Production and application of microbial cellulose

Wet and Dry Forms of Bacterial Cellulose Synthetized by Different Strains of Gluconacetobacter xylinus as Carriers for Yeast Immobilization

The present study aimed to explore and describe the properties of bacterial cellulose (BC) membranes obtained from three different strains of Gluconacetobacter xylinus for 72, 120, and 168 h, used as a carrier support for the immobilization of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The experiments also included the analysis of glucose consumption and alcohol production during the fermentation process displayed by yeasts immobilized on the BC surface. The results of the present study demonstrate that the number of immobilized yeast cells is dependent on the type of cellulose-synthesizing strain, cellulose form, and duration of its synthesis. The BC in the form of wet membranes obtained after 3 days of synthesis displayed the most favorable properties as a carrier for yeast immobilization. The immobilization of yeast cells on BC, regardless of its form, increased the amount of the produced alcohol as compared to free cells. The yeast cells immobilized in BC were able to multiply on its surface during the fermentation process.

All-biomaterial supercapacitor derived from bacterial cellulose

An all-biomaterial originated film supercapacitor has been successfully fabricated for the first time based on a unique three-dimensional bacterial cellulose (BC) derived electrode and a novel BC-based gel electrolyte. The obtained supercapacitor displays an excellent specific capacitance of 289 mF cm(-2) and an improved solution resistance of 7 Ω.

Isolation and identification of biocellulose-producing bacterial strains from Malaysian acidic fruits

Biocellulose (BC) is pure extracellular cellulose produced by several species of micro-organisms that has numerous applications in the food, biomedical and paper industries. However, the existing biocellulose-producing bacterial strain with high yield was limited. The aim of this study was to isolate and identify the potential biocellulose-producing bacterial isolates from Malaysian acidic fruits. One hundred and ninety-three bacterial isolates were obtained from 19 local acidic fruits collected in Malaysia and screened for their ability to produce BC. A total of 15 potential bacterial isolates were then cultured in standard Hestrin-Schramm (HS) medium statically at 30°C for 2 weeks to determine the BC production. The most potent bacterial isolates were identified using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, morphological and biochemical characteristics. Three new and potent biocellulose-producing bacterial strains were isolated from soursop fruit and identified as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia WAUPM42, Pantoea vagans WAUPM45 and Beijerinckia fluminensis WAUPM53. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia WAUPM42 was the most potent biocellulose-producing bacterial strain that produced the highest amount of BC 0·58 g l(-1) in standard HS medium. Whereas, the isolates P. vagans WAUPM45 and B. fluminensis WAUPM53 showed 0·50 and 0·52 g l(-1) of BC production, respectively.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Biocellulose (BC) is pure extracellular cellulose that is formed by many micro-organisms in the presence of carbon source and acidic condition. It can replace plant-based cellulose in multifarious applications due to its unique characteristics. In this study, three potential biocellulose-producing bacterial strains were obtained from Malaysian acidic fruits and identified as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia WAUPM42, Pantoea vagans WAUPM45 and Beijerinckia fluminensis WAUPM53. This study reports for the first time the new biocellulose-producing bacterial strains isolated from Malaysian acidic fruits.

Biosynthesis of Bacterial Cellulose/Carboxylic Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Enzymatic Biofuel Cell Application

Novel nanocomposites comprised of bacterial cellulose (BC) with carboxylic multi-walled carbon nanotubes (c-MWCNTs) incorporated into the BC matrix were prepared through a simple method of biosynthesis. The biocathode and bioanode for the enzyme biological fuel cell (EBFC) were prepared using BC/c-MWCNTs composite injected by laccase (Lac) and glucose oxidase (GOD) with the aid of glutaraldehyde (GA) crosslinking. Biosynthesis of BC/c-MWCNTs composite was characterized by digital photos, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR). The experimental results indicated the successful incorporation of c-MWCNTs into the BC. The electrochemical and biofuel performance were evaluated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV). The power density and current density of EBFCs were recorded at 32.98 µW/cm³ and 0.29 mA/cm³, respectively. Additionally, the EBFCs also showed acceptable stability. Preliminary tests on double cells indicated that renewable BC have great potential in the application field of EBFCs.

Optimization of bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus using carob and haricot bean

Bacterial cellulose (BC) can be used in medical, biomedical, electronic, food, and paper industries because of its unique properties distinguishing it from plant cellulose. BC production was statistically optimized by Gluconacetobacter xylinus strain using carob and haricot bean (CHb) medium. Eight parameters were evaluated by Plackett-Burman Design and significant three parameters were optimized by Central Composite Design. Optimal conditions for production of BC in static culture were found as: 2.5g/L carbon source, 2.75g/L protein source, 9.3% inoculum ratio, 1.15g/L citric acid, 2.7g/L Na2HPO4, 30°C incubation temperature, 5.5 initial pH, and 9days of incubation. This study reveals that BC production can be carried out using carob and haricot bean extracts as carbon and nitrogen sources, and CHb medium has higher buffering capacity compared to Hestrin and Schramm media. Model obtained from this study is used to predict and optimize BC production yield using CHb medium.

Cellulose Nanofibrils and Mechanism of their Mineralization in Biomimetic Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite/Native Bacterial Cellulose Nanocomposites: Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of a nanofibril of native bacterial cellulose (BC) in solutions of mineral ions is presented. The supersaturated calcium-phosphate (CP) solution with the ionic composition of hydroxyapatite and CaCl2 solutions with the concentrations below, equal to, and above the solubility limits are simulated. The influence of solvation models (TIP3P and TIP4P-ew water models) on structural characteristics of the simulated nanofibril and on the crystal nucleation process is assessed. The structural characteristics of cellulose nanofibrils (in particular, of the surface layer) are found to be nearly independent of the solvation models used in the simulation and on the presence of ions in the solutions. It is shown that ionic clusters are formed in the solution rather than on the fibril surface. The cluster sizes are slightly different for the two water models. The effect of the ion-ion interaction parameters on the results is discussed. The main conclusion is that the activity of hydroxyl groups on the BC fibril surface is not high enough to cause adsorption of Ca(2+) ions from the solution. Therefore, the nucleation of CP crystals takes place initially in solution, and then the crystallites formed can be adsorbed on BC nanofibril surfaces.

Time Dependent Influence of Rotating Magnetic Field on Bacterial Cellulose

The aim of the study was to assess the influence of rotating magnetic field (RMF) on the morphology, physicochemical properties, and the water holding capacity of bacterial cellulose (BC) synthetized by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. The cultures of G. xylinus were exposed to RMF of frequency that equals 50 Hz and magnetic induction 34 mT for 3, 5, and 7 days during cultivation at 28°C in the customized RMF exposure system. It was revealed that BC exposed for 3 days to RMF exhibited the highest water retention capacity as compared to the samples exposed for 5 and 7 days. The observation was confirmed for both the control and RMF exposed BC. It was proved that the BC exposed samples showed up to 26% higher water retention capacity as compared to the control samples. These samples also required the highest temperature to release the water molecules. Such findings agreed with the observation via SEM examination which revealed that the structure of BC synthesized for 7 days was more compacted than the sample exposed to RMF for 3 days. Furthermore, the analysis of 2D correlation of Fourier transform infrared spectra demonstrated the impact of RMF exposure on the dynamics of BC microfibers crystallinity formation.

The effect of bacterial cellulose membrane compared with collagen membrane on guided bone regeneration

PURPOSE

This study was to evaluate the effects of bacterial cellulose (BC) membranes as a barrier membrane on guided bone regeneration (GBR) in comparison with those of the resorbable collagen membranes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BC membranes were fabricated using biomimetic technology. Surface properties were analyzed, Mechanical properties were measured, in vitro cell proliferation test were performed with NIH3T3 cells and in vivo study were performed with rat calvarial defect and histomorphometric analysis was done. The Mann-Whitney U test and the Wilcoxon signed rank test was used (α<.05).

RESULTS

BC membrane showed significantly higher mechanical properties such as wet tensile strength than collagen membrane and represented a three-dimensional multilayered structure cross-linked by nano-fibers with 60 % porosity. In vitro study, cell adhesion and proliferation were observed on BC membrane. However, morphology of the cells was found to be less differentiated, and the cell proliferation rate was lower than those of the cells on collagen membrane. In vivo study, the grafted BC membrane did not induce inflammatory response, and maintained adequate space for bone regeneration. An amount of new bone formation in defect region loaded with BC membrane was significantly similar to that of collagen membrane application.

CONCLUSION

BC membrane has potential to be used as a barrier membrane, and efficacy of the membrane on GBR is comparable to that of collagen membrane.

Effect of Incubation Temperature on Growth of Acetobacter xylinum 0416 and Bacterial Cellulose Production

The objective of this research was to investigate the effect of incubation temperature towards the growth of Acetobacter xylinum 0416 and the production of bacterial cellulose. Fermentation of A.xylinum 0416 were carried out for 5 days in static condition using Hestrin & Schramm (HS) medium with initial glucose concentration of 4.0% (w/v) and initial pH of 6.4. The incubation temperature were varied at 5°C, 20°C, 25°C, 27°C, 28°C, 30°C, 35°C and 40°C respectively. Results indicated that 28°C served as the best incubation temperature for the growth of A.xylinum 0416 and produced the highest amount of bacterial cellulose with total dried weight of 0.3722 g/l. Meanwhile at incubation temperature of 5°C and 40°C, no significant growth of A.xylinum 0416 and bacterial cellulose were obtained. As a conclusion, incubation temperature plays an important role for the growth of A.xylinum 0416. The best incubation temperature is at 28°C in which the sufficient energy will be provided for bacterial growth thus enhancing the cellulose biosynthetic pathway in order to convert glucose into bacterial cellulose.

Gluconacetobacter sp. gel_SEA623-2, bacterial cellulose producing bacterium isolated from citrus fruit juice

Cellulose producing bacterial strain was isolated from citrus fruit juice fungus. The isolated strain was identified as Gluconacetobacter sp. gel_SEA623-2 based on several morphological characteristics, biochemical tests, and 16S rRNA conducted. Culture conditions for bacterial cellulose production by SEA623-2 were screened in static trays. Conditions were extensively optimized by varying the kind of fruit juice, pH, sugar concentration, and temperature for maximum cellulose production. SEA623-2 has a high productive capacity in citrus processing medium, but not in other fruits. The optimal combination of the media constituents for bacterial cellulose production is as follows: 10% citrus juice, 10% sucrose, 1% acetic acid, and 1% ethanol at 30 °C, pH 3.5. Bacterial cellulose produced by SEA623-2 has soft physical properties, high tensile strength, and high water retention value. The cellulose produced by the selected bacteria is suitable as a cosmetic and medical material.

Antimicrobial functionalization of bacterial nanocellulose by loading with polihexanide and povidone-iodine

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is chemically identical with plant cellulose but free of byproducts like lignin, pectin, and hemicelluloses, featuring a unique reticulate network of fine fibers. BNC sheets are mostly obtained by static cultivation. Now, a Horizontal Lift Reactor may provide a cost efficient method for mass production. This is of particular interest as BNC features several properties of an ideal wound dressing although it exhibits no bactericidal activity. Therefore, BNC was functionalized with the antiseptics povidone-iodine (PI) and polihexanide (PHMB). Drug loading and release, mechanical characteristics, biocompatibility, and antimicrobial efficacy were investigated. Antiseptics release was based on diffusion and swelling according to Ritger-Peppas equation. PI-loaded BNC demonstrated a delayed release compared to PHMB due to a high molar drug mass and structural changes induced by PI insertion into BNC that also increased the compressive strength of BNC samples. Biological assays demonstrated high biocompatibility of PI-loaded BNC in human keratinocytes but a distinctly lower antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus compared to PHMB-loaded BNC. Overall, BNC loaded with PHMB demonstrated a better therapeutic window. Moreover, compressive and tensile strength were not changed by incorporation of PHMB into BNC, and solidity during loading and release could be confirmed.

Bacterial Cellulose Production from Industrial Waste and by-Product Streams

The utilization of fermentation media derived from waste and by-product streams from biodiesel and confectionery industries could lead to highly efficient production of bacterial cellulose. Batch fermentations with the bacterial strain Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans DSM (Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen) 15973 were initially carried out in synthetic media using commercial sugars and crude glycerol. The highest bacterial cellulose concentration was achieved when crude glycerol (3.2 g/L) and commercial sucrose (4.9 g/L) were used. The combination of crude glycerol and sunflower meal hydrolysates as the sole fermentation media resulted in bacterial cellulose production of 13.3 g/L. Similar results (13 g/L) were obtained when flour-rich hydrolysates produced from confectionery industry waste streams were used. The properties of bacterial celluloses developed when different fermentation media were used showed water holding capacities of 102-138 g · water/g · dry bacterial cellulose, viscosities of 4.7-9.3 dL/g, degree of polymerization of 1889.1-2672.8, stress at break of 72.3-139.5 MPa and Young's modulus of 0.97-1.64 GPa. This study demonstrated that by-product streams from the biodiesel industry and waste streams from confectionery industries could be used as the sole sources of nutrients for the production of bacterial cellulose with similar properties as those produced with commercial sources of nutrients.

Development of silver sulfadiazine loaded bacterial cellulose/sodium alginate composite films with enhanced antibacterial property

Sodium alginate (SA) and bacterial cellulose (BC) are widely used in many applications such as scaffolds and wound dressings due to its biocompatibility. Silver sulfadiazine (AgSD) is a topical antibacterial agents used as a topical cream on burns. In the study, novel BC/SA-AgSD composites were prepared and characterized by SEM, FTIR and TG analyses. These results indicate AgSD successfully impregnated into BC/SA matrix. The swelling behaviors in different pH were studied and the results showed pH-responsive swelling behaviors. The antibacterial performances of BC/SA-AgSD composites were evaluated with Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of BC/SA-AgSD composites was performed on HEK 293 cells. The experimental results showed BC/SA-AgSD composites have excellent antibacterial activities and good biocompatibility, thus confirming its utility as potential wound dressings.

Preliminary Study on Biosynthesis of Bacterial Nanocellulose Tubes in a Novel Double-Silicone-Tube Bioreactor for Potential Vascular Prosthesis

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has demonstrated a tempting prospect for applications in substitute of small blood vessels. However, present technology is inefficient in production and BNC tubes have a layered structure that may bring danger after implanting. Double oxygen-permeable silicone tubes in different diameters were therefore used as a tube-shape mold and also as oxygenated supports to construct a novel bioreactor for production of the tubular BNC materials. Double cannula technology was used to produce tubular BNC via cultivations with Acetobacter xylinum, and Kombucha, a symbiosis of acetic acid bacteria and yeasts. The results indicated that Kombucha gave higher yield and productivity of BNC than A. xylinum. Bacterial nanocellulose was simultaneously synthesized both on the inner surface of the outer silicone tube and on the outer surface of the inner silicone tube. Finally, the nano BNC fibrils from two directions formed a BNC tube with good structural integrity. Scanning electron microscopy inspection showed that the tubular BNC had a multilayer structure in the beginning but finally it disappeared and an intact BNC tube formed. The mechanical properties of BNC tubes were comparable with the reported value in literatures, demonstrating a great potential in vascular implants or in functional substitutes in biomedicine.

Enhancing T-DNA Transfer Efficiency in Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Cells Using Extracellular Cellulose and Lectin

A major limitation of transforming barley tissues by Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the low frequency of T-DNA transfer due to recalcitrance of barley as a host. The effect of extracellular cellulose and lectin on Agrobacterium transformation efficiency was investigated in this study. Barley callus cultures were transformed with the AGL1 strain containing the vector pBI121 in the presence of 10 mg mL(-1) cellulose or 0.001, 0.05 and 0.1 mg mL(-1) lectin. Addition of cellulose significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased the number of GUS spots by 50 % compared to standard conditions in the presence of only 200 μM acetosyringone (AS). Frequency of G418-resistant aggregates on the surfaces of callus cultures was 29 and 71.5 %, following AS and AS + cellulose treatments, respectively, after 4 weeks of selection. Presence of 0.05 or 0.1 mg mL(-1) lectin also increased the number of GUS spots and frequency of G418-resistant cells in the selection period, but the increase in blue spots was not significant. We examined the effect of lectin and cellulose on bacterial attachment to callus tissues. Both cellulose and lectin were found to have a significant positive effect on the numbers of bacteria attached to barley callus. Epifluorescence microscopy revealed that Agrobacterium cells had accumulated in the scaffolds of irregular fibrous cellulose with a mean particle size of 200 μm. Expression of nptII in transformed callus lines confirmed the stable transformation of the gene. Our study showed for the first time the binding of Agrobacterium cells to fibrous cellulose and also demonstrated how polysaccharides and glycoproteins can be used to improve T-DNA transfer in monocotyledon transformation procedures.

Stabilization of Pickering Emulsions by Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibrils

In order to develop safe and sustainable food and pharmaceutical emulsions, bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibrils were prepared to stabilize maize oil/water Pickering emulsions. The influence of BC content and pH value on the emulsion stability was explored. Droplet diameters decreased with BC contents in emulsions. At pH 12, the emulsions were most stable among all tested pH values. The transformation of emulsion structure from liquid to gel-like at 8-15°C with BC content higher than 1.55 g/L is predominantly depended on the viscoelastic entangled BC network. These results can have meaningful inspiration of designing edible food and pharmaceutical emulsions.

Production of bacterial cellulose membranes in a modified airlift bioreactor by Gluconacetobacter xylinus

In this study, a novel bioreactor for producing bacterial cellulose (BC) is proposed. Traditional BC production uses static culture conditions and produces a gelatinous membrane. The potential for using various types of bioreactor, including a stirred tank, conventional airlift, and modified airlift with a rectangular wire-mesh draft tube, in large-scale production has been investigated. The BC obtained from these bioreactors is fibrous or in pellet form. Our proposed airlift bioreactor produces a membrane-type BC from Gluconacetobacter xylinus, the water-holding capacity of which is greater than that of cellulose types produced using static cultivation methods. The Young's modulus of the product can be manipulated by varying the number of net plates in the modified airlift bioreactor. The BC membrane produced using the proposed bioreactor exhibits potential for practical application.

The characteristics of bacterial nanocellulose gel releasing silk sericin for facial treatment

BACKGROUND

Recently, naturally derived facial masks with beneficial biological properties have received increasing interest. In this study, silk sericin-releasing bacterial nanocellulose gel was developed to be applied as a bioactive mask for facial treatment.

RESULTS

The silk sericin-releasing bacterial nanocellulose gel produced at a pH of 4.5 had an ultrafine and extremely pure fiber network structure. The mechanical properties and moisture absorption ability of the gel were improved, compared to those of the commercially available paper mask. Silk sericin could be control-released from the gel. A peel test with porcine skin showed that the gel was less adhesive than the commercially available paper mask, which would be removed from the face more easily without pain. The in vitro cytotoxicity test showed that the gel was not toxic to L929 mouse fibroblast and HaCaT human keratinocyte cells. Furthermore, when implanted subcutaneously and evaluated according to ISO10993-6 standard, the gel was not irritant to tissue.

CONCLUSION

The silk sericin-releasing bacterial nanocellulose gel had appropriate physical and biological properties and safety for the facial treatment application.

Hierarchical structure in microbial cellulose: what happens during the drying process

We present a time-resolved investigation of the natural drying process of microbial cellulose (MC) by means of simultaneous small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), intermediate-angle neutron scattering (IANS) and weighing techniques. SANS was used to elucidate the microscopic structure of the MC sample. The coherent scattering length density of the water penetrating amorphous domains varied with time during the drying process to give a tunable scattering contrast to the water-resistant cellulose crystallites, thus the contrast variation was automatically performed by simply drying. IANS and weighing techniques were used to follow the macroscopic structural changes of the sample, i.e., the composition variation and the loss of the water. Thus, both the structure and composition changes during the whole drying process were resolved. In particular, the quantitative crosscheck of composition variation by IANS and weighing provides a full description of the drying process. Our results show that: i) The natural drying process could be divided into three time regions: a 3-dimensional shrinkage in region I, a 1-dimensional shrinkage along the thickness of the sample in region II, and completion in region III; ii) the further crystallization and aggregation of the cellulose fibrils are observed in both the rapid drying and natural drying methods, and the rapid drying even induces obvious structural changes in the length scale of 7-125 nm; iii) the amount of "bound water", which is an extremely thin layer of water surrounding the surfaces of cellulose fibrils, was estimated to be ∼ 0.35 wt% by the weighing measurement and was verified by the quantitative analysis of SANS results.

Laccase-assisted grafting of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) onto the bacterial cellulose as backbone polymer: development and characterisation

Bacterial cellulose (BC) exhibits high purity, mechanical strength and an ultra-fine fibrous 3-D network structure with bio-compatible and bio-degradable characteristics, while P(3 HB) are a bio-degradable matrix material derived from natural resources. Herein, we report a mild and eco-friendly fabrication of indigenously isolated P(3 HB) based novel composites consisting of BC (a straight-chain polysaccharide) as a backbone polymer and laccase was used as a grafting tool. The resulting composites were characterised by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analyser (DMA) and water contact angle analyser (WCA). The FTIR spectra of the pure P(3 HB) and P(3 HB) containing graft composites [P(3 HB)-g-BC] showed their strong characteristic bands at 3358 cm(-1), 1721 cm(-1) and 1651 cm(-1), respectively. A homogenous dispersion of P(3 HB) in the backbone polymer of BC was achieved as evident by the SEM micrographs. XRD pattern for P(3 HB) showed distinct peaks at 2θ values that represent the crystalline nature of P(3 HB). While, in comparison with those of neat P(3 HB), the degree of crystallinity for P(3 HB)-g-BC decreased and this reduction is mainly because of the new cross-linking of P(3 HB) within the backbone polymer that changes the morphology and destroys the crystallites. Laccase-assisted graft composite prepared from P(3 HB) and BC was fairly flexible and strong, judged by the tensile strength (64.5 MPa), elongations at break (15.7%), and Young's modulus (0.98 GPa) because inherently high strength of BC allowed the mechanical properties of P(3 HB) to improve in the P(3 HB)-g-BC composite. The hydrophilic property of the P(3 HB)-g-BC was much better than that of the individual counterparts which is also a desired characteristic to enhance the biocompatibility of the materials for proper cell adhesion and proliferation.

Production of bacterial cellulose using different carbon sources and culture media

In this work, the effects of carbon sources and culture media on the production and structural properties of bacterial cellulose (BC) have been studied. BC nanofibers were synthesized using Gluconacetobacter xylinus strain PTCC 1734. Media used were Hestrin-Schramm (H), Yamanaka (Y), and Zhou (Z). Five different carbon sources, namely date syrup, glucose, mannitol, sucrose, and food-grade sucrose were used in these media. All the produced BC pellicles were characterized in terms of dry weight production, biomass yield, thermal stability, crystallinity and morphology by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), x-ray diffraction (XRD), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The obtained results showed that mannitol lead to the highest yield, followed by sucrose. The highest production efficiency of mannitol might be due to the nitrogen source, which plays an important role. The maximum improvement on the thermal stability of the composites was achieved when mannitol was used in H medium. In addition, the crystallinity was higher in BC formed in H medium compared to other media. FE-SEM micrographs illustrated that the BC pellicles, synthesized in the culture media H and Z, were stable, unlike those in medium Y that were unstable. The micrographs of BC produced in media containing mannitol and sucrose provided evidence of the strong interfacial adhesion between the BC fibers without noticeable aggregates.

Surface modification of cellulose nanocrystals

Chemical modification of cellulose nanocrystals is an increasingly popular topic in the literature. This review analyses the type of cellulose nanocrystal modification reactions that have been published in the literature thus far and looks at the steps that have been taken towards analysing the products of the nanocrystal modifications. The main categories of reactions carried out on cellulose nanocrystals are oxidations, esterifications, amidations, carbamations and etherifications. More recently nucleophilic substitutions have been used to introduce more complex functionality to cellulose nanocrystals. Multi-step modifications are also considered. This review emphasizes quantification of modification at the nanocrystal surface in terms of degree of substitution and the validity of conclusions drawn from different analysis techniques in this area. The mechanisms of the modification reactions are presented and considered with respect to the effect on the outcome of the reactions. While great strides have been made in the quality of analytical data published in the field of cellulose nanocrystal modification, there is still vast scope for improvement, both in data quality and the quality of analysis of data. Given the difficulty of surface analysis, cross-checking of results from different analysis techniques is fundamental for the development of reliable cellulose nanocrystal modification techniques.

Topological characterization of a bacterial cellulose-acrylic acid polymeric matrix

This paper focuses on the micro- and nano-topological organization of a hydrogel, constituted by a mixture of bacterial cellulose and acrylic acid, and intended for biomedical applications. The presence of acrylic acid promotes the formation of two interpenetrated continuous phases: the primary "pores phase" (PP) containing only water and the secondary "polymeric network phase" (PNP) constituted by the polymeric network swollen by the water. Low field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (LF NMR), rheology, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and release tests were used to determine the characteristics of the two phases. In particular, we found that this system is a strong hydrogel constituted by 81% (v/v) of PP phase the remaining part being occupied by the PNP phase. Pores diameters span in the range 10-100 μm, the majority of them (85%) falling in the range 30-90 μm. The high PP phase tortuosity indicates that big pores are not directly connected to each other, but their connection is realized by a series of interconnected small pores that rend the drug path tortuous. The PNP is characterized by a polymer volume fraction around 0.73 while mesh size is around 3 nm. The theoretical interpretation of the experimental data coming from the techniques panel adopted, yielded to the micro- and nano-organization of our hydrogel.

Do bacterial cellulose membranes have potential in drug-delivery systems?

INTRODUCTION

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is an extremely pure form of cellulose, which, due to its unique properties, such as high purity, water-holding capacity, three-dimensional nanofibrilar network, mechanical strength, biodegradability and biocompatibility, shows a high potential as nanomaterial in a wide range of high-tech domains including biomedical applications, and most notably in controlled drug-delivery systems.

AREAS COVERED

This appraisal is intended to cover the major characteristics of BC, followed by the key aspects of BC production both in static and agitated conditions, and a glance of the major applications of BC, giving some emphasis to biomedical applications. Finally, a detailed discussion of the different applications of BC in controlled drug-delivery systems will be put forward, with focus on topical and oral drug-delivery systems, using either native BC or composite materials thereof.

EXPERT OPINION

The limited number of studies carried out so far demonstrated that BC, or materials prepared from it, are interesting materials for drug-delivery systems. There is, however, a large field of systematic research ahead to develop new and more selectively responsive materials and eventually to conjugate them with other biomedical applications of BC under development.

Characteristics and anticancer properties of bacterial cellulose films containing ethanolic extract of mangosteen peel

Bacterial cellulose (BC) films containing an ethanolic extract of mangosteen peel were prepared and their physical, chemical, and anticancer properties were characterized. The cumulative absorption and release profiles of bioactive compounds in the films were determined based on total phenolic and α-mangostin content. The BC films were filled with total phenolic compounds expressed as gallic acid equivalent varying from 4.72 to 275.91 mg/cm3 dried film, and α-mangostin varying from 2.06 to 248.20 mg/cm3 dried film. A Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy evaluation showed that there were weak interactions between the functional groups of the extract and the BC. Decreases in the water absorption capacity and water vapor transmission rate of the modified films were detected. Release studies were performed using Franz diffusion cells. In a non-transdermal system, the release of bioactive compounds from the films depended on concentration, immersion time, and the pH of the dissolution medium. A transdermal diffusion study showed that 59-62% of total phenolic compounds that were initially loaded were released from the films and more than 95% of bioactive compounds released from the films were adsorbed into pig skin. Only very small amount of the bioactive compounds penetrated through pig skin and into phosphate and acetate buffers. In studies of anticancer abilities, the release of 2.0 μg/ml α-mangostin from the BC films could suppress the growth of B16F10 melanoma (approximately 31% survival). With the release of α-mangostin at greater than 17.4-18.4 μg/ml, less than 15 and 5% survival of B16F10 melanoma and MCF-7 breast cancer cells, respectively, was observed.

Characterization of purified bacterial cellulose focused on its use on paper restoration

Bacterial cellulose (BC) synthesized by Gluconacetobacter sucrofermentans CECT 7291 seems to be a good option for the restoration of degraded paper. In this work BC layers are cultivated and purified by two different methods: an alkaline treatment when the culture media contains ethanol and a thermal treatment if the media is free from ethanol. The main goal of these tests was the characterization of BC layers measured in terms of tear and burst indexes, optical properties, SEM, X-ray diffraction, FTIR, degree of polymerization, static and dynamic contact angles, and mercury intrusion porosimetry. The BC layers were also evaluated in the same terms after an aging treatment. Results showed that BC has got high crystallinity index, low internal porosity, good mechanical properties and high stability over time, especially when purified by the alkaline treatment. These features make BC an adequate candidate for degraded paper reinforcement.

A novel biomaterial: bacterial cellulose and its new era applications

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a promising natural polymer that is produced by bacteria and that has unique and desirable structural, physical, and chemical properties. From the time when the remarkable properties of BC were found 15 years ago compared with plant cellulose, interest has grown in BC and it has become an article of trade in diverse applications. Following this trend, this paper reviews the progress of relevant studies, including general information about cellulose, production by microorganisms as well as BC cultivation, and its properties. The applications reviewed in the present article comprise biological and nonbiological fields. The latest use of BC in the biomedical, environmental, agricultural, electronic, food, and industrial fields is discussed with its applications in composite form. The present article attempts to amass the assorted uses of BC under one umbrella. Thus, recent advances in BC applications in different fields are thoroughly reviewed. This article concludes with the need for future research of BC to make it commercialized as vital biomaterial.

Affibody conjugation onto bacterial cellulose tubes and bioseparation of human serum albumin

We attached anti-human serum albumin (anti-HSA) affibody ligands on bacterial cellulose (BC) by EDC–NHS-mediated covalent conjugation and physical adsorption and demonstrate their application for tubular biofiltration of blood proteins.