151
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Holzbeierlein JM, McLaughlin MD, Thrasher JB. Complications of androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. Curr Opin Urol 2004; 14:177-83. [PMID: 15069309 DOI: 10.1097/00042307-200405000-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Androgen deprivation as a form of treatment for prostate cancer has been used for decades. Within the last decade, however, there has been a significant increase in its use. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the physician to be familiar with the side effects associated with this treatment. RECENT FINDINGS Some of the side effects such as osteoporosis, changes in lipid profiles, and anemia may have significant morbidity associated with them, while other side effects such as impotence, decreased libido, fatigue, and hot flashes primarily affect the patient's quality of life. Prevention strategies and treatments exist for many of these side effects. SUMMARY This review will update physicians treating patients with androgen deprivation therapy on the side effects associated with this treatment. Once physicians are aware of the potential side effects, they can educate patients on what to expect when starting androgen deprivation therapy. More importantly, physicians can now prevent some of these complications prior to their occurrence, and when these complications occur they have knowledge of the latest treatments.
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152
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RE: THE EFFECTS OF COMBINED ANDROGEN BLOCKADE ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION DURING THE FIRST CYCLE OF INTERMITTENT ANDROGEN SUPPRESSION IN PATIENTS WITH PROSTATE CANCER: Reply by Authors. J Urol 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(05)61739-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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153
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Gardiner RA, Nicol DL, Green HJ, Yaxley J, Watson R, Mactaggart P, Headley BC, Swanson C, Pakenham KI. RE: THE EFFECTS OF COMBINED ANDROGEN BLOCKADE ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION DURING THE FIRST CYCLE OF INTERMITTENT ANDROGEN SUPPRESSION IN PATIENTS WITH PROSTATE CANCER. J Urol 2004; 172:774; author reply 774-5. [PMID: 15247782 DOI: 10.1097/01.ju.0000132508.20023.08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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154
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Wefel JS, Kayl AE, Meyers CA. Neuropsychological dysfunction associated with cancer and cancer therapies: a conceptual review of an emerging target. Br J Cancer 2004; 90:1691-6. [PMID: 15150608 PMCID: PMC2410277 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropsychological dysfunction associated with cancer and cancer treatment is a growing concern. Methodological limitations permeate the corpus of research in this area and have limited our understanding of the multifactorial nature of this process. The following review provides a summary of the current state of knowledge and highlights future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Wefel
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA
- The Brain Tumor Center, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA
| | - A E Kayl
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA
- The Brain Tumor Center, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA
| | - C A Meyers
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA
- The Brain Tumor Center, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 431, Houston, TX 77030-4009, USA. E-mail:
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155
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Green HJ, Pakenham KI, Headley BC, Yaxley J, Nicol DL, Mactaggart PN, Swanson CE, Watson RB, Gardiner RA. Quality of life compared during pharmacological treatments and clinical monitoring for non-localized prostate cancer: a randomized controlled trial. BJU Int 2004; 93:975-9. [PMID: 15142146 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.2004.04763.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the effects of different management strategies for non-localized prostate cancer on men's quality of life and cognitive functioning. PATIENTS, SUBJECTS AND METHODS Men with prostate cancer were randomly assigned to one of four treatment arms: leuprorelin, goserelin, cyproterone acetate (CPA), or close clinical monitoring. In a repeated-measures design, men were assessed before treatment (baseline) and after 6 and 12 months of treatment. A community comparison group of men of the same age with no prostate cancer participated for the same length of time. The men were recruited from public and private urology departments from university teaching hospitals. All those with prostate cancer who were eligible for hormonal therapy had no symptoms requiring immediate therapy. In all, 82 patients were randomized and 62 completed the 1-year study, and of the 20 community participants, 15 completed the study. The main outcome measures were obtained from questionnaires on emotional distress, existential satisfaction, physical function and symptoms, social and role function, subjective cognitive function, and sexual function, combined with standard neuropsychological tests of memory, attention, and executive functions. RESULTS Sexual dysfunction increased for patients on androgen-suppressing therapies, and emotional distress increased in those assigned to CPA or close clinical monitoring. Compared with before treatment there was evidence of an adverse effect of leuprorelin, goserelin, and CPA on cognitive function. CONCLUSIONS In deciding the timing of androgen suppression therapy for prostate cancer, consideration should be given to potential adverse effects on quality of life and cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Green
- School of Psychology, Department of Surgery, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia.
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156
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Affiliation(s)
- A Koupparis
- Department of Urology, Bristol Royal Infirmary, Bristol, UK
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157
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Abstract
Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is indicated for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer and locally advanced disease. In addition to sexual side effects, long-term ADT results in several other changes, including hot flashes; gynecomastia; changes in body composition, metabolism, and the cardiovascular system; osteoporosis; anemia; psychiatric and cognitive problems; and fatigue and diminished quality of life. This review discusses these complications of ADT and treatments aimed at reducing them. It is important for clinicians to anticipate these effects and to initiate measures to prevent or minimize them in order to maintain quality of life in prostate cancer survivors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen C Chen
- Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 177 Fort Washington Avenue, MHB 6-435, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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158
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Minisini A, Atalay G, Bottomley A, Puglisi F, Piccart M, Biganzoli L. What is the effect of systemic anticancer treatment on cognitive function? Lancet Oncol 2004; 5:273-82. [PMID: 15120664 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(04)01465-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Treatment regimens for solid tumours have been extensively investigated for their physical toxic effects, but far less is known about the potential impairment of cognitive function by anticancer treatment regimens. Here, we review published studies that examined cognitive function in adult patients receiving systemic therapy for solid tumours. Our review suggests that patients can experience cognitive changes related to their treatment. However, several studies had methodological limitations, such as use of a limited sample size, lack of baseline assessment, and lack of control for potential confounding factors. Better designed clinical trials are required so that the difficulties patients face in terms of reduced cognitive function as a result of anticancer treatment can be fully elucidated. These trials should have sufficient statistical power and, importantly, should also be prospective.
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159
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Salminen E, Koskinen A, Backman H, Nurmi M. Effect of adjuvant androgen deprivation on thyroid function tests in prostate cancer patients. Anticancer Drugs 2004; 15:351-6. [PMID: 15057139 DOI: 10.1097/00001813-200404000-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Androgen deprivation (AD) used in the treatment of prostate cancer is known to alter concentrations of sex hormones and their binding globulins. Less is known as to its effect on thyroid hormones. In this prospective study the effects of AD on thyroid function were clarified. Levels of serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), free thyroxine (FT4) and thyroid binding globulin concentrations were measured in prostate cancer patients treated with either radical radiotherapy and androgen deprivation for 12 months (AD) or radical radiotherapy alone (RT). Measurements were made at baseline, and at 3, 6 and 12 months. At baseline and at 3 months the results of thyroid function tests did not differ significantly between groups. A significant decline in serum testosterone in the AD group was accompanied by a significant decline in FT4 at 6 and 12 months, while no significant changes in thyroid function were observed in the RT group. The decline in FT4 among AD patients did not evoke a normal TSH response. Prolonged use of AD hampers the interpretation of thyroid test results. This finding has substantial implications for the follow-up of patients in hormonally treated prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Salminen
- Department of Oncology, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.
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160
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Holzbeierlein JM, Castle EP, Thrasher JB. Complications of Androgen-Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003; 2:147-52. [PMID: 15040857 DOI: 10.3816/cgc.2003.n.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
With the increasing indications for the use of androgen-deprivation therapy in the treatment of men with prostate cancer, side effects of the therapy deserve greater attention. Side effects such as hot flashes, decreased libido, decreased sexual function, and fatigue primarily affect the patients quality of life. Other side effects such as osteoporosis and changes in lipid profiles may also affect the patients overall health. Treatments such as estrogen, megestrol acetate, antidepressants, and bisphosphonates are useful in the management of many of the deleterious side effects of androgen deprivation. In addition, alternative management strategies such as intermittent androgen ablation and antiandrogen monotherapy may be useful in minimizing side effects caused by androgen ablation. Patients and physicians should be well aware of the potential side effects of androgen-deprivation therapy as well as the preventive and treatment strategies for these side effects in order to improve patients quality of life and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Holzbeierlein
- Department of Urology, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Mail Stop 3016, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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161
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Scherr DS, Pitts WR. The nonsteroidal effects of diethylstilbestrol: the rationale for androgen deprivation therapy without estrogen deprivation in the treatment of prostate cancer. J Urol 2003; 170:1703-8. [PMID: 14532759 DOI: 10.1097/01.ju.0000077558.48257.3d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE During the last 2 decades there has been an increase in the number of men with prostate cancer placed on luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LH-RH) agonist therapy. In addition, the duration of individual therapy has extended from what was once only a few months to, in many cases, several years. As a result there has been an increase in the incidence of side effects, including osteoporosis, decreased cognitive abilities, vascular stiffness and fatigue. We explored the use of estrogen in the form of diethylstilbestrol (DES) as an alternative treatment for men with prostate cancer, and introduce the concept of androgen deprivation without estrogen deprivation. In doing so we hope to elucidate some of the nonhormonal nonsteroidal effects of DES. Furthermore, we hope to define the mechanisms by which DES can be useful when LH-RH agonist therapy or orchiectomy has failed. MATERIALS AND METHODS We comprehensively reviewed the literature from 1935 to the present regarding estrogen and antiandrogen therapy. Our search focused on issues pertaining to side effects, efficacy and nonsteroidal effects of antiandrogens and estrogens. RESULTS It is readily apparent from the literature that androgen deprivation with DES can achieve effective prostate cancer control with demonstrable benefits compared to conventional LH-RH agonist therapy. In particular, rates of bone resorption and osteoporosis are less with the use of estrogen therapies. Estrogen has a clear beneficial effect on cognitive function. The estrogen metabolite 2-methoxyestradiol has significant antiangiogenic and pro-apoptotic effects. These effects give estrogens an added anticancer effect not otherwise seen in conventional LH-RH agonist therapy. CONCLUSIONS The efficacy of 1 mg DES extends well beyond its androgen suppressive effects. Androgen deprivation without estrogen deprivation is a concept that deserves further attention in the urological community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas S Scherr
- James Buchanan Brady Foundation, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital/Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 525 East 68th Street, Starr 900, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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162
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See WA. Adjuvant hormone therapy after radiation or surgery for localized or locally advanced prostate cancer. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2003; 4:351-62. [PMID: 12941195 DOI: 10.1007/s11864-003-0036-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is being diagnosed at an earlier age and earlier disease stage than previously and increasing numbers of relatively young men are receiving potentially curative radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy for early prostate cancer. Although many of these men have an excellent outcome, a significant proportion subsequently experience disease recurrence or cancer-related death. Men with unfavorable tumor characteristics at the time of radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy are particularly at high risk of experiencing disease recurrence. One strategy to improve outcome for these men is adjuvant hormone therapy (hormone therapy administered immediately after therapy of primary curative intent). Surgical castration (bilateral orchiectomy), medical castration using the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist goserelin, and antiandrogen monotherapy have been investigated as adjuvant hormone therapy to radical prostatectomy and radiotherapy, and each therapy has demonstrated clinical benefits because of a significant improvement in disease-free survival. Furthermore, data are available to indicate that adjuvant hormone therapy achieved by goserelin or bilateral orchiectomy improves overall survival, particularly in men at high risk of progression. Because the effects of LHRH agonists are reversible, they provide a more acceptable method of adjuvant therapy compared to bilateral orchiectomy, particularly in the adjuvant setting, and are preferred by patients. However, the adverse effects on quality of life, in particular on sexual interest and function and bone mineral density, may limit the use of LHRH agonists in some patients. However, these parameters are maintained with nonsteroidal antiandrogens. The first data from the Early Prostate Cancer program indicate that adjuvant bicalutamide 150 mg is associated with a significant improvement in progression-free survival after radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy. Gynecomastia and breast pain are the most common side effects associated with bicalutamide therapy. Medical or surgical castration in combination with an antiandrogen (combined androgen blockade) is another option for use as an adjuvant hormone therapy. However, no study has reported on the use of combined androgen blockade in this setting. Adjuvant hormone therapy provides clinicians with another treatment option for patients with early prostate cancer and unfavorable tumor characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A See
- Division of Urology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Froedtert Memorial Lutheran Hospital, 9200 West Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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163
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Thompson CA, Shanafelt TD, Loprinzi CL. Andropause: Symptom Management for Prostate Cancer Patients Treated With Hormonal Ablation. Oncologist 2003; 8:474-87. [PMID: 14530501 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist.8-5-474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Andropause, or the age-related decline in serum testosterone, has become a popular topic in the medical literature over the past several years. Andropause includes a constellation of symptoms related to lack of androgens, including diminished libido, decreased generalized feeling of well-being, osteoporosis, and a host of other symptoms. The andropause syndrome is very prominent in men undergoing hormonal ablation therapy for prostate cancer. Most significant in this population are the side effects of hot flashes, anemia, gynecomastia, depression, cognitive decline, sarcopenia, a decreased overall quality of life, sexual dysfunction, and osteoporosis with subsequent bone fractures. The concept of andropause in prostate cancer patients is poorly represented in the literature. In this article, we review the current literature on the symptoms, signs, and possible therapies available to men who cannot take replacement testosterone.
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164
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Salminen E, Portin R, Korpela J, Backman H, Parvinen LM, Helenius H, Nurmi M. Androgen deprivation and cognition in prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 2003; 89:971-6. [PMID: 12966411 PMCID: PMC2376935 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen deprivation (AD) is commonly used in neoadjuvant and adjuvant setting with prostate cancer (PC) radiotherapy. This prospective study assessed whether cognitive functioning is impaired during 12 months of AD therapy. Longitudinal testing of 25 patients treated with AD and curative radiotherapy was undertaken at baseline, and at 6 and 12 months. CogniSpeed software was used for measuring attentional performances. Other cognitive performances were evaluated using verbal, visuomotor and memory tests. The Beck depression inventory was employed to evaluate depressive mood and EORTC QLQ-C30 for quality of life (QoL). During longitudinal testing of the AD group, no impairment in cognitive performances was found. Instead, improvement was observed in object recall (immediate, P=0.035; delayed, P<0.001), and in semantic memory (P=0.037). In QoL, impairment in physical function was observed. Androgen deprivation of 12 months appears to be associated with preserved cognitive functioning, although physical impairment occurs. These results have implications for counseling and psychosocial support of patients in the context of treatment options in PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Salminen
- Department of Oncology, Turku University Hospital, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, Fin-20520 Turku, Finland.
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165
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Fransson P. COMMENTARIES. Eur J Oncol Nurs 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s1462-3889(03)00034-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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166
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167
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168
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Abstract
The current trends in favor of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) for nonmetastatic prostate cancer at the stage of biochemical recurrence or increasing prostate-specific antigen (PSA) raises the issue of exposing otherwise asymptomatic patients to potential side effects over the longer term. Some of these side effects can have deleterious effects on quality of life, and others may contribute to increased risks for serious health concerns associated with aging. Sexual side effects are the most well-recognized adverse effects from ADT and include loss of libido, erectile dysfunction (ED), and hot flashes. Loss of libido is distressing to many men, and they may not pursue treatments for ED. However, for those who do maintain sexual interest, various remedies are available. The incidence of hot flashes, which may not abate over the course of ADT, is close to 80%. Estrogens, progestin megestrol acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, venlafaxine, and cyproterone acetate have been shown to alleviate hot flashes and associated symptoms. Physiologic effects, including gynecomastia, changes in body composition (weight gain, reduced muscle mass, increase in body fat), and changes in lipids, are less commonly recognized as side effects of ADT. These may lead to an exacerbation of potentially more serious conditions, such as hypertension, diabetes, and coronary artery disease. Loss of bone mineral density, anemia, and hair changes also may occur. Additionally, both the diagnosis of prostate cancer and the hormonal therapy can cause psychological distress. These side effects need more systematic study in clinical trials. Physicians should be aware of far-reaching consequences of ADT and should incorporate strategies for preventing and managing toxicities into routine practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celestia S Higano
- Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.
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