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152
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Zhang X, Jin G, Li W, Zou L, Shi J, Qin J, Tian M, Li H. Ectopic neurogenesis in the forebrain cholinergic system-related areas of a rat dementia model. Stem Cells Dev 2011; 20:1627-38. [PMID: 21142974 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2010.0285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lesions to the fimbria fornix (FiFx) plus cingulate bundle (CB), the principal routes of communication of forebrain cholinergic regions, produce lasting impairment of spatial learning and memory in mice. We report that extensive neurogenesis takes place in the FiFx, CB, and basalis magnocellularis following FiFx plus CB transection. Immunofluorescence revealed that nestin-expressing cells were present in all 3 areas following lesion; the majority of nestin-positive cells were also positive for 5-bromo-2-deoxy-uridine, a marker of DNA synthesis. Nestin-positive proliferative cells were almost entirely absent from unlesioned tissue. Neurospheres cultured in vitro from lesioned FiFx displayed the characteristics of neural stem cells--proliferation, expression of embryonic markers, and multipotential differentiation into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. At early stages after transection, a small number of immature and migrating doublecortin-immunopositive neurons were detected in lesioned FiFx, where neuronal cell bodies are normally absent. At later stages, postlesion immature neurons developed into β-tubulin III-positive mature neurons. Lentivirus labeling assay implied that the injury-induced neurogenesis in FiFx may be from local neurogenic astrocytes but not from dentate gyrus. These results demonstrate that insult to cholinergic tracts can stimulate neural stem cell proliferation and neuronal regeneration not only in innervated regions but also in the projection pathways themselves. Ectopic neurogenesis in cholinergic system-related areas provides an additional mechanism for repair of cholinergic innervation following damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhua Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong City, Jiangsu, China
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153
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Prospects and limitations of using endogenous neural stem cells for brain regeneration. Genes (Basel) 2011; 2:107-30. [PMID: 24710140 PMCID: PMC3924842 DOI: 10.3390/genes2010107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) are capable of producing a variety of neural cell types, and are indispensable for the development of the mammalian brain. NSCs can be induced in vitro from pluripotent stem cells, including embryonic stem cells and induced-pluripotent stem cells. Although the transplantation of these exogenous NSCs is a potential strategy for improving presently untreatable neurological conditions, there are several obstacles to its implementation, including tumorigenic, immunological, and ethical problems. Recent studies have revealed that NSCs also reside in the adult brain. The endogenous NSCs are activated in response to disease or trauma, and produce new neurons and glia, suggesting they have the potential to regenerate damaged brain tissue while avoiding the above-mentioned problems. Here we present an overview of the possibility and limitations of using endogenous NSCs in regenerative medicine.
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154
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The selective ablation of inflammation in an acute stage of ischemic stroke may be a new strategy to promote neurogenesis. Med Hypotheses 2011; 76:1-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2010.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Revised: 07/25/2010] [Accepted: 07/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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155
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Arias-Salvatierra D, Silbergeld EK, Acosta-Saavedra LC, Calderon-Aranda ES. Role of nitric oxide produced by iNOS through NF-κB pathway in migration of cerebellar granule neurons induced by Lipopolysaccharide. Cell Signal 2010; 23:425-35. [PMID: 20955790 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2010.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Accepted: 10/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory stimulus during development increases the risk for adverse neurologic outcome. One possible mechanism is disrupting neuronal migration. Using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treatment to assess inflammatory stimulus on neuronal migration of cerebellar granule neurons, we previously found that LPS-activation increased the neuronal migration. The precise mechanisms behind these effects have not been investigated. Independently, it was shown that nitric oxide (NO(•-)) regulates neuronal migration during development, that NO(•-) is produced by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in response to LPS through the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB, and that LPS induce the expression of genes under the transcriptional control of NF-κB in primary cultures from developing mouse cerebellum. To investigate the relationship between these events, we used this culture model to study the role of NO(•-) produced by iNOS through NF-κB signaling pathway, in the effect of LPS on neuron migration. LPS increased NO(•-) production, iNOS protein levels and NF-κB nuclear levels; concomitantly with NO(•-) production, LPS increased the neuronal migration as compared to non stimulated cultures. The necessary roles of the NO(•-) and iNOS were demonstrated by chelating of NO(•-) with hemoglobin and the inhibition of iNOS by 1400W. Each of these treatments reduced neuronal migration induced by LPS. The role of NF-κB was showed by using the inhibitor JSH-23, which decreased NO(•-) production and neuronal migration in LPS activated cultures. These results suggest that neuronal migration during development is susceptible to be modified by pro-inflammatory stimulus such as LPS through intracellular pathways associated with their receptors.
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156
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Abstract
Current treatments for stroke, such as the use of thrombolytic agents, are often limited by a narrow therapeutic time window. However, the regeneration of the brain after damage is still active days even weeks after stroke occurs, which might provide a second window for treatment. Cell-based therapy can be categorized into two strategies. One is transplantation of exogenous cells into the injured brain to replace the lost cells or support the remaining cells. The other strategy is to enhance the proliferation, differentiation, migration of endogenous stem or progenitor cells. Recent development in adult stem cell research and advancement in the induction of pluripotent stem cells from somatic adult cells provide a tremendous opportunity for transplantation therapy. Understanding the mechanisms and regulations involved in the endogenous neurogenesis will also help develop novel therapeutic interventions to promote neurogenesis and functional recovery in stroke. This review describes up-to-date progresses in cell-based therapy for the treatment of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Luo
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, I.R.P., 251 Bayview BLVD, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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157
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Gao YJ, Ji RR. Targeting astrocyte signaling for chronic pain. Neurotherapeutics 2010; 7:482-93. [PMID: 20880510 PMCID: PMC2950097 DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2010.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2010] [Revised: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 05/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical management of chronic pain after nerve injury (neuropathic pain) and tumor invasion (cancer pain) is a real challenge due to our limited understanding of the cellular mechanisms that initiate and maintain chronic pain. It has been increasingly recognized that glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes in the CNS play an important role in the development and maintenance of chronic pain. Notably, astrocytes make very close contacts with synapses and astrocyte reaction after nerve injury, arthritis, and tumor growth is more persistent than microglial reaction, and displays a better correlation with chronic pain behaviors. Accumulating evidence indicates that activated astrocytes can release pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin [IL]-1β) and chemokines (e.g., monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [MCP-1]/also called CCL2) in the spinal cord to enhance and prolong persistent pain states. IL-1β can powerfully modulate synaptic transmission in the spinal cord by enhancing excitatory synaptic transmission and suppressing inhibitory synaptic transmission. IL-1β activation (cleavage) in the spinal cord after nerve injury requires the matrix metalloprotease-2. In particular, nerve injury and inflammation activate the c-Jun N-terminal kinase in spinal astrocytes, leading to a substantial increase in the expression and release of MCP-1. The MCP-1 increases pain sensitivity via direct activation of NMDA receptors in dorsal horn neurons. Pharmacological inhibition of the IL-1β, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, MCP-1, or matrix metalloprotease-2 signaling via spinal administration has been shown to attenuate inflammatory, neuropathic, or cancer pain. Therefore, interventions in specific signaling pathways in astrocytes may offer new approaches for the management of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Jing Gao
- grid.62560.370000000403788294Department of Anesthesiology, Sensory Plasticity Laboratory, Pain Research Center, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ru-Rong Ji
- grid.62560.370000000403788294Department of Anesthesiology, Sensory Plasticity Laboratory, Pain Research Center, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
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158
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Strecker JK, Minnerup J, Sevimli S, Ringelstein EB, Schäbitz WR, Schilling M. Investigation of neuronal progenitor cell origin after transient focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Neurosci Res 2010; 68:256-9. [PMID: 20708042 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Following cerebral ischemia both neuronal precursors and hematogenous cells migrate along chemokine gradients towards the injured tissue. Bone marrow derived cells are involved in the stroke related inflammatory and restaurative processes and newly born neurons are known to proliferate and migrate from the subventricular zone to the ischemic lesion. In the present study, we investigated whether hematogenous cells contribute to subpopulations of neuronal precursors using green fluorescent protein-transgenic bone marrow chimeric mice. In our experiments we found no blood-borne neuronal precursors within the ischemic site indicating that detected neuronal progenitor cells are only of brain parenchymal origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Kolja Strecker
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Münster, D-48129 Münster, Germany.
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159
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Yao Y, Tsirka SE. The C terminus of mouse monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) mediates MCP1 dimerization while blocking its chemotactic potency. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:31509-16. [PMID: 20682771 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.124891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The extracellular protease plasmin cleaves mouse MCP1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein 1) at lysine 104, releasing a 50-amino acid C-terminal domain. The cleavage event increases the chemotactic activity of MCP1 and, by doing so, promotes the progression of excitotoxic injury in the central nervous system in pathological settings. The mechanism through which the cleavage event enhances MCP1-mediated chemoattraction is unknown; to investigate it, we use wild-type and mutant forms of recombinant MCP1. Full-length MCP1 (FL-MCP1) is secreted by cells as a dimer or multimer. We show that a mutant truncated at the C terminus, K104Stop-MCP1, does not dimerize, revealing that the C terminus mediates the interaction. MCP1 interacts with the monocyte/microglia receptor CCR2. The interaction is critical to the function of MCP1 because CCR2(-/-) microglia do not undergo chemotaxis in response to MCP1 stimulation. We show that stimulation of microglia with FL-MCP1 or K104Stop-MCP1 triggers CCR2 internalization, whereas a mutant form unable to be cleaved at lysine 104 (K104A-MCP1) is relatively ineffective in this assay, suggesting that the C-terminal region interferes with the MCP1-CCR2 interaction. Moreover, FL-MCP1 and K104Stop-MCP1 stimulation leads to activation of Rac1, a small GTPase involved in cell migration. Conversely, MCP1-stimulated microglial migration is blocked by the Rac1 inhibitor, NSC23766, demonstrating the requirement for Rac1 effector pathways in this response. Taken together, we propose a model for MCP1 localization, activation, and function based on the initial presence and then removal of its C terminus, coupled with a requisite downstream signaling pathway from CCR2 stimulation to Rac1 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Yao
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-8651, USA
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160
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Füchtbauer L, Toft-Hansen H, Khorooshi R, Owens T. Expression of Astrocytic Type 2 Angiotensin Receptor in Central Nervous System Inflammation Correlates With Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown. J Mol Neurosci 2010; 42:89-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-010-9371-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Tate CC, Fonck C, McGrogan M, Case CC. Human mesenchymal stromal cells and their derivative, SB623 cells, rescue neural cells via trophic support following in vitro ischemia. Cell Transplant 2010; 19:973-84. [PMID: 20350349 DOI: 10.3727/096368910x494885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell transplantation is a promising treatment strategy for many neurological disorders, including stroke, which can target multiple therapeutic mechanisms in a sustained fashion. We investigated the ability of human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and MSC-derived SB623 cells to rescue neural cells via trophic support following an in vitro stroke model. Following oxygen glucose deprivation, cortical neurons or hippocampal slices were cocultured with either MSCs or SB623 cells separated by a semiporous membrane (prohibits cell-cell contact) or with MSC- or SB623 cell-conditioned medium. MSCs, SB623 cells, MSC-conditioned media, and SB623 cell-conditioned media all significantly reduced neural cell damage/death compared to untreated conditions, and the rescue effect of the conditioned media was dose dependent. We identified 11 neurotrophic factors secreted by MSCs and/or SB623 cells. This study emphasizes the importance of trophic support provided by marrow-derived cells, which likely contributes to the efficacy of cell therapy for brain injury.
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162
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Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors have crucial roles in the trafficking of leukocytes, and are of particular interest in the context of the unique immune responses elicited in the central nervous system (CNS). The chemokine system CC ligand 2 (CCL2) with its receptor CC receptor 2 (CCR2), as well as the receptor CXCR2 and its multiple ligands CXCL1, CXCL2 and CXCL8, have been implicated in a wide range of neuropathologies, including trauma, ischemic injury and multiple sclerosis. This review aims to overview the current understanding of chemokines as mediators of leukocyte migration into the CNS under neuroinflammatory conditions. We will specifically focus on the involvement of two chemokine networks, namely CCL2/CCR2 and CXCL8/CXCR2, in promoting macrophage and neutrophil infiltration, respectively, into the lesioned parenchyma after focal traumatic brain injury. The constitutive brain expression of these chemokines and their receptors, including their recently identified roles in the modulation of neuroprotection, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission, will be discussed. In conclusion, the value of evidence obtained from the use of Ccl2- and Cxcr2-deficient mice will be reported, in the context of potential therapeutics inhibiting chemokine activity which are currently in clinical trial for various inflammatory diseases.
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163
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Fishell G, Goldman JE. A silver lining to stroke: does ischemia generate new cortical interneurons? Nat Neurosci 2010; 13:145-6. [PMID: 20104204 DOI: 10.1038/nn0210-145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gord Fishell
- Gord Fishell is in the Department of Cell Biology and the Smilow Neuroscience Program, Smilow Research Center, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.
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164
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Gao YJ, Ji RR. Chemokines, neuronal-glial interactions, and central processing of neuropathic pain. Pharmacol Ther 2010; 126:56-68. [PMID: 20117131 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Millions of people worldwide suffer from neuropathic pain as a result of damage to or dysfunction of the nervous system under various disease conditions. Development of effective therapeutic strategies requires a better understanding of molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain. It has been increasingly recognized that spinal cord glial cells such as microglia and astrocytes play a critical role in the induction and maintenance of neuropathic pain by releasing powerful neuromodulators such as proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Recent evidence reveals chemokines as new players in pain control. In this article, we review evidence for chemokine modulation of pain via neuronal-glial interactions by focusing on the central role of two chemokines, CX3CL1 (fractalkine) and CCL2 (MCP-1), because they differentially regulate neuronal-glial interactions. Release of CX3CL1 from neurons is ideal to mediate neuronal-to-microglial signaling, since the sole receptor of this chemokine, CX3CR1, is expressed in spinal microglia and activation of the receptor leads to phosphorylation of p38 MAP kinase in microglia. Although CCL2 was implicated in neuronal-to-microglial signaling, a recent study shows a novel role of CCL2 in astroglial-to-neuronal signaling after nerve injury. In particular, CCL2 rapidly induces central sensitization by increasing the activity of NMDA receptors in dorsal horn neurons. Insights into the role of chemokines in neuronal-glial interactions after nerve injury will identify new targets for therapeutic intervention of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Jing Gao
- Pain Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
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165
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Lindvall O, Kokaia Z. Stem cells in human neurodegenerative disorders--time for clinical translation? J Clin Invest 2010; 120:29-40. [PMID: 20051634 PMCID: PMC2798697 DOI: 10.1172/jci40543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 457] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell-based approaches have received much hype as potential treatments for neurodegenerative disorders. Indeed, transplantation of stem cells or their derivatives in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases can improve function by replacing the lost neurons and glial cells and by mediating remyelination, trophic actions, and modulation of inflammation. Endogenous neural stem cells are also potential therapeutic targets because they produce neurons and glial cells in response to injury and could be affected by the degenerative process. As we discuss here, however, significant hurdles remain before these findings can be responsibly translated to novel therapies. In particular, we need to better understand the mechanisms of action of stem cells after transplantation and learn how to control stem cell proliferation, survival, migration, and differentiation in the pathological environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olle Lindvall
- Address correspondence to: Olle Lindvall, Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Cell Therapy, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, University Hospital, SE-221 84, Lund, Sweden. Phone: 46-46-222-0543; Fax: 46-46-222-0560; E-mail:
| | - Zaal Kokaia
- Address correspondence to: Olle Lindvall, Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Cell Therapy, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, University Hospital, SE-221 84, Lund, Sweden. Phone: 46-46-222-0543; Fax: 46-46-222-0560; E-mail:
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166
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Foresti ML, Arisi GM, Katki K, Montañez A, Sanchez RM, Shapiro LA. Chemokine CCL2 and its receptor CCR2 are increased in the hippocampus following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. J Neuroinflammation 2009; 6:40. [PMID: 20034406 PMCID: PMC2804573 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-6-40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Neuroinflammation occurs after seizures and is implicated in epileptogenesis. CCR2 is a chemokine receptor for CCL2 and their interaction mediates monocyte infiltration in the neuroinflammatory cascade triggered in different brain pathologies. In this work CCR2 and CCL2 expression were examined following status epilepticus (SE) induced by pilocarpine injection. Methods SE was induced by pilocarpine injection. Control rats were injected with saline instead of pilocarpine. Five days after SE, CCR2 staining in neurons and glial cells was examined using imunohistochemical analyses. The number of CCR2 positive cells was determined using stereology probes in the hippocampus. CCL2 expression in the hippocampus was examined by molecular assay. Results Increased CCR2 was observed in the hippocampus after SE. Seizures also resulted in alterations to the cell types expressing CCR2. Increased numbers of neurons that expressed CCR2 was observed following SE. Microglial cells were more closely apposed to the CCR2-labeled cells in SE rats. In addition, rats that experienced SE exhibited CCR2-labeling in populations of hypertrophied astrocytes, especially in CA1 and dentate gyrus. These CCR2+ astroctytes were not observed in control rats. Examination of CCL2 expression showed that it was elevated in the hippocampus following SE. Conclusion The data show that CCR2 and CCL2 are up-regulated in the hippocampus after pilocarpine-induced SE. Seizures also result in changes to CCR2 receptor expression in neurons and astrocytes. These changes might be involved in detrimental neuroplasticity and neuroinflammatory changes that occur following seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maira L Foresti
- Department of Neurosurgery, Scott and White Hospital, Temple, TX 76503, USA.
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167
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Notch-Induced Rat and Human Bone Marrow Stromal Cell Grafts Reduce Ischemic Cell Loss and Ameliorate Behavioral Deficits in Chronic Stroke Animals. Stem Cells Dev 2009; 18:1501-14. [DOI: 10.1089/scd.2009.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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168
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Kernie SG, Parent JM. Forebrain neurogenesis after focal Ischemic and traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Dis 2009; 37:267-74. [PMID: 19909815 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 10/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/03/2009] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells persist in the adult mammalian forebrain and are a potential source of neurons for repair after brain injury. The two main areas of persistent neurogenesis, the subventricular zone (SVZ)-olfactory bulb pathway and hippocampal dentate gyrus, are stimulated by brain insults such as stroke or trauma. Here we focus on the effects of focal cerebral ischemia on SVZ neural progenitor cells in experimental stroke, and the influence of mechanical injury on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in models of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Stroke potently stimulates forebrain SVZ cell proliferation and neurogenesis. SVZ neuroblasts are induced to migrate to the injured striatum, and to a lesser extent to the peri-infarct cortex. Controversy exists as to the types of neurons that are generated in the injured striatum, and whether adult-born neurons contribute to functional restoration remains uncertain. Advances in understanding the regulation of SVZ neurogenesis in general, and stroke-induced neurogenesis in particular, may lead to improved integration and survival of adult-born neurons at sites of injury. Dentate gyrus cell proliferation and neurogenesis similarly increase after experimental TBI. However, pre-existing neuroblasts in the dentate gyrus are vulnerable to traumatic insults, which appear to stimulate neural stem cells in the SGZ to proliferate and replace them, leading to increased numbers of new granule cells. Interventions that stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis appear to improve cognitive recovery after experimental TBI. Transgenic methods to conditionally label or ablate neural stem cells are beginning to further address critical questions regarding underlying mechanisms and functional significance of neurogenesis after stroke or TBI. Future therapies should be aimed at directing appropriate neuronal replacement after ischemic or traumatic injury while suppressing aberrant integration that may contribute to co-morbidities such as epilepsy or cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Kernie
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9133, USA.
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169
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Carpentier PA, Palmer TD. Immune influence on adult neural stem cell regulation and function. Neuron 2009; 64:79-92. [PMID: 19840551 PMCID: PMC2789107 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/31/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) lie at the heart of central nervous system development and repair, and deficiency or dysregulation of NSCs or their progeny can have significant consequences at any stage of life. Immune signaling is emerging as one of the influential variables that define resident NSC behavior. Perturbations in local immune signaling accompany virtually every injury or disease state, and signaling cascades that mediate immune activation, resolution, or chronic persistence influence resident stem and progenitor cells. Some aspects of immune signaling are beneficial, promoting intrinsic plasticity and cell replacement, while others appear to inhibit the very type of regenerative response that might restore or replace neural networks lost in injury or disease. Here we review known and speculative roles that immune signaling plays in the postnatal and adult brain, focusing on how environments encountered in disease or injury may influence the activity and fate of endogenous or transplanted NSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela A. Carpentier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, 1201 Welch Road MSLS P320, Stanford, CA 94305, 650-736-1482
| | - Theo D. Palmer
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, 1201 Welch Road MSLS P320, Stanford, CA 94305, 650-736-1482
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170
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Zhu C, Huang Z, Gao J, Zhang Y, Wang X, Karlsson N, Li Q, Lannering B, Björk-Eriksson T, Georg Kuhn H, Blomgren K. Irradiation to the immature brain attenuates neurogenesis and exacerbates subsequent hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in the adult. J Neurochem 2009; 111:1447-56. [PMID: 19799713 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cranial radiotherapy is common in pediatric oncology. Our purpose was to investigate if irradiation (IR) to the immature brain would increase the susceptibility to hypoxic-ischemic injury in adulthood. The left hemisphere of postnatal day 10 (P10) mice was irradiated with 8 Gy and subjected to hypoxia-ischemia (HI) on P60. Brain injury, neurogenesis and inflammation were evaluated 30 days after HI. IR alone caused significant hemispheric tissue loss, or lack of growth (2.8 +/- 0.42 mm(3), p < 0.001). Tissue loss after HI (18.2 +/- 5.8 mm(3), p < 0.05) was synergistically increased if preceded by IR (32.0 +/- 3.5 mm(3), p < 0.05). Infarct volume (5.1 +/- 1.6 mm(3)) nearly doubled if HI was preceded by IR (9.8 +/- 1.2 mm(3), p < 0.05). Pathological scoring revealed that IR aggravated hippocampal, cortical and striatal, but not thalamic, injury. Hippocampal neurogenesis decreased > 50% after IR but was unchanged by HI alone. The number of newly formed microglia was three times higher after IR + HI than after HI alone. In summary, IR to the immature brain produced long-lasting changes, including decreased hippocampal neurogenesis, subsequently rendering the adult brain more susceptible to HI, resulting in larger infarcts, increased hemispheric tissue loss and more inflammation than in non-irradiated brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlian Zhu
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
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Detante O, Moisan A, Dimastromatteo J, Richard MJ, Riou L, Grillon E, Barbier E, Desruet MD, De Fraipont F, Segebarth C, Jaillard A, Hommel M, Ghezzi C, Remy C. Intravenous administration of 99mTc-HMPAO-labeled human mesenchymal stem cells after stroke: in vivo imaging and biodistribution. Cell Transplant 2009; 18:1369-79. [PMID: 19849895 DOI: 10.3727/096368909x474230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) are a promising source for cell therapy after stroke. To deliver these cells, an IV injection appears safer than a local graft. We aimed to assess the whole-body biodistribution of IV-injected (99m)Tc-HMPAO-labeled hMSC in normal rats (n = 9) and following a right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo, n = 9). Whole-body nuclear imaging, isolated organ counting (at 2 and 20 h after injection) and histology were performed. A higher activity was observed in the right damaged hemisphere of the MCAo group [6.5 +/- 0.9 x 10(-3) % of injected dose (ID)/g] than in the control group (3.6 +/- 1.2 x 10(-3) %ID/g), 20 h after injection. In MCAo rats, right hemisphere activity was higher than that observed in the contralateral hemisphere at 2 h after injection (11.6 +/- 2.8 vs. 9.8 +/- 1.7 x 10(-3) %ID/g). Following an initial hMSC lung accumulation, there was a decrease in pulmonary activity from 2 to 20 h after injection in both groups. The spleen was the only organ in which activity increased between 2 and 20 h. The presence of hMSC was documented in the spleen, liver, lung, and brain following histology. IV-injected hMSC are transiently trapped in the lungs, can be sequestered in the spleen, and are predominantly eliminated by kidneys. After 20 h, more hMSC are found in the ischemic lesion than into the undamaged cerebral tissue. IV delivery of hMSC could be the initial route for a clinical trial of tolerance.
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172
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Galectin-3 mediates post-ischemic tissue remodeling. Brain Res 2009; 1288:116-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.06.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2009] [Revised: 06/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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173
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Yan YP, Lang BT, Vemuganti R, Dempsey RJ. Osteopontin is a mediator of the lateral migration of neuroblasts from the subventricular zone after focal cerebral ischemia. Neurochem Int 2009; 55:826-32. [PMID: 19686792 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2009.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2009] [Revised: 07/09/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We and others have shown that focal cerebral ischemia induces lateral migration of neuroblasts from the ipsilateral subventricular zone (SVZ) to the ischemic striatum. The signaling pathways underlying this phenomenon are not fully understood. The present study examined the role of osteopontin (OPN) in post-ischemic lateral migration of neuroblasts. Focal ischemia was induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in adult spontaneous hypertensive rats. The expression of OPN in the ischemic brain was evaluated by immunohistochemistry, which showed that an up-regulation of OPN expression in the ipsilateral striatum at day 3, 7, 14 and 1 month of reperfusion with a peak at day 7. Double staining showed co-localization of OPN with ED1(+) macrophages/microglia in the ischemic regions. Inhibition of OPN activity by infusing a neutralizing antibody against OPN into the ischemic striatum significantly decreased the area covered with doublecortin(+) neuroblasts in the ipsilateral striatum. In vitro, OPN treatment did not affect the proliferation of neural progenitors, but induced an increased trans-well and radial migration of neural progenitors. The cultured neural progenitors expressed the OPN receptors CD44 and integrin beta(1). Blockade of the CD44 receptor had no effects on OPN mediated trans-well and radial migration of neural progenitors. However, blockade of integrin beta(1) receptor abolished the migration of neural progenitors in the absence or the presence of OPN. These results suggest that up-regulated expression of OPN produced by macrophages/microglia in the ischemic brain is an attractant and inducer for the lateral migration of neuroblasts from the SVZ to the injured region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ping Yan
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI 53792, United States
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174
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Magge SN, Malik SZ, Royo NC, Chen HI, Yu L, Snyder EY, O'Rourke DM, Watson DJ. Role of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) in migration of neural progenitor cells toward glial tumors. J Neurosci Res 2009; 87:1547-55. [PMID: 19125409 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) have been investigated as potential vehicles for brain tumor therapy because they have been shown to migrate toward central nervous system gliomas and can be genetically engineered to deliver cytotoxic agents to tumors. The mechanisms that regulate migration of NPCs to tumors are not fully understood. By means of microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and immunohistochemistry, we found that monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL-2) was expressed in experimental brain tumor cells in vivo and in vitro. CCR2, the receptor for MCP-1, was expressed on C17.2 NPCs. We used a modified Boyden chamber assay and found increased migration of NPCs in vitro in response to MCP-1. By means of an in vivo model for NPC migration, we found evidence of NPC migration toward areas of MCP-1 infusion in rat brains. An understanding of NPC migration mechanisms may be used to enhance delivery of cytotoxic agents to brain tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh N Magge
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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175
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Thored P, Heldmann U, Gomes-Leal W, Gisler R, Darsalia V, Taneera J, Nygren JM, Jacobsen SEW, Ekdahl CT, Kokaia Z, Lindvall O. Long-term accumulation of microglia with proneurogenic phenotype concomitant with persistent neurogenesis in adult subventricular zone after stroke. Glia 2009; 57:835-49. [PMID: 19053043 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) in the adult rat subventricular zone (SVZ) generate new striatal neurons during several months after ischemic stroke. Whether the microglial response associated with ischemic injury extends into SVZ and influences neuroblast production is unknown. Here, we demonstrate increased numbers of activated microglia in ipsilateral SVZ concomitant with neuroblast migration into the striatum at 2, 6, and 16 weeks, with maximum at 6 weeks, following 2 h middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. In the peri-infarct striatum, numbers of activated microglia peaked already at 2 weeks and declined thereafter. Microglia in SVZ were resident or originated from bone marrow, with maximum proliferation during the first 2 weeks postinsult. In SVZ, microglia exhibited ramified or intermediate morphology, signifying a downregulated inflammatory profile, whereas amoeboid or round phagocytic microglia were frequent in the peri-infarct striatum. Numbers of microglia expressing markers of antigen-presenting cells (MHC-II, CD86) increased in SVZ but very few lymphocytes were detected. Using quantitative PCR, strong short- and long-term increase (at 1 and 6 weeks postinfarct) of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) gene expression was detected in SVZ tissue. Elevated numbers of IGF-1-expressing microglia were found in SVZ at 2, 6, and 16 weeks after stroke. At 16 weeks, 5% of microglia but no other cells in SVZ expressed the IGF-1 protein, which mitigates apoptosis and promotes proliferation and differentiation of NSCs. The long-term accumulation of microglia with proneurogenic phenotype in the SVZ implies a supportive role of these cells for the continuous neurogenesis after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pär Thored
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Cell Therapy, Section of Restorative Neurology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center A11, University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
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176
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Schilling M, Strecker JK, Schäbitz WR, Ringelstein E, Kiefer R. Effects of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 on blood-borne cell recruitment after transient focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Neuroscience 2009; 161:806-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2009] [Revised: 03/18/2009] [Accepted: 04/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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177
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Yan YP, Lang BT, Vemuganti R, Dempsey RJ. Persistent migration of neuroblasts from the subventricular zone to the injured striatum mediated by osteopontin following intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurochem 2009; 109:1624-35. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06059.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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178
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Gordon RJ, McGregor AL, Connor B. Chemokines direct neural progenitor cell migration following striatal cell loss. Mol Cell Neurosci 2009; 41:219-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2008] [Revised: 02/19/2009] [Accepted: 03/11/2009] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
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179
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The potential of neural stem cells to repair stroke-induced brain damage. Acta Neuropathol 2009; 117:469-80. [PMID: 19283395 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-009-0516-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2008] [Revised: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Acute injuries to CNS such as stroke induce neural progenitor proliferation in adult brain which might be an endogenous attempt to self-repair. This process is known to be altered by several exogenous and endogenous modulators including growth factors that could help to reinforce the post-stroke neurogenesis. Increasing the neurogenesis may be a future therapeutic option to decrease the cognitive and behavioral deficits following stroke. In addition, transplantation of various types of stem cells into the injured brain is currently thought to be an exciting option to replace the neurons lost in the post-ischemic brain. These include immortalized stem cell lines, neural progenitors prepared from embryonic and adult animals and mesenchymal stem cells. Using exogenous stem cells in addition to modulating endogenous neurogenesis, we may be able to repair the injured brain after a devastating stroke. This article reviewed the current literature of these two issues.
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180
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JNK-induced MCP-1 production in spinal cord astrocytes contributes to central sensitization and neuropathic pain. J Neurosci 2009; 29:4096-108. [PMID: 19339605 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3623-08.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 455] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Our previous study showed that activation of c-jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) in spinal astrocytes plays an important role in neuropathic pain sensitization. We further investigated how JNK regulates neuropathic pain. In cultured astrocytes, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) transiently activated JNK via TNF receptor-1. Cytokine array indicated that the chemokine CCL2/MCP-1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) was strongly induced by the TNF-alpha/JNK pathway. MCP-1 upregulation by TNF-alpha was dose dependently inhibited by the JNK inhibitors SP600125 (anthra[1,9-cd]pyrazol-6(2H)-one) and D-JNKI-1. Spinal injection of TNF-alpha produced JNK-dependent pain hypersensitivity and MCP-1 upregulation in the spinal cord. Furthermore, spinal nerve ligation (SNL) induced persistent neuropathic pain and MCP-1 upregulation in the spinal cord, and both were suppressed by D-JNKI-1. Remarkably, MCP-1 was primarily induced in spinal cord astrocytes after SNL. Spinal administration of MCP-1 neutralizing antibody attenuated neuropathic pain. Conversely, spinal application of MCP-1 induced heat hyperalgesia and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase in superficial spinal cord dorsal horn neurons, indicative of central sensitization (hyperactivity of dorsal horn neurons). Patch-clamp recordings in lamina II neurons of isolated spinal cord slices showed that MCP-1 not only enhanced spontaneous EPSCs but also potentiated NMDA- and AMPA-induced currents. Finally, the MCP-1 receptor CCR2 was expressed in neurons and some non-neuronal cells in the spinal cord. Together, we have revealed a previously unknown mechanism of MCP-1 induction and action. MCP-1 induction in astrocytes after JNK activation contributes to central sensitization and neuropathic pain facilitation by enhancing excitatory synaptic transmission. Inhibition of the JNK/MCP-1 pathway may provide a new therapy for neuropathic pain management.
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181
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Deng YY, Lu J, Ling EA, Kaur C. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) produced via NF-κB signaling pathway mediates migration of amoeboid microglia in the periventricular white matter in hypoxic neonatal rats. Glia 2009; 57:604-21. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.20790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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182
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Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are approximately 22 nucleotides long, noncoding RNAs that control cellular function by either degrading mRNAs or arresting their translation. To understand their functional significance in ischemic pathophysiology, we profiled miRNAs in adult rat brain as a function of reperfusion time after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Of the 238 miRNAs evaluated, 8 showed increased and 12 showed decreased expression at least at 4 out of 5 reperfusion time points studied between 3 h and 3 days compared with sham. Of those, 17 showed >5 fold change. Bioinformatics analysis indicated a correlation between miRNAs altered to several mRNAs known to mediate inflammation, transcription, neuroprotection, receptors function, and ionic homeostasis. Antagomir-mediated prevention of mir-145 expression led to an increased protein expression of its downstream target superoxide dismutase-2 in the postischemic brain. In silico analysis showed sequence complementarity of eight miRNAs induced after focal ischemia to 877 promoters indicating the possibility of noncoding RNA-induced activation of gene expression. The mRNA expression of the RNases Drosha and Dicer, cofactor Pasha, and the pre-miRNA transporter exportin-5, which modulate miRNA biogenesis, were not altered after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Thus, the present studies indicate a critical role of miRNAs in controlling mRNA transcription and translation in the postischemic brain.
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183
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Indraswari F, Wong PTH, Yap E, Ng YK, Dheen ST. Upregulation of Dpysl2 and Spna2 gene expression in the rat brain after ischemic stroke. Neurochem Int 2009; 55:235-42. [PMID: 19524114 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2009.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2009] [Accepted: 03/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Ischemia activates the synthesis of potentially damaging and protective proteins in the central nervous system. Dihydropyrimidinase-like 2 (Dpysl2), a protein involved in neuronal differentiation and axonal guidance, and alpha-spectrin 2 (Spna2), a protein involved in maintaining neuronal membrane integrity, were found altered in various nervous system diseases. Modifications of Dpysl2 and Spna2 proteins have been reported in focal ischemic stroke, but their significance is not yet established. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the temporal expression of Dpysl2 and Spna2 genes in normal and stroke rat brain and to characterize stroke brains for cell areas, apoptosis, and microglia cells. The middle cerebral artery of rat brain was occluded and the brain tissue was sectioned for in situ hybridization of Dpysl2 and Spna2 genes, TUNEL, and OX-42 immunofluorescence staining. Dpysl2 and Spna2 mRNA expression was quantified by real-time RT-PCR. Characterization of stroke brain for apoptosis and microglia cells showed apoptotic cells and activated microglia, mainly in the infarct core of ipsilateral cortex and striatum of stroke brain. Significant upregulation of Dpysl2 and Spna2 mRNA expression in the penumbra region after stroke was observed predominantly in injured swollen cells in the cortex and striatum. Upregulation of Dpysl2 and Spna2 expression in hypertrophic cells in the penumbra regions of cortex and striatum of stroke brain indicates an early neuronal defense mechanism involving active neuronal repair, regeneration and development, as these genes are known to be involved in neurite outgrowth and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fransisca Indraswari
- Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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184
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Vascular endothelial growth factor-stimulated cerebral microvascular endothelial cells mediate the recruitment of neural stem cells to the neurovascular niche. Brain Res 2009; 1268:24-37. [PMID: 19285048 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2008] [Revised: 01/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/22/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous and transplanted neural stem cells (NSC) are highly migratory and display a unique tropism for areas of neuro-pathology. However, signals controlling NSC motility in health and disease are still ill-defined. NSC appear to be intimately associated with the cerebral vasculature and angiogenesis is a hallmark of many neurological disorders. This has led us to investigate the influence of quiescent and angiogenically active human endothelial cells on human NSC migration. In vivo we observed frequent perivascular accumulation of human NSC in the proximity of cerebral microvessels upon induction of angiogenesis by cerebral infusion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) into the murine brain. We analyzed the in vitro effects of conditioned media from human endothelial cells before and after angiogenic stimulation with VEGF on the migration of human NSC in vitro. Non-stimulated endothelial cells induced a moderate chemotactic migration that was significantly enhanced after angiogenic activation by VEGF. In order to identify cytokines that may function as stimulators of NSC chemotaxis, we screened endothelial cell-conditioned media for the expression of 120 different cytokines. We identified PDGF-BB, RANTES, I-TAC, NAP-2, GROalpha, Ang-2, and M-CSF as endothelial cell-released chemoattractants for human NSC in vitro. VEGF-stimulated cerebral microvascular endothelial cells secreted higher levels of Ang-2 and GROalpha, which in part were responsible for the enhanced chemoattraction of NSC. Our findings support the hypothesis that the angiogenically active microvasculature modulates the local guidance of NSC through endothelial cell-derived chemoattractants.
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185
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Lang BT, Yan Y, Dempsey RJ, Vemuganti R. Impaired neurogenesis in adult type-2 diabetic rats. Brain Res 2009; 1258:25-33. [PMID: 19138677 PMCID: PMC2649982 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Revised: 11/24/2008] [Accepted: 12/05/2008] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Type-2 diabetes is an adult onset condition that affects millions of people worldwide. The ensuing hyperglycemia renders multiple organs to various complications and increases the risk of learning and memory impairment. The Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rat developed from normoglycemic Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat is a model for type-2 diabetes, with insulin resistance developing around 12 weeks of age. We presently analyzed the neural progenitor proliferation and survival of the newly generated cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) and the subventricular zone (SVZ) of 6 and 18 week-old GK and WKY rats. At 6 weeks of age, both GK and WKY cohorts showed similar blood glucose levels (112+/-14 mg/dL) and similar rates of neural progenitor proliferation. At 18 weeks of age, the GK rats showed significantly increased blood glucose levels (by 92+/-12%; p<0.05) and higher number of proliferating neural progenitor cells compared to WKY rats (by 183+/-16% in SVZ and by 36+/-5% in DG; p<0.05 in both cases). In both the neurogenic areas, 52+/-9% of the newly formed cells survived to 3 weeks in the 18 weeks old WKY rats, but in the GK rats only 16+/-7% of the new cells survived to 3 weeks. When cultured from the DG of the 18 week old rats in the presence of FGF2 and IGF1, the GK cohort yielded significantly lower number of neurospheres than the WKY cohort (by 69+/-7%; p<0.05). These results indicate that hyperglycemic environment induces proliferation of adult neural progenitors, but detrimental to their survival. Impaired neurogenesis might be a promoter of the decreased brain function in type-2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley T Lang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin K4/8 Mail code CSC 8660 600 Highland avenue Madison, WI 53792, USA
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186
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Lu H, Shi JX, Chen HL, Hang CH, Wang HD, Yin HX. Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in the cerebral artery after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. Brain Res 2009; 1262:73-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2008] [Revised: 01/01/2009] [Accepted: 01/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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187
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Cayre M, Canoll P, Goldman JE. Cell migration in the normal and pathological postnatal mammalian brain. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 88:41-63. [PMID: 19428961 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/05/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the developing brain, cell migration is a crucial process for structural organization, and is therefore highly regulated to allow the correct formation of complex networks, wiring neurons, and glia. In the early postnatal brain, late developmental processes such as the production and migration of astrocyte and oligodendrocyte progenitors still occur. Although the brain is completely formed and structured few weeks after birth, it maintains a degree of plasticity throughout life, including axonal remodeling, synaptogenesis, but also neural cell birth, migration and integration. The subventricular zone (SVZ) and the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus are the two main neurogenic niches in the adult brain. Neural stem cells reside in these structures and produce progenitors that migrate toward their ultimate location: the olfactory bulb and granular cell layer of the DG respectively. The aim of this review is to synthesize the increasing information concerning the organization, regulation and function of cell migration in a mature brain. In a normal brain, proteins involved in cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions together with secreted proteins acting as chemoattractant or chemorepellant play key roles in the regulation of neural progenitor cell migration. In addition, recent data suggest that gliomas arise from the transformation of neural stem cells or progenitor cells and that glioma cell infiltration recapitulates key aspects of glial progenitor migration. Thus, we will consider glioma migration in the context of progenitor migration. Finally, many observations show that brain lesions and neurological diseases trigger neural stem/progenitor cell activation and migration toward altered structures. The factors involved in such cell migration/recruitment are just beginning to be understood. Inflammation which has long been considered as thoroughly disastrous for brain repair is now known to produce some positive effects on stem/progenitor cell recruitment via the regulation of growth factor signaling and the secretion of a number of chemoattractant cytokines. This knowledge is crucial for the development of new therapeutic strategies. One of these strategies could consist in increasing the mobilization of endogenous progenitor cells that could replace lost cells and improve functional recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Cayre
- Institut de Biologie du Developpement de Marseille Luminy (IBDML), Parc scientifique de Luminy, case 907, 13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France.
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188
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Amantea D, Nappi G, Bernardi G, Bagetta G, Corasaniti MT. Post-ischemic brain damage: pathophysiology and role of inflammatory mediators. FEBS J 2009; 276:13-26. [PMID: 19087196 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06766.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammatory mediators play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of brain ischemia, exerting either deleterious effects on the progression of tissue damage or beneficial roles during recovery and repair. Within hours after the ischemic insult, increased levels of cytokines and chemokines enhance the expression of adhesion molecules on cerebral endothelial cells, facilitating the adhesion and transendothelial migration of circulating neutrophils and monocytes. These cells may accumulate in the capillaries, further impairing cerebral blood flow, or extravasate into the brain parenchyma. Infiltrating leukocytes, as well as resident brain cells, including neurons and glia, may release pro-inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, chemokines and oxygen/nitrogen free radicals that contribute to the evolution of tissue damage. Moreover, recent studies have highlighted the involvement of matrix metalloproteinases in the propagation and regulation of neuroinflammatory responses to ischemic brain injury. These enzymes cleave protein components of the extracellular matrix such as collagen, proteoglycan and laminin, but also process a number of cell-surface and soluble proteins, including receptors and cytokines such as interleukin-1beta. The present work reviewed the role of neuroinflammatory mediators in the pathophysiology of ischemic brain damage and their potential exploitation as drug targets for the treatment of cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Amantea
- Department of Pharmacobiology, University of Calabria, Rende (CS), Italy.
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189
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Gonzalo-Gobernado R, Reimers D, Herranz AS, Díaz-Gil JJ, Osuna C, Asensio MJ, Baena S, Rodríguez-Serrano M, Bazán E. Mobilization of neural stem cells and generation of new neurons in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats by intracerebroventricular infusion of liver growth factor. J Histochem Cytochem 2009; 57:491-502. [PMID: 19188487 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.2009.952275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells with self-renewal and multilineage potential persist in the subventricular zone of the adult mammalian forebrain. These cells remain relatively quiescent but, under certain conditions, can be stimulated, giving rise to new neurons. Liver growth factor (LGF) is a mitogen for liver cells that shows biological activity in extrahepatic sites and is useful for neuroregenerative therapies. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential neurogenic activity of LGF in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. Proliferation was significantly increased in the subventricular zone and denervated striatum of rats receiving ICV LGF infusions, and 25% of the proliferating cells were doublecortin-positive neurons. Doublecortin-positive cells with the morphology of migrating neuroblasts were also observed in the dorsal and ventral regions of the striatum of LGF-infused animals. Moreover, some newly generated cells were neuronal nuclei-positive mature neurons. LGF also stimulated microglia and induced astrogliosis, both phenomena associated with generation and migration of new neurons in the adult brain. In summary, our study shows that LGF stimulates neurogenesis when applied intraventricularly in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. Considering that this factor also promotes neuronal migration into damaged tissue, we propose LGF as a novel factor useful for neuronal replacement in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Gonzalo-Gobernado
- Servicio de Neurobiología, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Carretera de Colmenar Km. 9.1, 28034 Madrid, Spain
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190
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Zhu C, Qiu L, Wang X, Xu F, Nilsson M, Cooper-Kuhn C, Kuhn HG, Blomgren K. Age-dependent regenerative responses in the striatum and cortex after hypoxia-ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2009; 29:342-54. [PMID: 18985054 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Regenerative responses after hypoxia-ischemia (HI) were investigated in the immature (P9) and juvenile (P21) mouse striatum and cortex by postischemic 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine labeling and phenotyping of labeled cells 4 weeks later. HI stimulated the formation of new cells in striatum and cortex in immature, growing brains (P9), but when brain growth was finished (P21) proliferation could be stimulated only in striatum, not in cortex. However, the relative increase was higher in P21 (460%) than P9 striatum (50%), though starting from a lower level at P21. Starting from this lower level, HI-induced proliferation in P21 striatum reached the same level as in P9 striatum, but not higher. Phenotyping revealed that low levels of neurogenesis were still present in nonischemic P9 cortex and striatum, but only in striatum at P21. Ischemia-induced neurogenesis was found only in P9 striatum. Ischemia-induced gliogenesis occurred in P9 and P21 striatum as well as P9 cortex, but not in P21 cortex. Hence, the regenerative response was stronger in striatum than cortex, and stronger in P9 than P21 cortex. The biggest ischemia-induced change was the 49-fold increase in P21 striatal microglia, and this was accompanied by increased inflammation, as judged by the size and numbers of CCL2- and interleukin-18-positive cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlian Zhu
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
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191
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192
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Abstract
Recent advances in stem cell biology have raised expectations that both diseases of, and injuries to, the central nervous system may be ameliorated by cell transplantation. In particular, cell therapy has been studied for inducing efficient remyelination in disorders of myelin, including both the largely pediatric disorders of myelin formation and maintenance and the acquired demyelinations of both children and adults. Potential cell-based treatments of two major groups of disorders include both delivery of myelinogenic replacements and mobilization of residual oligodendrocyte progenitor cells as a means of stimulating endogenous repair; the choice of modality is then predicated upon the disease target. In this review we consider the potential application of cell-based therapeutic strategies to disorders of myelin, highlighting the promises as well as the problems and potential perils of this treatment approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamir Ben-Hur
- Department of Neurology, The Agnes Ginges Center for Human Neurogenetics, Hadassah-Hebrew University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
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193
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Behrstock S, Ebert AD, Klein S, Schmitt M, Moore JM, Svendsen CN. Lesion-induced increase in survival and migration of human neural progenitor cells releasing GDNF. Cell Transplant 2008; 17:753-62. [PMID: 19044202 DOI: 10.3727/096368908786516819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of human neural progenitor cells (hNPC) has been proposed to provide neuronal replacement or astrocytes delivering growth factors for brain disorders such as Parkinson's and Huntington's disease. Success in such studies likely requires migration from the site of transplantation and integration into host tissue in the face of ongoing damage. In the current study, hNPC modified to release glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (hNPCGDNF) were transplanted into either intact or lesioned animals. GDNF release itself had no effect on the survival, migration, or differentiation of the cells. The most robust migration and survival was found using a direct lesion of striatum (Huntington's model) with indirect lesions of the dopamine system (Parkinson's model) or intact animals showing successively less migration and survival. No lesion affected differentiation patterns. We conclude that the type of brain injury dictates migration and integration of hNPC, which has important consequences when considering transplantation of these cells as a therapy for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soshana Behrstock
- The Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, WI 53705-2280, USA
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194
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Kaneko N, Sawamoto K. Adult neurogenesis and its alteration under pathological conditions. Neurosci Res 2008; 63:155-64. [PMID: 19118585 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2008.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2008] [Revised: 11/10/2008] [Accepted: 12/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Even in the adult brain, neural stem cells in the dentate gyrus and subventricular zone continue to produce neuronal precursors, which migrate and differentiate into functional mature neurons. This physiological neurogenesis is thought to be involved in neuronal plasticity. Moreover, recent studies indicate that adult neurogenesis can change in response to various brain insults, including psychiatric diseases, stroke, and neurodegenerative disorders. Although increased neurogenesis in these pathological conditions could contribute to the restoration and regeneration of the damaged brain, an inadequate and/or excessive supply of new neurons, or suppressed neurogenesis, could contribute to their pathophysiology. To develop successful regenerative treatments for the injured brain, we need to understand more precisely and comprehensively the mechanisms regulating adult neurogenesis under both physiological and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Kaneko
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Nagoya City University, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, 1 Kawasumi, Mizuho-cho, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8601, Japan
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195
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Vrotsos EG, Sugaya K. MCP-1-induced migration of NT2 neuroprogenitor cells involving APP signaling. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2008; 29:373-81. [PMID: 19048368 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-008-9329-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2008] [Accepted: 11/06/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neuroprogenitor cells are an important resource because of their great potential to replace damaged cells in the brain caused by trauma and disease. Studies have shown that when neuroprogenitor cells are transplanted into the brain they migrate towards damaged areas, suggesting that these areas express factors that recruit migrating cells. Generally, after neuronal injury, there is a neuroinflammatory response that results in increased chemokine production. In this present study, we demonstrate that monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) significantly induces the migration of NT2 neuroprogenitor cells. Activation of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate or protein kinase C with forskolin and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, respectively, was able to completely abolish the MCP-1-induced migration. Contrarily, neither extracellular signal-regulated kinase nor p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase was required for NT2 cells to respond to MCP-1. Previously, we showed that amyloid precursor protein (APP) activity increases MCP-1 expression in NT2 cells. We now demonstrate that NT2 cells expressing APP can induce migration of other neuroprogenitor cells. Utilizing a MCP-1 neutralizing antibody, we discovered that APP-induced migration was not caused solely by increased MCP-1 production. Interestingly, APP-increased expression of several C-C chemokines: MCP-1, regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed, and secreted (RANTES), and macrophage inflammatory protein alpha (MIP-1 alpha). This demonstrates the unique role APP has in regulating chemokine production, which directly affects cell migration. Taken together, these data provides greater detail of the chemotactic factors and intracellular signaling that direct neuroprogenitor cell migration, allowing for better understanding of cell migration during transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel George Vrotsos
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd. BMS Building, Room 223, Orlando, FL 32816-2364, USA
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196
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Graber JJ, Dhib-Jalbut S. Protective autoimmunity in the nervous system. Pharmacol Ther 2008; 121:147-59. [PMID: 19000712 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2008.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Accepted: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The immune system can play both detrimental and beneficial roles in the nervous system. Multiple arms of the immune system, including T cells, B cells, NK cells, mast cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, microglia, antibodies, complement and cytokines participate in limiting damage to the nervous system during toxic, ischemic, hemorrhagic, infective, degenerative, metabolic and immune-mediated insults and also assist in the process of repair after injury has occurred. Immune cells have been shown to produce neurotrophic growth factors and interact with neurons and glial cells to preserve them from injury and stimulate growth and repair. The immune system also appears to participate in proliferation of neural progenitor stem cells and their migration to sites of injury. Neural stem cells can also modify the immune response in the central and peripheral nervous system to enhance neuroprotective effects. Evidence for protective and reparative functions of the immune system has been found in diverse neurologic diseases including traumatic injury, ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, multiple sclerosis, infection, and neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Existing therapies including glatiramer acetate, interferon-beta and immunoglobulin have been shown to augment the protective and regenerative aspects of the immune system in humans, and other experimental interventions such as vaccination, minocycline, antibodies and neural stem cells, have shown promise in animal models of disease. The beneficent aspects of the immune response in the nervous system are beginning to be appreciated and their potential as pharmacologic targets in neurologic disease is being explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome J Graber
- New York University School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, New York, NY, USA
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197
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Andres RH, Choi R, Steinberg GK, Guzman R. Potential of adult neural stem cells in stroke therapy. Regen Med 2008; 3:893-905. [DOI: 10.2217/17460751.3.6.893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite state-of-the-art therapy, clinical outcome after stroke remains poor, with many patients left permanently disabled and dependent on care. Stem cell therapy has evolved as a promising new therapeutic avenue for the treatment of stroke in experimental studies, and recent clinical trials have proven its feasibility and safety in patients. Replacement of damaged cells and restoration of function can be accomplished by transplantation of different cell types, such as embryonic, fetal or adult stem cells, human fetal tissue and genetically engineered cell lines. Adult neural stem cells offer the advantage of avoiding the ethical problems associated with embryonic or fetal stem cells and can be harvested as autologous grafts from the individual patients. Furthermore, stimulation of endogenous adult stem cell-mediated repair mechanisms in the brain might offer new avenues for stroke therapy without the necessity of transplantation. However, important scientific issues need to be addressed to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the critical steps in cell-based repair to allow the introduction of these experimental techniques into clinical practice. This review describes up-to-date experimental concepts using adult neural stem cells for the treatment of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Andres
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, R211, Stanford, CA 94305-5327, USA
| | - Raymond Choi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, R211, Stanford, CA 94305-5327, USA
| | - Gary K Steinberg
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, R211, Stanford, CA 94305-5327, USA
| | - Raphael Guzman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, R211, Stanford, CA 94305-5327, USA
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198
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Barkho BZ, Munoz AE, Li X, Li L, Cunningham LA, Zhao X. Endogenous matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 and MMP-9 promote the differentiation and migration of adult neural progenitor cells in response to chemokines. Stem Cells 2008; 26:3139-49. [PMID: 18818437 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2008-0519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis is regulated by both intrinsic programs and extrinsic stimuli. The enhanced proliferation of adult neural stem/progenitor cells (aNPCs) in the subventricular zone and the migration of neuroblasts toward the ischemic region in adult brains present a unique challenge as well as an opportunity to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the extrinsic cue-induced neurogenic responses. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of proteinases known to play a role in extracellular matrix remodeling and cell migration. However, their presence in aNPCs and their potential function in injury-induced aNPC migration remain largely unexplored. Here we demonstrate that in response to two injury-induced chemokines, stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor, aNPCs differentiated into migratory cells that expressed increased levels of MMP-3 and MMP-9. Whereas differentiated neuroblasts and a subpopulation of astrocytes migrated toward the chemokines, undifferentiated progenitors did not migrate. Blocking the expression of MMP-3 or MMP-9 in aNPCs interfered with both the differentiation of aNPCs and chemokine-induced cell migration. Thus, endogenous MMPs expressed by aNPCs are important for mediating their neurogenic response to extrinsic signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basam Z Barkho
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA
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199
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Hattermann K, Ludwig A, Gieselmann V, Held-Feindt J, Mentlein R. The chemokine CXCL16 induces migration and invasion of glial precursor cells via its receptor CXCR6. Mol Cell Neurosci 2008; 39:133-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2008.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2007] [Revised: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/28/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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200
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Abstract
It has long been thought that astrocytes, like other glial cells, simply provide a support mechanism for neuronal function in the healthy and inflamed central nervous system (CNS). However, recent evidence suggests that astrocytes play an active and dual role in CNS inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Astrocytes not only have the ability to enhance immune responses and inhibit myelin repair, but they can also be protective and limit CNS inflammation while supporting oligodendrocyte and axonal regeneration. The particular impact of these cells on the pathogenesis and repair of an inflammatory demyelinating process is dependent upon a number of factors, including the stage of the disease, the type and microenvironment of the lesion, and the interactions with other cell types and factors that influence their activation. In this review, we summarize recent data supporting the idea that astrocytes play a complex role in the regulation of CNS autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Nair
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Northwestern University Fienberg School of Medicine, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
| | - T. J. Frederick
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Northwestern University Fienberg School of Medicine, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
| | - S. D. Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Northwestern University Fienberg School of Medicine, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
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