzima E, Serifi I, Tsikari I, Alzualde A, Leonardos I, Papamarcaki T. Transcriptional and Behavioral Responses of Zebrafish Larvae to Microcystin-LR Exposure. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18020365. [PMID: 28208772 PMCID: PMC5343900 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18020365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins are cyclic heptapeptides that constitute a diverse group of toxins produced by cyanobacteria. One of the most toxic variants of this family is microcystin-LR (MCLR) which is a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and induces cytoskeleton alterations. In this study, zebrafish larvae exposed to 500 μg/L of MCLR for four days exhibited a 40% reduction of PP2A activity compared to the controls, indicating early effects of the toxin. Gene expression profiling of the MCLR-exposed larvae using microarray analysis revealed that keratin 96 (krt96) was the most downregulated gene, consistent with the well-documented effects of MCLR on cytoskeleton structure. In addition, our analysis revealed upregulation in all genes encoding for the enzymes of the retinal visual cycle, including rpe65a (retinal pigment epithelium-specific protein 65a), which is critical for the larval vision. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis confirmed the microarray data, showing that rpe65a was significantly upregulated at 50 μg/L and 500 μg/L MCLR in a dose-dependent manner. Consistent with the microarray data, MCLR-treated larvae displayed behavioral alterations such as weakening response to the sudden darkness and hypoactivity in the dark. Our work reveals new molecular targets for MCLR and provides further insights into the molecular mechanisms of MCLR toxicity during early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Tzima
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece.
- Division of Biomedical Research, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 45110 Ιοannina, Greece.
| | - Iliana Serifi
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece.
- Division of Biomedical Research, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 45110 Ιοannina, Greece.
| | - Ioanna Tsikari
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece.
| | | | - Ioannis Leonardos
- Laboratory of Zoology, Department of Biological Applications and Technologies, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece.
| | - Thomais Papamarcaki
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece.
- Division of Biomedical Research, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 45110 Ιοannina, Greece.
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154
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Machado J, Campos A, Vasconcelos V, Freitas M. Effects of microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin on plant-soil systems: A review of their relevance for agricultural plant quality and public health. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 153:191-204. [PMID: 27702441 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Toxic cyanobacterial blooms are recognized as an emerging environmental threat worldwide. Although microcystin-LR is the most frequently documented cyanotoxin, studies on cylindrospermopsin have been increasing due to the invasive nature of cylindrospermopsin-producing cyanobacteria. The number of studies regarding the effects of cyanotoxins on agricultural plants has increased in recent years, and it has been suggested that the presence of microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin in irrigation water may cause toxic effects in edible plants. The uptake of these cyanotoxins by agricultural plants has been shown to induce morphological and physiological changes that lead to a potential loss of productivity. There is also evidence that edible terrestrial plants can bioaccumulate cyanotoxins in their tissues in a concentration dependent-manner. Moreover, the number of consecutive cycles of watering and planting in addition to the potential persistence of microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin in the environment are likely to result in groundwater contamination. The use of cyanotoxin-contaminated water for agricultural purposes may therefore represent a threat to both food security and food safety. However, the deleterious effects of cyanotoxins on agricultural plants and public health seem to be dependent on the concentrations studied, which in most cases are non-environmentally relevant. Interestingly, at ecologically relevant concentrations, the productivity and nutritional quality of some agricultural plants seem not to be impaired and may even be enhanced. However, studies assessing if the potential tolerance of agricultural plants to these concentrations can result in cyanotoxin and allergen accumulation in the edible tissues are lacking. This review combines the most current information available regarding this topic with a realistic assessment of the impact of cyanobacterial toxins on agricultural plants, groundwater quality and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Machado
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - A Campos
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - V Vasconcelos
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, P 4069-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - M Freitas
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Department of Environmental Health, School of Allied Health Technologies, CISA/Research Center in Environment and Health, Rua de Valente Perfeito, 322, P 440-330 Gaia, Portugal.
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155
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Buratti FM, Manganelli M, Vichi S, Stefanelli M, Scardala S, Testai E, Funari E. Cyanotoxins: producing organisms, occurrence, toxicity, mechanism of action and human health toxicological risk evaluation. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:1049-1130. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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156
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Svirčev Z, Drobac D, Tokodi N, Mijović B, Codd GA, Meriluoto J. Toxicology of microcystins with reference to cases of human intoxications and epidemiological investigations of exposures to cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:621-650. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1921-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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157
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Machado J, Azevedo J, Freitas M, Pinto E, Almeida A, Vasconcelos V, Campos A. Analysis of the use of microcystin-contaminated water in the growth and nutritional quality of the root-vegetable, Daucus carota. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:752-764. [PMID: 27752954 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7822-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Toxic cyanobacterial blooms are often observed in freshwaters and may reflect the increased eutrophication of these environments and alterations in climate. Cyanotoxins, such as microcystins (MCs), are an effective threat to many life forms, ranging from plants to humans. Despite the research conducted to date on cyanotoxins, the risks associated to the use of contaminated water in agriculture require further elucidation. To tackle this aim, a research was conducted with the root-vegetable Daucus carota. The specific aims of this work were the following: (i) to evaluate the effects of MC-LR on the plant growth and photosynthesis; (ii) to evaluate the nutritional quality of carrot roots; and (iii) to measure bioaccumulation. To this purpose, young carrots were grown in soil during 1 month in natural conditions and exposed to Mycrocystis aeruginosa aqueous extracts containing environmentally realistic concentrations of MC-LR (10 and 50 MC-LR μg/L). The results showed that MC-LR may decrease root growth after 28 days of exposure to 50 μg/L and increase photosynthetic efficiency. We also observed changes in mineral and vitamin content in carrots as a result of the exposure to contaminated water. Moreover, MC-LR was detected in carrot roots by ELISA at very low concentration 5.23 ± 0.47 ng MC eq./g FW. The soil retained 52.7 % of the toxin potentially available for plants. This result could be attributed to MC-LR adsorption by soil particles or due to microbial degradation of the toxin. We conclude that the prolonged use of MC-LR-contaminated water may affect crop growth, alter the nutritional value of vegetable products, and potentiate contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Machado
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
| | - J Azevedo
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
| | - M Freitas
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
- Department of Environmental Health of School of Allied Health Technologies, and CISA/Research Center in Environment and Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Rua de Valente Perfeito, 322, P 440-330, Gaia, Portugal
| | - E Pinto
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, P 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
- Department of Environmental Health of School of Allied Health Technologies, and CISA/Research Center in Environment and Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Rua de Valente Perfeito, 322, P 440-330, Gaia, Portugal
| | - A Almeida
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, P 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - V Vasconcelos
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, P 4069-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - A Campos
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123, Porto, Portugal.
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158
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Ding J, Wang J, Xiang Z, Diao W, Su M, Shi W, Wan T, Han X. The organic anion transporting polypeptide 1a5 is a pivotal transporter for the uptake of microcystin-LR by gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2017; 182:1-10. [PMID: 27842270 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are widely distributed hepatotoxic polypeptides produced by cyanobacteria. Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) has the broadest distribution and strongest toxicity among more than 80 isoforms of hepatotoxic MCs. MC-LR suppresses the expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) that is critically required for the release of testosterone, resulting in the induction of male reproductive toxicity. However, the specific mechanisms of the uptake of MC-LR by GnRH-secreting neurons still remain unclear. In this study, GT1-7 cells were exposed to MC-LR in order to determine whether the GnRH-secreting neurons were the target of MC-LR that could induce male reproductive toxicity. Our data demonstrated that at least four organic anion transporting polypeptides (Oatp1a4, Oatp1a5, Oatp5a1, Oatp2b1) were expressed in GnRH neurons at the mRNA level, but only Oatp1a5 was expressed at the protein level. Furthermore, we demonstrated that MC-LR could not be transported into Oatp1a5-deficient GT1-7 cells which were protected from cell viability loss induced by MC-LR. These data suggest that Oatp1a5 may play an important role in the toxic effect of MC-LR on GnRH neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Ding
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Jing Wang
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Zou Xiang
- Department of Health Technology and Informatics, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China Mailing address: Immunology and Reproductive Biology Laboratory, Medical School of Nanjing University, Hankou Road 22, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Weiyi Diao
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Moxi Su
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Weiwei Shi
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Ting Wan
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Xiaodong Han
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory & State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China.
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159
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Zhao J, Tian F, Zhai Q, Yu R, Zhang H, Gu Z, Chen W. Protective effects of a cocktail of lactic acid bacteria on microcystin-LR-induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative damage in BALB/c mice. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra03035e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of mixed lactic acid bacteria (LAB) against microcystin-LR-exposed hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress in BALB/c mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jichun Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
| | - Fengwei Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
| | - Qixiao Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
| | - Ruipeng Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
| | - Hao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
| | - Zhennan Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
| | - Wei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi 214122
- P. R. China
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160
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Wang X, Ding J, Xiang Z, Jiang P, Du J, Han X. Microcystin-LR causes sexual hormone disturbance in male rat by targeting gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons. Toxicon 2016; 123:45-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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161
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Qiao Q, Le Manach S, Huet H, Duvernois-Berthet E, Chaouch S, Duval C, Sotton B, Ponger L, Marie A, Mathéron L, Lennon S, Bolbach G, Djediat C, Bernard C, Edery M, Marie B. An integrated omic analysis of hepatic alteration in medaka fish chronically exposed to cyanotoxins with possible mechanisms of reproductive toxicity. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 219:119-131. [PMID: 27814527 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms threaten human health as well as the population of other living organisms in the aquatic environment, particularly due to the production of natural toxic components, the cyanotoxin. So far, the most studied cyanotoxins are microcystins (MCs). In this study, the hepatic alterations at histological, proteome and transcriptome levels were evaluated in female and male medaka fish chronically exposed to 1 and 5 μg L-1 microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and to the extract of MC-producing Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7820 (5 μg L-1 of equivalent MC-LR) by balneation for 28 days, aiming at enhancing our understanding of the potential reproductive toxicity of cyanotoxins in aquatic vertebrate models. Indeed, both MC and Microcystis extract adversely affect reproductive parameters including fecundity and egg hatchability. The liver of toxin treated female fish present glycogen storage loss and cellular damages. The quantitative proteomics analysis revealed that the quantities of 225 hepatic proteins are dysregulated. In particular, a notable decrease in protein quantities of vitellogenin and choriogenin was observed, which could explain the decrease in reproductive output. Liver transcriptome analysis through Illumina RNA-seq reveals that over 100-400 genes are differentially expressed under 5 μg L-1 MC-LR and Microcystis extract treatments, respectively. Ingenuity pathway analysis of the omic data attests that various metabolic pathways, such as energy production, protein biosynthesis and lipid metabolism, are disturbed by both MC-LR and the Microcystis extract, which could provoke the observed reproductive impairment. The transcriptomics analysis also constitutes the first report of the impairment of circadian rhythm-related gene induced by MCs. This study contributes to a better understanding of the potential consequences of chronic exposure of fish to environmental concentrations of cyanotoxins, suggesting that Microcystis extract could impact a wider range of biological pathways, compared with pure MC-LR, and even 1 μg L-1 MC-LR potentially induces a health risk for aquatic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Qiao
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Séverine Le Manach
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Hélène Huet
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France; Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, BioPôle Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Evelyne Duvernois-Berthet
- UMR 7221 CNRS/MNHN, Évolution des Régulations Endocriniennes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Soraya Chaouch
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Charlotte Duval
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Benoit Sotton
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Loïc Ponger
- UMR 7196 MNHN/CNRS, INSERM U1154, Sorbonne Universités, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Arul Marie
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Lucrèce Mathéron
- Institut de Biologie Paris Seine/FR 3631, Plateforme Spectrométrie de masse et Protéomique, Institut de Biologie Intégrative IFR 83, Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | | | - Gérard Bolbach
- Institut de Biologie Paris Seine/FR 3631, Plateforme Spectrométrie de masse et Protéomique, Institut de Biologie Intégrative IFR 83, Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Chakib Djediat
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Cécile Bernard
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Marc Edery
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Marie
- UMR 7245 MNHN/CNRS Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP 39, 12 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France.
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162
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Bulc Rozman K, Jurič DM, Šuput D. Selective cytotoxicity of microcystins LR, LW and LF in rat astrocytes. Toxicol Lett 2016; 265:1-8. [PMID: 27864109 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) comprise a group of cyanobacterial toxins with hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic and, possibly, neurotoxic activity in mammals. In order to understand the development of their neurotoxicity we investigated the toxic effects of MC variants, MC-LR, MC-LW and MC-LF, in astrocytes that play a central role in maintaining brain homeostasis. 24h exposure of cultured rat cortical astrocytes to MCs revealed dose-dependent toxicity of MC-LF and MC-LW, but not of MC-LR, observed by significant reduction in cell number, declined viability monitored by MTT test and an increased percentage of apoptotic cells, confirmed by Annexin-V labelling. The cultured astrocytes expressed organic anion-transporting polypeptides (Oatp) Oatp1a4, Oatp1c1 and Oatp1a5, but not Oatp1b2. Intracellular localisation of MC-LF and MC-LW, proven by anti-Adda primary antibody, demonstrated transport of tested MCs into cultured astrocytes. Acute MC-LW and MC-LF intoxication induced cytoskeletal disruption as seen by the degradation of glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP), actin and the tubulin network. In this in vitro study, MC-LF and MC-LW, but not MC-LR, are shown to cause the dysfunction of astrocytic homeostatic capabilities, already at low concentrations, suggesting that astrocyte atrophy, with loss of function, could be expected in the brain response to the toxic insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Bulc Rozman
- Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 4, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Damijana Mojca Jurič
- Institute of Pharmacology and Experimental Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Korytkova 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Dušan Šuput
- Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 4, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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163
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Kovacsics D, Patik I, Özvegy-Laczka C. The role of organic anion transporting polypeptides in drug absorption, distribution, excretion and drug-drug interactions. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2016; 13:409-424. [PMID: 27783531 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2017.1253679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The in vivo fate and effectiveness of a drug depends highly on its absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity (ADME-Tox). Organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) are membrane proteins involved in the cellular uptake of various organic compounds, including clinically used drugs. Since OATPs are significant players in drug absorption and distribution, modulation of OATP function via pharmacotherapy with OATP substrates/inhibitors, or modulation of their expression, affects drug pharmacokinetics. Given their cancer-specific expression, OATPs may also be considered anticancer drug targets. Areas covered: We describe the human OATP family, discussing clinically relevant consequences of altered OATP function. We offer a critical analysis of published data on the role of OATPs in ADME and in drug-drug interactions, especially focusing on OATP1A2, 1B1, 1B3 and 2B1. Expert opinion: Four members of the OATP family, 1A2, 1B1, 1B3 and 2B1, have been characterized in detail. As biochemical and pharmacological knowledge on the other OATPs is lacking, it seems timely to direct research efforts towards developing the experimental framework needed to investigate the transport mechanism and substrate specificity of the poorly described OATPs. In addition, elucidating the role of OATPs in tumor development and therapy response are critical avenues for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniella Kovacsics
- a Membrane protein research group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Izabel Patik
- a Membrane protein research group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Csilla Özvegy-Laczka
- a Membrane protein research group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Budapest , Hungary
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Liu J, Wang B, Huang P, Wang H, Xu K, Wang X, Xu L, Guo Z. Microcystin-LR promotes cell proliferation in the mice liver by activating Akt and p38/ERK/JNK cascades. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 163:14-21. [PMID: 27517128 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a heptapeptide produced by blue-green algae, is shown to induce cytotoxicity by inhibiting protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity. Our previous study revealed that MC-LR promoted cell proliferation in vitro by activating the Akt/mTORC1/S6K1 pathway. This study aims to further investigate the effects of MC-LR on cell proliferation and the correlated mechanisms in vivo. Mice were injected intraperitoneally with 20-80 μg/kg/d MC-LR from 2 h (hours) to 4 d (days). The results showed that the associations of MC-LR with PP2A/C (PP2A C subunit) were concentration-dependent but not time-dependent in the liver, whereas the total PP2A activity was inhibited in both concentration and time dependent manners. The PP2A regulator α4 was found to release its associated PP2A/C as MC-LR bound to PP2A/C. Importantly, 80 μg/kg MC-LR promoted liver cell proliferation beginning at 1 d post exposure, and hyperproliferation also occurred in the 40 μg/kg group at 4 d after exposure. Meanwhile, the Akt/mTORC1/S6K1 and Akt/β-catenin signaling pathways were activated as early as at 2 h post exposure. Furthermore, MC-LR also activated ERK/p38/JNK MAPKs as early as at 2 h post exposure, which was supported by the hyperphosphorylation of their substrates, ATF-2, c-Jun and c-Myc. Interestingly, the total c-Jun and c-Myc levels also increased after MC-LR exposure. These findings indicate that MC-LR can also promote cell proliferation in vivo, and the activation of Akt and MAPK signaling pathways due to PP2A inhibition is proposed to participate in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghui Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Beilei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Pu Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hanying Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Kailun Xu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiaofeng Wang
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
| | - Lihong Xu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Zonglou Guo
- Department of Biosystem Engineering, College of Biosystem Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Khan RAW, Chen J, Wang M, Wen Z, Shen J, Song Z, Li Z, Wang Q, Li W, Xu Y, Ji W, Shi Y. Analysis of association between common variants in the SLCO6A1 gene with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder in the Han Chinese population. World J Biol Psychiatry 2016; 17:140-6. [PMID: 26861727 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2015.1126676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The SLCO6A1 gene belongs to a superfamily of genes which is known to be a solute carrier family of OATPs (SLCO). The SLCO6A1 gene encodes OATP6A1 protein in humans. A previous genome-wide association study (GWAS) of schizophrenia conducted in the Swedish population demonstrated a significant association of rs6878284, which is located in the SLCO6A1 gene, with schizophrenia. To further investigate whether this gene is also a risk locus for schizophrenia (SCZ), bipolar disorder (BPD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) in the Han Chinese population, a case-control study was designed. METHODS In total 1,248 unrelated SCZ cases, 1,344 BPD cases, 1,056 unrelated MDD cases and 1,248 normal controls were analysed in this study. We genotyped five SNPs using the Sequenom MassARRAY platform. RESULTS We found no association of rs6878284 with SCZ [Corrected Pallele = 0.969, Corrected Pgenotype = 0.997]. Furthermore, we found a statistically significant association of the rs7734060 genotype with MDD after correction [rs7734060: Corrected Pallele = 0.114, Corrected Pgenotype = 0.036] in the Han Chinese population. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study which reveals no association of rs6878284 with SCZ and also predicts that rs7734060 could be a risk locus for MDD in the Han Chinese population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja Amjad Waheed Khan
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China ;,e Dept. Of Chemistry , University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir , Muzaffarabad , 13100 , Pakistan
| | - Jianhua Chen
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China ;,b Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders , Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Meng Wang
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Zujia Wen
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Jiawei Shen
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Zhijian Song
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Zhiqiang Li
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Qingzhong Wang
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Wenjin Li
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Yifeng Xu
- b Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders , Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China
| | - Weidong Ji
- c Shanghai Changning Mental Health Center , 299 Xiehe Road , Shanghai , 200042 , P.R. China
| | - Yongyong Shi
- a Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education) , and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200030 , P.R. China ;,c Shanghai Changning Mental Health Center , 299 Xiehe Road , Shanghai , 200042 , P.R. China ;,d Institute of Neuropsychiatric Science and Systems Biological Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , 200042 , P.R. China
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166
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Woźny M, Lewczuk B, Ziółkowska N, Gomułka P, Dobosz S, Łakomiak A, Florczyk M, Brzuzan P. Intraperitoneal exposure of whitefish to microcystin-LR induces rapid liver injury followed by regeneration and resilience to subsequent exposures. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 313:68-87. [PMID: 27765657 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
To date, there has been no systematic approach comprehensively describing the sequence of pathological changes in fish during prolonged exposure to microcystin-LR (MC-LR). Towards this aim, juvenile whitefish individuals received an intraperitoneal injection with pure MC-LR, and the injection was repeated every week to maintain continuous exposure for 28days. During the exposure period, growth and condition of the fish were assessed based on biometric measurements. Additionally, selected biochemical markers were analysed in the fishes' blood, and their livers were carefully examined for morphological, ultrastructural, and molecular changes. The higher dose of MC-LR (100μg·kg-1) caused severe liver injury at the beginning of the exposure period, whereas the lower dose (10μg·kg-1) caused less, probably reversible injury, and its effects began to be observed later in the exposure period. These marked changes were accompanied by substantial MC-LR uptake by the liver. However, starting on the 7th day of exposure, cell debris began to be removed by phagocytes, then by 14th day, proliferation of liver cells had markedly increased, which led to reconstruction of the liver parenchyma at the end of the treatment. Surprisingly, despite weekly-repeated intraperitoneal injections, MC-LR did not accumulate over time of exposure which suggests its limited uptake in the later phase of exposure. In support, mRNA expression of the membrane transport protein oatp1d was decreased at the same time as the regenerative processes were observed. Our study shows that closing of active membrane transport may serve as one defence mechanism against further MC-LR intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Woźny
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Słoneczna 45G, 10-709 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Bogdan Lewczuk
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. M. Oczapowskiego 13, 10-713 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Natalia Ziółkowska
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. M. Oczapowskiego 13, 10-713 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Piotr Gomułka
- Department of Ichthyology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. M. Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Stefan Dobosz
- Department of the Salmonid Research in Rutki, Inland Fisheries Institute in Olsztyn, Rutki, 83-330 Żukowo, Poland
| | - Alicja Łakomiak
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Słoneczna 45G, 10-709 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Maciej Florczyk
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Słoneczna 45G, 10-709 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Paweł Brzuzan
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Słoneczna 45G, 10-709 Olsztyn, Poland
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167
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Bieczynski F, Torres WDC, Painefilu JC, Castro JM, Bianchi VA, Frontera JL, Paz DA, González C, Martín A, Villanueva SSM, Luquet CM. Alterations in the intestine of Patagonian silverside (Odontesthes hatcheri) exposed to microcystin-LR: Changes in the glycosylation pattern of the intestinal wall and inhibition of multidrug resistance proteins efflux activity. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 178:106-117. [PMID: 27474942 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Accumulation and toxicity of cyanobacterial toxins, particularly microcystin-LR (MCLR) have been extensively studied in fish and aquatic invertebrates. However, MCLR excretion mechanisms, which could reduce this toxin's effects, have received little attention. The Patagonian silverside, Odontesthes hatcheri, is an omnivorous-planktivorous edible fish, which has been shown to digest cyanobacterial cells absorbing MCLR and eliminating the toxin within 48h without suffering significant toxic effects. We studied the effects of MCLR on glycoconjugate composition and the possible role of multidrug resistance associated proteins (Abcc) in MCLR export from the cells in O. hatcheri intestine. We treated O. hatcheri with 5μg MCLRg(-1) body mass administered with the food. Twenty four hours later, the intestines of treated and control fish were processed for lectin-histochemistry using concanavalin A (ConA), Triticum vulgaris agglutinin (WGA), and Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA). MCLR affected the distribution of glycoconjugates by augmenting the proportion of ConA-positive at the expense of WGA-positive cells. We studied MCLR effects on the transport of the Abcc-like substrates 2,4-dinitrophenyl-S-glutathione (DNP-SG) and calcein in ex vivo intestine preparations (everted and no-everted sacs and strips). In treated preparations, CDNB together with MCLR (113μg MCLRg(-1) intestine, equivalent to 1.14μmolL(-1) when applied in the bath) or the Abcc inhibitor, MK571 was applied for one hour, during which DNP-SG was measured in the bath every 10min in order to calculate mass-specific DNP-SG transport rate. MCLR significantly inhibited DNP-SG transport (p<0.05), especially in middle intestine (47 and 24%, for luminal and serosal transport, respectively). In middle intestine strips, MCLR and MK571inhibited DNP-SG transport in a concentration dependent fashion (IC50 3.3 and 0.6μmolL(-1), respectively). In middle intestine strips incubated with calcein-AM (0.25μmolL(-1)), calcein efflux was inhibited by MCLR (2.3μmolL(-1)) and MK571 (3μmolL(-1)) by 38 and 27%, respectively (p<0.05). Finally, middle intestine segments were incubated with different concentrations of MCLR applied alone or together with 3μM MK571. After one hour, protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) activity, the main target of MCLR, was measured. 2.5μM MCLR did not produce any significant effect, while the same amount plus MK571 inhibited PP1 activity (p<0.05). This effect was similar to that of 5μM MCLR. Our results suggest that in O. hatcheri enterocytes MCLR is conjugated with GSH via GST and then exported to the intestinal lumen through Abcc-like transporters. This mechanism would protect the cell from MCLR toxicity, limiting toxin transport into the blood, which is probably mediated by basolateral Abccs. From an ecotoxicological point of view, elimination of MCLR through this mechanism would reduce the amount of toxin available for trophic transference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Bieczynski
- Laboratorio de Ecotoxicología Acuática, INIBIOMA - (CONICET-UNCo), CEAN- Ruta 61 km 3, Paraje San Cabao, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina.
| | - Walter D C Torres
- CEAN- Ruta 61 km 3, Paraje San Cabao, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - Julio C Painefilu
- Laboratorio de Ecotoxicología Acuática, INIBIOMA - (CONICET-UNCo), CEAN- Ruta 61 km 3, Paraje San Cabao, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - Juan M Castro
- Laboratorio de Ecotoxicología Acuática, INIBIOMA - (CONICET-UNCo), CEAN- Ruta 61 km 3, Paraje San Cabao, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - Virginia A Bianchi
- Laboratorio de Ecotoxicología Acuática, INIBIOMA - (CONICET-UNCo), CEAN- Ruta 61 km 3, Paraje San Cabao, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - Jimena L Frontera
- Laboratorio de Biología del Desarrollo, IFIBYNE-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Buenos Aires, Pabellón II, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Dante A Paz
- Laboratorio de Biología del Desarrollo, IFIBYNE-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Buenos Aires, Pabellón II, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carolina González
- Dirección Técnica y de Desarrollo Tecnológico, Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos, Av. Figueroa Alcorta 6081, 1425, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Martín
- Dirección Técnica y de Desarrollo Tecnológico, Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos, Av. Figueroa Alcorta 6081, 1425, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvina S M Villanueva
- Instituto de Fisiología Experimental, IFISE-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 570, 2000, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Carlos M Luquet
- Laboratorio de Ecotoxicología Acuática, INIBIOMA - (CONICET-UNCo), CEAN- Ruta 61 km 3, Paraje San Cabao, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
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Yuan J, Gu Z, Zheng Y, Zhang Y, Gao J, Chen S, Wang Z. Accumulation and detoxification dynamics of microcystin-LR and antioxidant responses in male red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 177:8-18. [PMID: 27218425 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2016] [Revised: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
MC-LR is one of major microcystin isoforms with potent hepatotoxicity. In the present study, we aim to: 1) explore the dynamics of MC-LR accumulation and elimination in different tissues of male red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii; 2) reveal the mechanisms underlying hepatic antioxidation and detoxification. In the semi-static toxicity tests under the water temperature of 25±2°C, P. clarkii were exposed to 0.1, 1, 10 and 100μg/L MC-LR for 7days for accumulation and subsequently relocated to freshwater for another 7days to depurate MC-LR. MC-LR was measured in the hepatopancreas, intestine, abdominal muscle and gill by HPLC. The enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), content of glutathione (GSH), and transcripts of Mn-sod, cat, gpx1, Mu-gst, heat shock protein90 (hsp90), hsp70 and hsp60 in hepatopancreas were detected. The results showed that P. clarkii accumulated more MC-LR in intestine, and less in abdominal muscle and gill during accumulation period and eliminated the toxin more quickly in gill and abdominal muscle, and comparatively slowly in intestine during depuration period. The fast increase of SOD and CAT activities at early stage, subsequent decrease at later stage of accumulation period and then fast increase during depuration period were partially consistent with the transcriptional changes of their respective genes. GPx was activated by longer MC-LR exposure and gpx1 mRNA expression showed uncoordinated regulation pattern compared with its enzyme. Hsp genes were up-regulated when P. clarkii was exposed to MC-LR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julin Yuan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Agriculture, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Zhejiang Institute of Freshwater Fisheries, Freshwater Fishery Healthy Breeding Laboratory of Ministry of Agriculture, Huzhou, Zhejiang 313001, China
| | - Zhimin Gu
- Zhejiang Institute of Freshwater Fisheries, Freshwater Fishery Healthy Breeding Laboratory of Ministry of Agriculture, Huzhou, Zhejiang 313001, China.
| | - Yao Zheng
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences; Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Fishery Resources and Environment in the Lower Reaches of the Changjiang River, Wuxi 214081, China
| | - Yingying Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Agriculture, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Jiancao Gao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Agriculture, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Shu Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Agriculture, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Zaizhao Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Agriculture, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
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169
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Clark SP, Davis MA, Ryan TP, Searfoss GH, Hooser SB. Hepatic Gene Expression Changes in Mice Associated with Prolonged Sublethal Microcystin Exposure. Toxicol Pathol 2016; 35:594-605. [PMID: 17654400 DOI: 10.1080/01926230701383210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MCLR) is an acute hepatotoxicant and suspected carcinogen. Previous chronic studies have individually described hepatic morphologic changes, or alterations in the cytoskeleton, cell signaling or redox pathways. The objective of this study was to characterize chronic effects of MCLR in wild-type mice utilizing gene array analysis, morphology, and plasma chemistries. MCLR was given daily for up to 28 days. RNA from the 28-day study was hybridized onto mouse genechip arrays. RNA from 4 hours, 24 hours, 4 days, 1 day, and 28 days for selected genes was processed for quantitative-PCR. Increases in plasma hepatic enzyme activities and decreases in total protein, albumin and glucose concentrations were identified in MCLR-treated groups at 14 and 28 days. Histologically, marked hepatokaryomegaly was identified in the 14-day MCLR group with the addition of giant cells at 28 days. Major gene transcript changes were identified in the actin organization, cell cycle, apoptotic, cellular redox, cell signaling, albumin metabolism, and glucose homeostasis pathways, and the organic anion transport polypeptide system. Using toxicogenomics, we have identified key molecular pathways involved in chronic sublethal MCLR exposure in wild-type mice, genes participating in those critical pathways and related them to cellular and morphologic alterations seen in this and other studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn P Clark
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Purdue University, Indiana 47907, USA.
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Meili N, Christen V, Fent K. Nodularin induces tumor necrosis factor-alpha and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and leads to induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 300:25-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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171
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Pham TL, Shimizu K, Kanazawa A, Gao Y, Dao TS, Utsumi M. Microcystin accumulation and biochemical responses in the edible clam Corbiculaleana P. exposed to cyanobacterial crude extract. J Environ Sci (China) 2016; 44:120-130. [PMID: 27266308 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2015.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the accumulation and effects of cyanobacterial crude extract (CCE) containing microcystins (MCs) on the edible clam Corbiculaleana P. Toxic effects were evaluated through the activity of antioxidant and detoxification enzymes: catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) from gills, foot, mantle and remaining soft tissues. Clams were exposed to CCE containing 400μg MC-LReq/L for 10days and were then kept in toxin-free water for 5days. Clam accumulated MCs (up to 3.41±0.63μg/g dry weight (DW) of unbound MC and 0.31±0.013μg/g DW of covalently bound MC). Detoxification and antioxidant enzymes in different organs responded differently to CCE during the experiment. The activity of SOD, CAT, and GST in the gills and mantle increased in MC-treated clams. In contrast, CAT and GST activity was significantly inhibited in the foot and mostly only slightly changed in the remaining tissues. The responses of biotransformation, antioxidant enzyme activity to CCE and the fast elimination of MCs during depuration help to explain how the clam can survive for long periods (over a week) during the decay of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh-Luu Pham
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan; Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST), Institute of Tropical Biology, 85 Tran Quoc Toan St., Dist. 3, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
| | - Kazuya Shimizu
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Toyo University, Ora-gun, Gunma 374-0193, Japan
| | - Ayako Kanazawa
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
| | - Yu Gao
- College of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shandong, University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
| | - Thanh-Son Dao
- Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, 268 Ly Thuong Kiet St., Dist. 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Motoo Utsumi
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
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172
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Drobac D, Tokodi N, Lujić J, Marinović Z, Subakov-Simić G, Dulić T, Važić T, Nybom S, Meriluoto J, Codd GA, Svirčev Z. Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in fishponds and their effects on fish tissue. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 55:66-76. [PMID: 28073548 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria can produce toxic metabolites known as cyanotoxins. Common and frequently investigated cyanotoxins include microcystins (MCs), nodularin (NOD) and saxitoxins (STXs). During the summer of 2011 extensive cyanobacterial growth was found in several fishponds in Serbia. Sampling of the water and fish (common carp, Cyprinus carpio) was performed. Water samples from 13 fishponds were found to contain saxitoxin, microcystin, and/or nodularin. LC-MS/MS showed that MC-RR was present in samples of fish muscle tissue. Histopathological analyses of fish grown in fishponds with cyanotoxin production showed histopathological damage to liver, kidney, gills, intestines and muscle tissues. This study is among the first so far to report severe hyperplasia of intestinal epithelium and severe degeneration of muscle tissue of fish after cyanobacterial exposure. These findings emphasize the importance of cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin monitoring in fishponds in order to recognize cyanotoxins and their potential effects on fish used for human consumption and, further, on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damjana Drobac
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia.
| | - Nada Tokodi
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Jelena Lujić
- Department of Aquaculture, Szent István University, Páter Károly u. 1, Gödöllő 2100, Hungary
| | - Zoran Marinović
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia; Department of Aquaculture, Szent István University, Páter Károly u. 1, Gödöllő 2100, Hungary
| | - Gordana Subakov-Simić
- Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 16, Belgrade 11000, Serbia
| | - Tamara Dulić
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Tamara Važić
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Sonja Nybom
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6 A, Turku 20520, Finland
| | - Jussi Meriluoto
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6 A, Turku 20520, Finland; Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Geoffrey A Codd
- School of the Environment, Flinders University, Adelaide 5042, SA, Australia
| | - Zorica Svirčev
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6 A, Turku 20520, Finland
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173
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Chen C, Liu W, Wang L, Li J, Chen Y, Jin J, Kawan A, Zhang X. Pathological damage and immunomodulatory effects of zebrafish exposed to microcystin-LR. Toxicon 2016; 118:13-20. [PMID: 27085306 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms caused by water eutrophication have become a worldwide problem. Microcystins (MCs), especially microcystin-LR (MC-LR), released during cyanobacterial blooms exert great toxicity on fish and even lead to massive death. The present study mainly investigated the pathological damage and immune response of spleen, gut and gill in zebrafish exposed to MC-LR. Fish were exposed to 0, 1, 5 and 20 μg/L of MC-LR for 30 d. In zebrafish exposed to 5 and 20 μg/L MC-LR, edematous mitochondria, deformation of the nucleus and compaction of chromatin were observed in lymphocyte of spleen; frayed gut villi, exfoliation of epithelial cells and widespread cell lyses were observed in intestines; hyperemia in gill lamellae, epithelial tissue edema and uplift and lamellar fusion were observed in gill. Varied changed gene expression was observed in spleen, intestine and gill of zebrafish. The transcriptional levels of IFN-1 and IL-8 in spleen significantly up-regulated in 20 μg/L group, and the transcription of IL-1β and TNFα in spleen increased in 1 μg/L MC-LR treated fish. In addition, the mRNA levels of IFN-1, IL-1β, IL-8, TGF-β and TNF-α dramatically increased in intestine and gill in all MC-LR treated groups. The present studies indicated that MC-LR exposure caused marked pathological damage, however, fish could adjust actively the expression of innate immune-related genes to resist the tissue damage. Our findings provided strong evidence of the recovery potential of fish exposed to microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanyue Chen
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Wanjing Liu
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Li Wang
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Jian Li
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Yuanyuan Chen
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Jienan Jin
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Atufa Kawan
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Xuezhen Zhang
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
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174
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Douglas GC, Thirkill TL, Kumar P, Loi M, Hilborn ED. Effect of microcystin-LR on human placental villous trophoblast differentiation in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2016; 31:427-439. [PMID: 25346179 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR is a cyanobacterial toxin found in surface and recreational waters that inhibits protein phosphatases and may disrupt the cytoskeleton. Microcystins induce apoptosis in hepatocytes at ≤ 2.0 µM. Nothing is known about the effects of microcystins on human placental trophoblast differentiation and function. The differentiation of villous trophoblasts to form syncytiotrophoblast occurs throughout pregnancy and is essential for normal placental and fetal development. To investigate the effects of microcystin, villous cytotrophoblasts were isolated from term placentas using an established method and exposed to microcystin-LR. Microcystin-LR below the cytotoxic dose of 25 µM did not cause cell rounding or detachment, had no effect on apoptosis, and no effect on the morphological differentiation of mononucleated cytotrophoblasts to multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast. However, secretion of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) increased in a microcystin-LR dose-dependent manner. When incubated with l-buthionine sulphoximine (BSO) to deplete glutathione levels, trophoblast morphological differentiation proceeded normally in the presence of microcystin-LR. Microcystin-LR did not disrupt the trophoblast microtubule cytoskeleton, which is known to play a role in trophoblast differentiation. Immunofluorescence studies showed that trophoblasts express organic anion transport protein 1B3 (OATP1B3), a known microcystin transport protein. In comparison to hepatocytes, trophoblasts appear to be more resistant to the toxic effects of microcystin-LR. The physiological implications of increased hCG secretion in response to microcystin-LR exposure remain to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon C Douglas
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Twanda L Thirkill
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Priyadarsini Kumar
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Minerva Loi
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Elizabeth D Hilborn
- Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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175
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Hu Y, Chen J, Fan H, Xie P, He J. A review of neurotoxicity of microcystins. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:7211-7219. [PMID: 26857003 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6073-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms-produced microcystins are secondary metabolites which can accumulate in the food chain and contaminate water, thus posing a potential threat to the health of aquatic animals and even humans. Microcystin toxicity affects not only the liver but also the other organs, i.e., the brain. The serious neurotoxicity effects caused by microcystins then lead to various symptoms. This review focuses on the neurotoxicity of microcystins. Microcystins can cross blood-brain barrier with the transport of Oatps/OATPs, causing neurostructural, functional, and behavioral changes. In this review, potential uptake mechanisms and neurotoxicity mechanisms are summarized, including neurotransmissions, neurochannels, signal transduction, oxidative stress, and cytoskeleton disruption. However, further researches are needed for detailed studies on signaling pathways and the downstream pathways of neurotoxicity of microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufei Hu
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.7 Donghu South Road, Wuhan, 430072, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jun Chen
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.7 Donghu South Road, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Huihui Fan
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ping Xie
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.7 Donghu South Road, Wuhan, 430072, China.
| | - Jun He
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.7 Donghu South Road, Wuhan, 430072, China
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176
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Carmichael WW, Boyer GL. Health impacts from cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms: Implications for the North American Great Lakes. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 54:194-212. [PMID: 28073476 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Harmful cyanobacterial blooms (cHABs) have significant socioeconomic and ecological costs, which impact drinking water, fisheries, agriculture, tourism, real estate, water quality, food web resilience and habitats, and contribute to anoxia and fish kills. Many of these costs are well described, but in fact are largely unmeasured. Worldwide cHABs can produce toxins (cyanotoxins), which cause acute or chronic health effects in mammals (including humans) and other organisms. There are few attempts to characterize the full health-related effects other than acute incidences, which may go unrecorded. At present these are difficult to access and evaluate and may be ascribed to other causes. Such information is fundamental to measure the full costs of cHABs and inform the need for often-costly management and remediation. This paper synthesizes information on cHABs occurrence, toxicology and health effects, and relates this to past and current conditions in the Great Lakes, a major global resource which supplies 84% of the surface water in North America. This geographic region has seen a significant resurgence of cHABs since the 1980s. In particular we focus on Lake Erie, where increased reporting of cHABs has occurred from the early 1990's. We evaluate available information and case reports of cHAB-related illness and death and show that cHABs occur throughout the basin, with reports of animal illness and death, especially dogs and livestock. Lake Erie has consistently experienced cHABs and cyanotoxins in the last decade with probable cases of human illness, while the other Great Lakes show intermittent cHABs and toxins, but no confirmed reports on illness or toxicity. The dominant toxigenic cyanobacterium is the genus Microcystis known to produce microcystins. The presence of other cyanotoxins (anatoxin-a, paralytic shellfish toxins) implicates other toxigenic cyanobacteria such as Anabaena (Dolichospermum) and Lyngbya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne W Carmichael
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435, USA.
| | - Gregory L Boyer
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York-College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
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177
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Teneva I, Klaczkowska D, Batsalova T, Kostova Z, Dzhambazov B. Influence of captopril on the cellular uptake and toxic potential of microcystin-LR in non-hepatic adhesive cell lines. Toxicon 2016; 111:50-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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178
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Carvalho GMC, Oliveira VR, Casquilho NV, Araujo ACP, Soares RM, Azevedo SMFO, Pires KMP, Valença SS, Zin WA. Pulmonary and hepatic injury after sub-chronic exposure to sublethal doses of microcystin-LR. Toxicon 2016; 112:51-8. [PMID: 26844922 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.01.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We had previously shown that microcystin-LR (MCLR) could induce lung and liver inflammation after acute exposure. The biological outcomes following prolonged exposure to MCLR, although more frequent, are still poorly understood. Thus, we aimed to verify whether repeated doses of MCLR could damage lung and liver and evaluate the dose-dependence of the results. Male Swiss mice received 10 intraperitoneal injections (i.p.) of distilled water (60 μL, CTRL) or different doses of MCLR (5 μg/kg, TOX5), 10 μg/kg (TOX10), 15 μg/kg (TOX15) and 20 μg/kg (TOX20) every other day. On the tenth injection respiratory mechanics (lung resistive and viscoelastic/inhomogeneous pressures, static elastance, and viscoelastic component of elastance) was measured. Lungs and liver were prepared for histology (morphometry and cellularity) and inflammatory mediators (KC and MIP-2) determination. All mechanical parameters and alveolar collapse were significantly higher in TOX5, 10, 15 and 20 than CTRL, but did not differ among them. Lung inflammatory cell content increased dose-dependently in all TOX groups in relation to CTRL, being TOX20 the largest. The production of KC was increased in lung and liver homogenates. MIP-2 increased in the liver of all TOX groups, but in lung homogenates it was significantly higher only in TOX20 group. All TOX mice livers showed steatosis, necrosis, inflammatory foci and a high degree of binucleated hepatocytes. In conclusion, sub-chronic exposure to MCLR damaged lung and liver in all doses, with a more important lung inflammation in TOX20 group.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vinícius Rosa Oliveira
- Laboratory of Respiration Physiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Natália Vasconcelos Casquilho
- Laboratory of Respiration Physiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andressa Cristine Pereira Araujo
- Laboratory of Respiration Physiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Raquel Moraes Soares
- Laboratory of Ecophysiology and Toxicology of Cyanobacteria, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Sandra Maria F O Azevedo
- Laboratory of Ecophysiology and Toxicology of Cyanobacteria, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Karla Maria Pereira Pires
- Laboratory of Integrative Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Samuel Santos Valença
- Laboratory of Integrative Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Walter Araujo Zin
- Laboratory of Respiration Physiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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179
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Faltermann S, Prétôt R, Pernthaler J, Fent K. Comparative effects of nodularin and microcystin-LR in zebrafish: 1. Uptake by organic anion transporting polypeptide Oatp1d1 (Slco1d1). AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 171:69-76. [PMID: 26769064 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and nodularin are hepatotoxins produced by several cyanobacterial species. Their toxicity is based on active cellular uptake and subsequent inhibition of protein phosphatases PP1/2A, leading to hyperphosphorylation and cell death. To date, uptake of MC-LR and nodularin in fish is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the role of the organic anion transporting polypeptide Oatp1d1 in zebrafish (drOatp1d1, Slco1d1) in cellular uptake in zebrafish. We stably transfected CHO and HEK293 cell lines expressing drOatp1d1. In both transfectants, uptake of MC-LR and nodularin was demonstrated by competitive inhibition of uptake with fluorescent substrate lucifer yellow. Direct uptake of MC-LR was demonstrated by immunostaining, and indirectly by the high cytotoxicity in stable transfectants. By means of a synthesized fluorescent labeled MC-LR derivative, direct uptake was further confirmed in HEK293 cells expressing drOatp1d1. Additionally, uptake and toxicity was investigated in the permanent zebrafish liver cell line ZFL. These cells had only a low relative abundance of drOatp1d1, drOatp2b1 and drOatp1f transcripts, which correlated with the lack of MC-LR induced cytotoxicity and transcriptional changes of genes indicative of endoplasmic reticulum stress, a known effect of this toxin. Our study demonstrates that drOatp1d1 functions as an uptake transporter for both MC-LR and nodularin in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Faltermann
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, School of Life Sciences, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland; University of Zürich, Institute of Plant Biology, Limnological Station, Seestrasse 187, 8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland
| | - René Prétôt
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, School of Life Sciences, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Jakob Pernthaler
- University of Zürich, Institute of Plant Biology, Limnological Station, Seestrasse 187, 8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland
| | - Karl Fent
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, School of Life Sciences, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Department of Environmental System Sciences, Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollution Dynamics, Universitätsstrasse 16, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland.
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180
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Chen L, Chen J, Zhang X, Xie P. A review of reproductive toxicity of microcystins. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2016; 301:381-99. [PMID: 26521084 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.08.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Animal studies provide strong evidence of positive associations between microcystins (MCs) exposure and reproductive toxicity, representing a threat to human reproductive health and the biodiversity of wild life. This paper reviews current knowledge of the reproductive toxicity of MCs, with regard to mammals, fishes, amphibians, and birds, mostly in males. Toxicity of MCs is primarily governed by the inhibition of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A (PP1 and PP2A) and disturbance of cellular phosphorylation balance. MCs exposure is related to excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress, leading to cytoskeleton disruption, mitochondria dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and DNA damage. MCs induce cell apoptosis mediated by the mitochondrial and ROS and ER pathways. Through PP1/2A inhibition and oxidative stress, MCs lead to differential expression/activity of transcriptional factors and proteins involved in the pathways of cellular differentiation, proliferation, and tumor promotion. MC-induced DNA damage is also involved in carcinogenicity. Apart from a direct effect on testes and ovaries, MCs indirectly affect sex hormones by damaging the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad (HPG) axis and liver. Parental exposure to MCs may result in hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity of offspring. We also summarize the current research gaps which should be addressed by further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Chen
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Jun Chen
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China.
| | - Xuezhen Zhang
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Ping Xie
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China.
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181
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Zhang J, Xie Z, Wang Z. Oxidative stress responses and toxin accumulation in the freshwater snail Radix swinhoei (Gastropoda, Pulmonata) exposed to microcystin-LR. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:1353-1361. [PMID: 26362638 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5366-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MCLR) is one of the most common toxins in eutrophic freshwater ecosystems. The ecotoxicological effects of MCLR in freshwater ecosystems have been widely documented; however, the physiological effects of MCLR on freshwater snails and the underlying toxicity/detoxification mechanisms have not been well investigated. In this laboratory study, antioxidant system responses in the hepatopancreas and the digestive tract of Radix swinhoei, a typical freshwater snail, exposed to 0.01 mg/L to 2 mg/L MCLR were explored. Antioxidant enzymes, particularly superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD), in the digestive tracts were effectively generated at 0.2 and 2 mg/L MCLR. However, SOD and CAT activities in the hepatopancreas were activated only at 0.2 mg/L MCLR. Glutathione (GSH) concentrations in the digestive tracts significantly increased at 0.01 to 0.2 mg/L MCLR; by comparison, GSH concentrations in the hepatopancreas remained stable. No oxidative damage (lipid peroxidations) occurred in the digestive tracts and the hepatopancreas when the snail was exposed to ≤0.2 mg/L MCLR. MCLR accumulation in different snail tissues was also examined. MCLR accumulated in different tissues and showed the following pattern: hepatopancreas > gonads > digestive tracts > muscles. Bioaccumulated concentrations in these four tissues increased as MCLR exposure concentrations increased; by contrast, bioaccumulation factors decreased as MCLR exposure concentrations increased. Our results indicated that R. swinhoei is sensitively responsive to MCLR by changing antioxidant system status to cope with the toxicity. Snails may be vectors of MCs that transfer MCs in eutrophic lakes via food chains or food web.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junqian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Zhicai Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Zhi Wang
- Key Laboratory for Environment and Disaster Monitoring and Evaluation, Hubei, Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430077, China.
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182
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Wu J, Yuan M, Song Y, Sun F, Han X. MC-LR Exposure Leads to Subfertility of Female Mice and Induces Oxidative Stress in Granulosa Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:5212-23. [PMID: 26633508 PMCID: PMC4690122 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7124872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Health risk of human exposure to microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) has aroused more and more attention over the past few decades. In the present study, MC-LR was orally administered to female mice at 0, 1, 10 and 40 μg/L for three and six months. We found that chronic exposure to MC-LR at environmental levels could stimulate follicle atresia and lead to decreased developmental follicles, accompanied by a reduction of gonadosomatic index (GSI). In line with the irregular gonadal hormone level and estrus cycles, subfertility of female mice was also confirmed by analyzing numbers of litters and pups. The in vitro study suggested that granulosa cells could uptake MC-LR and should be the target of the toxicant. Oxidative stress in granulose cells induced by MC-LR promoted follicle atresia and eventually leads to female subfertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Wu
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory and State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Mingming Yuan
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory and State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Yuefeng Song
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory and State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Feng Sun
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory and State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Xiaodong Han
- Immunology and Reproduction Biology Laboratory and State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Jiangsu, China.
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183
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Cai F, Liu J, Li C, Wang J. Critical Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Cognitive Impairment Induced by Microcystin-LR. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:28077-86. [PMID: 26602924 PMCID: PMC4691030 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161226083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies showed that cyanobacteria-derived microcystin-leucine-arginine (MCLR) can cause hippocampal pathological damage and trigger cognitive impairment; but the underlying mechanisms have not been well understood. The objective of the present study was to investigate the mechanism of MCLR-induced cognitive deficit; with a focus on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The Morris water maze test and electrophysiological study demonstrated that MCLR caused spatial memory injury in male Wistar rats; which could be inhibited by ER stress blocker; tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA). Meanwhile; real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) and immunohistochemistry demonstrated that the expression level of the 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78); C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) and caspase 12 were significantly up-regulated. These effects were rescued by co-administration of TUDCA. In agreement with this; we also observed that treatment of rats with TUDCA blocked the alterations in ER ultrastructure and apoptotic cell death in CA1 neurons from rats exposed to MCLR. Taken together; the present results suggested that ER stress plays an important role in potential memory impairments in rats treated with MCLR; and amelioration of ER stress may serve as a novel strategy to alleviate damaged cognitive function triggered by MCLR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Cai
- Department of Pharmacology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China.
| | - Jue Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Central Hospital of Wuhan, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430014, China.
| | - Cairong Li
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory on Cardiovascular, Cerebrovascular, and Metabolic Disorders, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China.
| | - Jianghua Wang
- Fisheries College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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184
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Cell Death Inducing Microbial Protein Phosphatase Inhibitors--Mechanisms of Action. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6505-20. [PMID: 26506362 PMCID: PMC4626703 DOI: 10.3390/md13106505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) and microcystin (MC) as well as several other microbial toxins like nodularin and calyculinA are known as tumor promoters as well as inducers of apoptotic cell death. Their intracellular targets are the major serine/threonine protein phosphatases. This review summarizes mechanisms believed to be responsible for the death induction and tumor promotion with focus on the interdependent production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of Ca2+/calmodulin kinase II (CaM-KII). New data are presented using inhibitors of specific ROS producing enzymes to curb nodularin/MC-induced liver cell (hepatocyte) death. They indicate that enzymes of the arachidonic acid pathway, notably phospholipase A2, 5-lipoxygenase, and cyclooxygenases, may be required for nodularin/MC-induced (and presumably OA-induced) cell death, suggesting new ways to overcome at least some aspects of OA and MC toxicity.
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185
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Adamovsky O, Moosova Z, Pekarova M, Basu A, Babica P, Svihalkova Sindlerova L, Kubala L, Blaha L. Immunomodulatory Potency of Microcystin, an Important Water-Polluting Cyanobacterial Toxin. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:12457-12464. [PMID: 26380879 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b02049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are primarily hepatotoxins produced by cyanobacteria and are responsible for intoxication in humans and animals. There are many incidents of chronic exposure to MCs, which have been attributed to the inappropriate treatment of water supplies or contaminated food. Using RAW 264.7 macrophages, we showed the potency of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) to stimulate production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6) as a consequence of fast nuclear factor κB and nitrogen-activated protein kinase activation. In contrast to other studies, the observed effects were not attributed to the intracellular inhibition of protein phosphatases 1/2A due to lack of specific transmembrane transporters for MCs. However, the MC-LR-induced activation of macrophages was effectively inhibited by a specific peptide that blocks signaling of receptors, which play a pivotal role in the innate immune responses. Taken together, we showed for the first time that MC-LR could interfere with macrophage receptors that are responsible for triggering the above-mentioned signaling pathways. These findings provide an interesting mechanistic explanation of some adverse health outcomes associated with toxic cyanobacteria and MCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondrej Adamovsky
- Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Masaryk University , Kamenice 753/5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdena Moosova
- Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Masaryk University , Kamenice 753/5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Pekarova
- Institute of Biophysics, Academy of Sciences , Královopolská 135, 612 65 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Amrita Basu
- Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Masaryk University , Kamenice 753/5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Babica
- Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Masaryk University , Kamenice 753/5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Lukas Kubala
- Institute of Biophysics, Academy of Sciences , Královopolská 135, 612 65 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ludek Blaha
- Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Masaryk University , Kamenice 753/5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
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186
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Okadaic acid is taken-up into the cells mediated by human hepatocytes transporter OATP1B3. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 83:229-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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187
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Mechanisms of microcystin-LR-induced cytoskeletal disruption in animal cells. Toxicon 2015; 101:92-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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188
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Grundler V, Faltermann S, Fent K, Gademann K. Preparation of Fluorescent Microcystin Derivatives by Direct Arginine Labelling and Their Biological Evaluation. Chembiochem 2015; 16:1657-62. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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189
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Steiner K, Zimmermann L, Hagenbuch B, Dietrich D. Zebrafish Oatp-mediated transport of microcystin congeners. Arch Toxicol 2015; 90:1129-39. [PMID: 26055554 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1544-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins (MC), representing >100 congeners being produced by cyanobacteria, are a hazard for aquatic species. As MC congeners vary in their toxicity, the congener composition of a bloom primarily dictates the severity of adverse effects and appears primarily to be governed by toxicokinetics, i.e., whether transport of MCs occurs via organic anion-transporting polypeptides (Oatps). Differences in observed MC toxicity in various fish species suggest differential expression of Oatp subtypes leading to varying tissue distribution of the very same MC congener within different species. The objectives of this study were the functional characterization and analysis of the tissue distribution of Oatp subtypes in zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a surrogate model for cyprinid fish. Zebrafish Oatps (zfOatps) were cloned, and the organ distribution was determined at the mRNA level. zfOatps were transiently expressed in HEK293 cells for functional characterization using the Oatp substrates estrone-3-sulfate, taurocholate and methotrexate and specific MC congeners (MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-LF and MC-LW). Novel zfOatp isoforms were isolated. Among these isoforms, the organ-specific expression of zfOatp1d1 and of members of the zfOatp1f subfamily was identified. At the functional level, zfOatp1d1, zfOatp1f2, zfOatp1f3 and zfOatp1f4 transported at least one of the Oatp substrates, and zfOatp1d1, zfOatp1f2 and zfOatp1f4 were shown to transport MC congeners. MC-LF and MC-LW were generally transported faster than MC-LR and MC-RR. The subtype-specific expression of zfOatp1d1 and of members of the zfOatp1f subfamily as well as differences in the transport of MC congeners could explain the MC congener-dependent differences in toxicity in cyprinids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstanze Steiner
- Human and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, PO BOX 662, 78457, Constance, Germany
| | - Lisa Zimmermann
- Human and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, PO BOX 662, 78457, Constance, Germany
| | - Bruno Hagenbuch
- Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Daniel Dietrich
- Human and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, PO BOX 662, 78457, Constance, Germany.
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190
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Ma J, Feng Y, Xie W, Li X. PP2A (PR65) in Silver Carp: cDNA Cloning and Expression Analysis. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2015; 29:399-409. [DOI: 10.1002/jbt.21706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 02/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junguo Ma
- College of Life Science; Henan Normal University; Xinxiang Henan 453007 China
| | - Yiyi Feng
- College of Life Science; Henan Normal University; Xinxiang Henan 453007 China
| | - Wenjie Xie
- College of Life Science; Henan Normal University; Xinxiang Henan 453007 China
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- College of Life Science; Henan Normal University; Xinxiang Henan 453007 China
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191
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Piyathilaka MAPC, Pathmalal MM, Tennekoon KH, De Silva BGDNK, Samarakoon SR, Chanthirika S. Microcystin-LR-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in human embryonic kidney and human kidney adenocarcinoma cell lines. Microbiology (Reading) 2015; 161:819-28. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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192
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Jakubowska N, Szeląg-Wasielewska E. Toxic picoplanktonic cyanobacteria--review. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:1497-518. [PMID: 25793428 PMCID: PMC4377996 DOI: 10.3390/md13031497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria of a picoplanktonic cell size (0.2 to 2.0 µm) are common organisms of both freshwater and marine ecosystems. However, due to their small size and relatively short study history, picoplanktonic cyanobacteria, in contrast to the microplanktonic cyanobacteria, still remains a poorly studied fraction of plankton. So far, only little information on picocyanobacteria toxicity has been reported, while the number of reports concerning their presence in ecosystems is increasing. Thus, the issue of picocyanobacteria toxicity needs more researchers' attention and interest. In this report, we present information on the current knowledge concerning the picocyanobacteria toxicity, as well as their harmfulness and problems they can cause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Jakubowska
- Department of Water Protection, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland.
| | - Elżbieta Szeląg-Wasielewska
- Department of Water Protection, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland.
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193
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Lee HH, Leake BF, Teft W, Tirona RG, Kim RB, Ho RH. Contribution of hepatic organic anion-transporting polypeptides to docetaxel uptake and clearance. Mol Cancer Ther 2015; 14:994-1003. [PMID: 25695959 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-14-0547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The antimicrotubular agent docetaxel is a widely used chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of multiple solid tumors and is predominantly dependent on hepatic disposition. In this study, we evaluated drug uptake transporters capable of transporting radiolabeled docetaxel. By screening an array of drug uptake transporters in HeLa cells using a recombinant vaccinia-based method, five organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATP) capable of docetaxel uptake were identified: OATP1A2, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OATP1C1, and Oatp1b2. Kinetic analysis of docetaxel transport revealed similar kinetic parameters among hepatic OATP1B/1b transporters. An assessment of polymorphisms (SNPs) in SLCO1B1 and SLCO1B3 revealed that a number of OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 variants were associated with impaired docetaxel transport. A Transwell-based vectorial transport assay using MDCKII stable cells showed that docetaxel was transported significantly into the apical compartment of double-transfected (MDCKII-OATP1B1/MDR1 and MDCKII-OATP1B3/MDR1) cells compared with single-transfected (MDCKII-OATP1B1 and MDCKII-OATP1B3) cells (P < 0.05) or control (MDCKII-Co) cells (P < 0.001). In vivo docetaxel transport studies in Slco1b2(-/-) mice showed approximately >5.5-fold higher plasma concentrations (P < 0.01) and approximately 3-fold decreased liver-to-plasma ratio (P < 0.05) of docetaxel compared with wild-type (WT) mice. The plasma clearance of docetaxel in Slco1b2(-/-) mice was 83% lower than WT mice (P < 0.05). In conclusion, this study demonstrates the important roles of OATP1B transporters to the hepatic disposition and clearance of docetaxel, and supporting roles of these transporters for docetaxel pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah H Lee
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Brenda F Leake
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Wendy Teft
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University/University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rommel G Tirona
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University/University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard B Kim
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University/University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard H Ho
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee.
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194
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195
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Lone Y, Koiri RK, Bhide M. An overview of the toxic effect of potential human carcinogen Microcystin-LR on testis. Toxicol Rep 2015; 2:289-296. [PMID: 28962362 PMCID: PMC5598424 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Revised: 01/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The worldwide occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms due to water eutrophication evokes extreme concerns. These blooms produce cyanotoxins which are hazardous to living organisms. So far among these toxins, Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is the most toxic and the most frequently encountered toxin produced by the cyanobacteria in the contaminated aquatic environment. Microcystin-LR is a potential carcinogen for animals and humans, and the International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified Microcystin-LR as a possible human carcinogen. After liver, testis has been considered as one of the most important target organs of Microcystin-LR toxicity. Microcystin-LR crosses the blood–testis barrier and interferes with DNA damage repair pathway and also increases expression of the proto-oncogenes, genes involved in the response to DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in testis. Toxicity of MC-LR disrupts the motility and morphology of sperm and also affects the hormone levels of male reproductive system. MC-LR treated mice exhibit oxidative stress in testis through the alteration of antioxidant enzyme activity and also affect the histopathology of male reproductive system. In the present review, an attempt has been made to comprehensively address the impact of MC-LR toxicity on testis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqoob Lone
- Department of Zoology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh 470003, India
| | - Raj Kumar Koiri
- Department of Zoology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh 470003, India
| | - Mangla Bhide
- Department of Zoology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh 470003, India
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196
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Li X, Zhang X, Ju J, Li Y, Yin L, Pu Y. Maternal repeated oral exposure to microcystin-LR affects neurobehaviors in developing rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2015; 34:64-69. [PMID: 25319481 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins are toxic peptides secreted by certain water blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. The most widely studied microcystin is microcystin-LR (MC-LR), which exhibits hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity. However, limited information is available regarding the effects on offspring following maternal exposure. The present study was conducted to observe the effects of progestational exposure to MC-LR on postnatal development in rats. Female Sprague-Dawley rats (28 d old) were randomly divided into a control group and 3 treatment groups (1.0 µg MC-LR/kg body wt, 5.0 µg MC-LR/kg body wt, and 20.0 µg MC-LR/kg body wt), with 7 rats per group. The MC-LR was administered through gavage once every 48 h for 8 wk. Pure water was used as control. Each female rat was mated with an unexposed adult male rat. Motor development, behavioral development, and learning ability of pups were detected using surface righting reflex, negative geotaxis, and cliff avoidance tests on postnatal day 7. Open-field and Morris water maze tests were performed on postnatal day 28 and day 60. The levels of lipid peroxidation products and antioxidant indices in the rat hippocampus were also detected. Pups from the MC-LR-treated groups had significantly lower scores than controls in the cliff avoidance test (p < 0.05). Cognitive impairment, malondialdehyde level, and total superoxide dismutase activity significantly increased in MC-LR-exposed pups compared with controls (p < 0.05). Therefore, the present study reveals that maternal exposure to MC-LR has adverse effects on neurodevelopment in rat offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- XiaoBo Li
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
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197
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Svirčev Z, Lujić J, Marinović Z, Drobac D, Tokodi N, Stojiljković B, Meriluoto J. Toxicopathology induced by microcystins and nodularin: a histopathological review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS & ECOTOXICOLOGY REVIEWS 2015; 33:125-167. [PMID: 26023756 DOI: 10.1080/10590501.2015.1003000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are present in all aquatic ecosystems throughout the world. They are able to produce toxic secondary metabolites, and microcystins are those most frequently found. Research has displayed a negative influence of microcystins and closely related nodularin on fish, and various histopathological alterations have been observed in many organs of the exposed fish. The aim of this article is to summarize the present knowledge of the impact of microcystins and nodularin on the histology of fish. The observed negative effects of cyanotoxins indicate that cyanobacteria and their toxins are a relevant medical (due to irritation, acute poisoning, tumor promotion, and carcinogenesis), ecotoxicological, and economic problem that may affect both fish and fish consumers including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zorica Svirčev
- a Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad , Novi Sad , Serbia
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198
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Lu X, Long Y, Sun R, Zhou B, Lin L, Zhong S, Cui Z. Zebrafish Abcb4 is a potential efflux transporter of microcystin-LR. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 167:35-42. [PMID: 25193616 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is one of the most common microcystins (MCs), which are hepatotoxic and released into a water body during a period of cyanobacterial blooms. These toxicants can be accumulated in aquatic animals and transferred along the food chain and thus pose adverse effects on aquatic environment and public health. Zebrafish Abcb4 is reported to mediate the cellular efflux of ecotoxicologically relevant compounds including galaxolide, tonalide and phenanthrene; however, it remains unclear whether Abcb4 functions in the detoxification of MC-LR. Here, we demonstrated the role of zebrafish Abcb4 in cellular efflux of MC-LR. Transcripts of zebrafish abcb4 were detected in all of adult tissues examined. MC-LR was able to induce the expression of abcb4 gene and overexpression of Abcb4 significantly decreased the cytotoxicity and accumulation of MC-LR in LLC-PK1 cells and developing embryos. In contrast, overexpression of an Abcb4-G1177D mutant abolished its transporter function but not substrate binding activity, and sensitized LLC-PK1 cells and developing embryos to this cyanobacterial toxin. Moreover, ATPase activity in developing embryos can be induced by MC-LR. Thus, zebrafish Abcb4 plays crucial roles in cellular efflux of MC-LR and is a potential molecular marker for the monitoring of cyanobacteria contamination in the aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Lu
- Department of Genetics, School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei, China.
| | - Yong Long
- The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China.
| | - Rongze Sun
- Department of Genetics, School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei, China.
| | - Bolan Zhou
- The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China.
| | - Li Lin
- Department of Genetics, School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei, China.
| | - Shan Zhong
- Department of Genetics, School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei, China.
| | - Zongbin Cui
- The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China.
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Microcystin-LR induces anoikis resistance to the hepatocyte uptake transporter OATP1B3-expressing cell lines. Toxicology 2014; 326:53-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 10/05/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Xiong X, Zhong A, Xu H. Effect of cyanotoxins on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in male adult mouse. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106585. [PMID: 25375936 PMCID: PMC4222826 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microcystins LR (MC-LR) are hepatotoxic cyanotoxins that have been shown to induce reproductive toxicity, and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis (HPG) is responsible for the control of reproductive functions. However, few studies have been performed to evaluate the effects of MC-LR on HPG axis. This study aimed to investigate the MC-LR-induced toxicity in the reproductive system of mouse and focus on the HPG axis. METHODS Adult male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to various concentrations of MC-LR (0, 3.75, 7.50, 15.00 and 30.00 µg/kg body weight per day) for 1 to 14 days, and it was found that exposure to different concentrations of MC-LR significantly disturbed sperm production in the mice testes in a dose- and time-dependent manner. To elucidate the associated possible mechanisms, the serum levels of testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) were assessed. Meanwhile, PCR assays were employed to detect alterations in a series of genes involved in HPG axis, such as FSH, LH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and their complement receptors. Furthermore, the effect of MC-LR on the viability and testosterone production of Leydig cells were tested in vitro. RESULTS MC-LR significantly impaired the spermatogenesis of mice possibly through the direct or indirect inhibition of GnRH synthesis at the hypothalamic level, which resulted in reduction of serum levels of LH that lead to suppression of testosterone production in the testis of mice. CONCLUSIONS MC-LR may be a GnRH toxin that would disrupt the reproductive system of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolu Xiong
- Department of Endocrinology, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Anyuan Zhong
- Department of Respiratory Diseases, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Huajun Xu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Otolaryngology Institute of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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