151
|
Developmental and pathological lymphangiogenesis: from models to human disease. Histochem Cell Biol 2008; 130:1063-78. [PMID: 18946678 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-008-0525-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic vascular system, the body's second vascular system present in vertebrates, has emerged in recent years as a crucial player in normal and pathological processes. It participates in the maintenance of normal tissue fluid balance, the immune functions of cellular and antigen trafficking and absorption of fatty acids and lipid-soluble vitamins in the gut. Recent scientific discoveries have highlighted the role of lymphatic system in a number of pathologic conditions, including lymphedema, inflammatory diseases, and tumor metastasis. Development of genetically modified animal models, identification of lymphatic endothelial specific markers and regulators coupled with technological advances such as high-resolution imaging and genome-wide approaches have been instrumental in understanding the major steps controlling growth and remodeling of lymphatic vessels. This review highlights the recent insights and developments in the field of lymphatic vascular biology.
Collapse
|
152
|
Endothelial progenitor cell homing: prominent role of the IGF2-IGF2R-PLCbeta2 axis. Blood 2008; 113:233-43. [PMID: 18832656 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-06-162891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Homing of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) to the neovascular zone is now considered to be an essential step in the formation of vascular networks during embryonic development and also for neovascularization in postnatal life. We report here the prominent role of the insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2)/IGF2 receptor (IGF2R) system in promoting EPC homing. With high-level expression of IGF2R in EPCs, IGF2-induced hypoxic conditions stimulated multiple steps of EPC homing in vitro and promoted both EPC recruitment and incorporation into the neovascular area, resulting in enhanced angiogenesis in vivo. Remarkably, all IGF2 actions were exerted predominantly through IGF2R-linked G(i) protein signaling and required intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization induced by the beta2 isoform of phospholipase C. Together, these findings indicate that locally generated IGF2 at either ischemic or tumor sites may contribute to postnatal vasculogenesis by augmenting the recruitment of EPCs. The utilization of the IGF2/IGF2R system may therefore be useful for the development of novel means to treat angiogenesis-dependent diseases.
Collapse
|
153
|
Wong HL, Koh WP, Probst-Hensch NM, Van den Berg D, Yu MC, Ingles SA. Insulin-like growth factor-1 promoter polymorphisms and colorectal cancer: a functional genomics approach. Gut 2008; 57:1090-6. [PMID: 18308828 PMCID: PMC2752962 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2007.140855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) has been proposed to mediate the obesity-related carcinogenic effects of "Western lifestyle". While genetic factors explain at least half of inter-individual IGF1 variation, the IGF1 polymorphisms hypothesised to underlie the variation in cancer incidence rates remain ill-defined. METHODS We used a comparative genomics approach to identify putative regulatory polymorphisms in the IGF1 promoter region within a rapidly westernising population, the Singapore Chinese. Association of IGF1 genotype with colorectal cancer risk was assessed among 298 colorectal cancer cases and 1142 controls nested within the Singapore Chinese Health Study. RESULTS We identified a common (minor allele frequency = 0.36) single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), IGF1-2995 C/A, within a consensus domain for an octamer binding factor (Oct1/Oct2) transcription factor binding site. Possession of one or two copies of the minor allele (genotypes AA and CA) conferred an approximate 40% decrease in risk in comparison to genotype CC (odds ratio, 0.59; 95% confidence interval, 0.45 to 0.77). This association was stronger for colon cancer than for rectal cancer (p(heterogeneity)<0.001) and for those who were physically active versus inactive (p(interaction) = 0.05). Models including other previously identified promoter polymorphisms did not provide a better prediction of colorectal cancer risk. CONCLUSIONS Our results support the hypotheses that IGF1 plays a role in colonic carcinogenesis and that genetically inherited variation in IGF1 expression influences risk of colorectal cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H-L Wong
- Infections and Immunoepidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, NCI, NIH, DDHS, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - W-P Koh
- Department of Community, Occupational and Family Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - N M Probst-Hensch
- Molecular Epidemiology/Cancer Registry, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine/Department of Pathology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - D Van den Berg
- USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - M C Yu
- The Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - S A Ingles
- USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
154
|
Lymphatic endothelium in health and disease. Cell Tissue Res 2008; 335:97-108. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-008-0644-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2008] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
155
|
Transcriptional profiling of VEGF-A and VEGF-C target genes in lymphatic endothelium reveals endothelial-specific molecule-1 as a novel mediator of lymphangiogenesis. Blood 2008; 112:2318-26. [PMID: 18614759 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-05-156331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vessel growth and activation, mediated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and/or VEGF-A, have important roles in metastasis and in chronic inflammation. We aimed to comprehensively identify downstream molecular targets induced by VEGF-A or VEGF-C in lymphatic endothelium by analyzing the time-series transcriptional profile of treated human dermal lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). We identified a number of genes, many not previously known to be involved in lymphangiogenesis, that were characterized either as early response genes, transiently induced genes, or progressively induced genes. Endothelial-specific molecule-1 (ESM-1) was one of the genes that were most potently induced by both VEGF-A and VEGF-C. Whereas ESM-1 induction by VEGF-A was mainly dependent on activation of VEGFR-2, VEGF-C-mediated induction depended on the activity of both VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3. Incubation of LECs with ESM-1 increased the stimulatory effects of both VEGF-A and VEGF-C on LEC proliferation and migration, whereas ESM-1 alone had no effect. Importantly, VEGF-A (or VEGF-C) induction of LEC proliferation and migration were significantly inhibited by siRNA-mediated silencing of ESM-1 in vitro and in vivo. These studies reveal ESM-1 as a novel mediator of lymphangiogenesis and as a potential target for the inhibition of pathologic lymphatic vessel activation.
Collapse
|
156
|
Abstract
Malignant melanomas of the skin primarily metastasize to lymph nodes, and the detection of sentinel lymph node metastases serves as an important prognostic parameter. There is now compelling evidence that melanomas can induce lymphangiogenesis (growth of lymphatic vessels), mainly at the tumor-stroma interface, and that the level of tumor lymphangiogenesis is correlated with the incidence of sentinel lymph node metastases and with disease-free survival. Thus, tumor lymphangiogenesis can serve as a novel prognostic predictor in melanoma. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, released by melanoma cells and by tumor-associated macrophages, likely represents the major lymphangiogenic factor in melanoma, although other members of the VEGF family might also be involved. The recent discovery that tumors can induce a premetastatic niche, by inducing lymphatic vessel growth in sentinel lymph nodes even before metastasis, and that lymph node lymphangiogenesis enhances metastatic spread, indicates that activated lymphatic vessels represent novel targets for the detection and/or therapy of melanoma metastases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Rinderknecht
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
157
|
Abstract
The metastatic spread of tumor cells is the most lethal aspect of cancer and often occurs via the lymphatic vasculature. Both experimental tumor models and human clinicopathologic data indicate that growth of lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis) near solid tumors is often associated with lymph node metastasis. Changes in the adhesive properties of lymphatic endothelium near tumors may also facilitate metastatic spread via the lymphatics. Lymphangiogenic growth factors have been identified that promote formation of tumor lymphatics and metastatic spread of tumor cells to lymph nodes. These include the secreted glycoproteins vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D, which act via their cognate receptor tyrosine kinase VEGF receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) located on lymphatic endothelial cells. Other signaling molecules that have been reported to promote lymphangiogenesis and/or lymphatic metastasis in cancer include VEGF-A, platelet-derived growth factor-BB, and hepatocyte growth factor. However, the quantitative contribution of these proteins to tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis in different tumor types requires further investigation. In addition, chemokines are thought to play a role in attracting tumor cells and lymphatic vessels to each other. Moreover, it has recently been shown that lymphangiogenic growth factors secreted from a primary tumor can induce lymphangiogenesis in nearby lymph nodes, even before arrival of tumor cells, which may facilitate further metastasis. This article provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms that control lymphatic metastasis and discusses potential therapeutic approaches for inhibiting this process in human cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc G Achen
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria 3050, Melbourne, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
158
|
Banziger-Tobler NE, Halin C, Kajiya K, Detmar M. Growth hormone promotes lymphangiogenesis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2008; 173:586-97. [PMID: 18583315 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2008.080060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The lymphatic system plays an important role in inflammation and cancer progression, although the molecular mechanisms involved are poorly understood. As determined using comparative transcriptional profiling studies of cultured lymphatic endothelial cells versus blood vascular endothelial cells, growth hormone receptor was expressed at much higher levels in lymphatic endothelial cells than in blood vascular endothelial cells. These findings were confirmed by quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analyses. Growth hormone induced in vitro proliferation, sprouting, tube formation, and migration of lymphatic endothelial cells, and the mitogenic effect was independent of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 or -3 activation. Growth hormone also inhibited serum starvation-induced lymphatic endothelial cell apoptosis. No major alterations of lymphatic vessels were detected in the normal skin of bovine growth hormone-transgenic mice. However, transgenic delivery of growth hormone accelerated lymphatic vessel ingrowth into the granulation tissue of full-thickness skin wounds, and intradermal delivery of growth hormone resulted in enlargement and enhanced proliferation of cutaneous lymphatic vessels in wild-type mice. These results identify growth hormone as a novel lymphangiogenic factor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Erika Banziger-Tobler
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 10, HCI H303, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
159
|
Sphingosine-1-phosphate promotes lymphangiogenesis by stimulating S1P1/Gi/PLC/Ca2+ signaling pathways. Blood 2008; 112:1129-38. [PMID: 18541717 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-11-125203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The lymphatic system plays pivotal roles in mediating tissue fluid homeostasis and immunity, and excessive lymphatic vessel formation is implicated in many pathological conditions, which include inflammation and tumor metastasis. However, the molecular mechanisms that regulate lymphatic vessel formation remain poorly characterized. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a potent bioactive lipid that is implicated in a variety of biologic processes such as inflammatory responses and angiogenesis. Here, we first report that S1P acts as a lymphangiogenic mediator. S1P induced migration, capillary-like tube formation, and intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization, but not proliferation, in human lymphatic endothelial cells (HLECs) in vitro. Moreover, a Matrigel plug assay demonstrated that S1P promoted the outgrowth of new lymphatic vessels in vivo. HLECs expressed S1P1 and S1P3, and both RNA interference-mediated down-regulation of S1P1 and an S1P1 antagonist significantly blocked S1P-mediated lymphangiogenesis. Furthermore, pertussis toxin, U73122, and BAPTA-AM efficiently blocked S1P-induced in vitro lymphangiogenesis and intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization of HLECs, indicating that S1P promotes lymphangiogenesis by stimulating S1P1/G(i)/phospholipase C/Ca(2+) signaling pathways. Our results suggest that S1P is the first lymphangiogenic bioactive lipid to be identified, and that S1P and its receptors might serve as new therapeutic targets against inflammatory diseases and lymphatic metastasis in tumors.
Collapse
|
160
|
Da MX, Wu Z, Tian HW. Tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphangiogenic growth factors. Arch Med Res 2008; 39:365-72. [PMID: 18375246 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that malignant tumors can actively induce the formation of new lymphatic vessels and metastasize through the lymphatic system. Tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis driven by tumors expressed lymphangiogenic growth factors such as VEGF family, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), and platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) is correlated with lymph node metastasis in experimental cancer models and in several types of human cancers. Tumor- induced lymphangiogenesis has now been firmly established as a novel mechanism for cancer progression and lymph node metastasis. Recent studies indicate that blockade of the lymphangiogenic growth factors pathway inhibits tumor spread to lymph nodes and likely beyond. The potential effects of most of these newly identified lymphatic growth factors on tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis remain to be further investigated. A number of questions remain to be answered concerning the potential efficacy of targeting at tumor-induced lymphangiogenesis for inhibiting tumor spread to lymph nodes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Xu Da
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, PR China.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
161
|
Abstract
Tumour angiogenesis is a fast growing domain in tumour biology. Many growth factors and mechanisms have been unravelled. For almost 30 years, the sprouting of new vessels out of existing ones was considered as an exclusive way of tumour vascularisation. However, over the last years several additional mechanisms have been identified. With the discovery of the contribution of intussusceptive angiogenesis, recruitment of endothelial progenitor cells, vessel co-option, vasculogenic mimicry and lymphangiogenesis to tumour growth, anti-tumour targeting strategies will be more complex than initially thought. This review highlights these processes and intervention as a potential application in cancer therapy. It is concluded that future anti-vascular therapies might be most beneficial when based on multimodal anti-angiogenic, anti-vasculogenic mimicry and anti-lymphangiogenic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Femke Hillen
- Angiogenesis Laboratory, Research Institute for Growth and Development (GROW), Department of Pathology, Maastricht University & University Hospital Maastricht, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Arjan W. Griffioen
- Angiogenesis Laboratory, Research Institute for Growth and Development (GROW), Department of Pathology, Maastricht University & University Hospital Maastricht, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
162
|
Cueni LN, Detmar M. Lymphatic Vascular System and Lymphangiogenesis. Angiogenesis 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-71518-6_43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
163
|
Abstract
Tumor metastasis to sentinel lymph nodes represents the first step of tumor dissemination in most human cancers and serves as a major prognostic indicator for disease progression. Recent studies have revealed that tumors can actively induce the formation of lymphatic vessels, and that tumor lymphangiogenesis is correlated with lymph node metastasis in experimental cancer models and in several types of human cancers. Metastatic tumor cells may continue to promote lymphatic vessel growth even after their metastasis to sentinel lymph nodes, likely promoting further cancer spread. Vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D were the first specific lymphangiogenesis factors identified, acting predominantly via VEGF receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) that is expressed by lymphatic endothelial cells, and a large number of clinical studies have shown a correlation between tumor expression of VEGF-C or VEGF-D and lymph node metastasis. VEGFR-3 activation promotes lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and survival via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT, and the c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase 1/2 pathways. Additional tumor lymphangiogenesis factors have been recently identified, including VEGF-A. Importantly, blockade of the VEGFR-3 pathway by specific antibodies, by soluble receptor constructs, and by small molecule kinase inhibitors efficiently inhibits experimental tumor lymphangiogenesis and metastasis and might also represent a novel therapeutic avenue for the treatment of human cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Wissmann
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
164
|
Sundlisaeter E, Dicko A, Sakariassen PØ, Sondenaa K, Enger PØ, Bjerkvig R. Lymphangiogenesis in colorectal cancer--prognostic and therapeutic aspects. Int J Cancer 2007; 121:1401-9. [PMID: 17640040 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.22996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents the second most common cause of cancer mortality in the western world. The tumors frequently show metastatic spread which affects different organs such as lymph nodes, liver and lungs. Although the pattern of spread may vary, the initial step usually involves dissemination to regional lymph nodes. At present it is clear that neovessel formation, including lymphangiogenesis, represents key events in tumor progression. However, to what extent lymphangiogenesis contributes in the progression of CRC is unclear. This work focuses on recent progress within the field of tumor lymphangiogenesis with special reference to CRC, and on novel therapeutic strategies for anti-lymphangiogenic therapies. Inhibition of metastatic spread may be achieved by restriction of lymphatic vessel growth by using targeted therapeutic strategies towards molecules involved in lymphangiogenic signalling. Such adjuvant therapeutic approaches in addition to existing therapeutic strategies may represent a favourable treatment for CRCs with higher than average risk of disease recurrence and progression.
Collapse
|
165
|
Sun P, Gao J, Liu YL, Wei LW, Wu LP, Liu ZY. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) reduction interferes with lymphangiogenesis and enhances epirubicin sensitivity of breast cancer cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2007; 308:161-8. [PMID: 17938864 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-007-9624-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2007] [Accepted: 10/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
It has been reported that over-expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) in tumors leads to increased lymphangiogenesis and resistance to chemotherapy. Therefore, we hypothesized that VEGF-C would be a good molecular target for cancer gene therapy. In this study, we silenced the expression of VEGF-C with the highly specific post-transcriptional suppression of RNA interference (RNAi) in human breast cancer MCF-7 cell line. The expression of VEGF-C was examined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the effect of plasmid on human lymphatic endothelial cells (HLECs) in vitro was analyzed by migration and 3-(4, 5-dimethylt-hiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The sensitivity to anticancer agents was evaluated by MTT and apoptosis assay, and apoptosis-related genes bcl-2/bax ratio was determined by Western Blotting. Results showed that of three siRNA-expressing vectors, P-1/siRNA most significantly suppressed the expression of VEGF-C mRNA and protein (38.1% of control and 117.8 +/- 24.2 pg/ml, respectively) and interfered with proliferation and migration of HLECs in vitro. Moreover, transfection of VEGF-C/siRNA combined with Epirubicin markedly decreased breast cancer cells viability, reaching up to 38.5%, and increased apoptosis rate from 13.1% to 38.9%, as determined by decrease of bcl-2/bax ratio. In summary, VEGF-C would be a good molecular target, and a combination of Epirubicin and RNAi targeting VEGF-C could be an effective means for suppressing lymphatic metastasis and enhancing chemosensitivity of human breast cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ping Sun
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Shandong University, No. 44, WenHua Xi Road, JiNan, Shandong 250012, PR China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
166
|
Abstract
Regional lymph node metastasis is a common event in solid tumors and is considered a marker for dissemination, increased stage, and worse prognosis. Despite rapid advances in tumor biology, the molecular processes that underpin lymphatic invasion and lymph node metastasis remain poorly understood. However, exciting discoveries have been made in the field of lymphangiogenesis in recent years. The identification of vascular endothelial growth factor ligands and cognate receptors involved in lymphangiogenesis, an understanding of the embryology of the mammalian lymphatic system, the recent isolation of pure populations of lymphatic endothelial cells, the investigation of lymphatic metastases in animal models, and the identification of markers that discriminate lymphatics from blood vessels at immunohistochemistry are current advances in the field of lymphangiogenesis, and as such are the main focus of this article. This review also evaluates evidence for lymphangiogenesis (ie, new lymphatic vessel formation in cancer) and critically reviews current data on the prognostic significance of lymphatic vascular density in tumors. A targeted approach to block pathways of lymphangiogenesis seems to be an attractive anticancer treatment strategy. Conversely, promotion of lymphangiogenesis may be a promising approach to the management of treatment-induced lymphedema in cancer survivors. Finally, the implications of these developments in cancer therapeutics and directions for future research are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sudha S Sundar
- Department of Gynaecological Oncology, Cheltenham General Hospital, Gloucestershire Hospitals Foundation Trust, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom.
| | | |
Collapse
|
167
|
Zwaans BMM, Bielenberg DR. Potential therapeutic strategies for lymphatic metastasis. Microvasc Res 2007; 74:145-58. [PMID: 17950368 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2007.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2007] [Revised: 08/24/2007] [Accepted: 08/24/2007] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Physiologically, the lymphatic system regulates fluid volume in the interstitium and provides a conduit for immune cells to travel to lymph nodes, but pathologically, the lymphatic system serves as a primary escape route for cancer cells. Lymphatic capillaries have a thin discontinuous basement membrane, lack pericyte coverage and often contain endothelial cell gaps that can be invaded by immune cells (or tumor cells). In addition, tumor cells and stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment secrete factors that stimulate lymphangiogenesis, the growth of lymphatic endothelial cells and the sprouting of lymphatic capillaries. As a result, many tumors are surrounded by large, hyperplastic, peri-tumoral lymphatic vessels and less frequently are invaded by intra-tumoral lymphatic vessels. Carcinoma cells commonly metastasize through these lymphatic vessels to regional lymph nodes. The presence of metastatic cells in the sentinel lymph node is a prognostic indicator for many types of cancer, and the degree of dissemination determines the therapeutic course of action. Lymphangiogenesis is currently at the frontier of metastasis research. Recent strides in this field have uncovered numerous signaling pathways specific for lymphatic endothelial cells and vascular endothelial cells. This review will provide an overview of tumor lymphangiogenesis and current strategies aimed at inhibiting lymphatic metastasis. Novel therapeutic approaches that target the tumor cells as well as the vascular and lymphatic endothelial compartments are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernadette M M Zwaans
- Program in Vascular Biology, Department of Surgery, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
168
|
Cao Y, Zhong W. Tumor-derived lymphangiogenic factors and lymphatic metastasis. Biomed Pharmacother 2007; 61:534-9. [PMID: 17904785 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2007.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) originally differentiated from venous endothelial cells express several specific makers that distinguish them from the blood vessels. Lymphangiogenesis, a complex process of sprouting of new lymphatic vessels, is regulated by multiple direct and indirect growth factors. Vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) is the most potent and selective lymphangiogenic factor that plays a crucial role in the establishment of the first lymphatic vessel during embryonic development and in mediating lymphatic metastasis. In addition to VEGF-C, recent studies show that a range of known tumor-produced angiogenic factors also stimulates lymphangiogenesis, suggesting complex and tight regulations of this process. These tumor-derived lymphangiogenic factors may either alone or jointly promote lymphatic metastasis. Understanding regulatory mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis is pivotal for development of lymphangiogenesis antagonists that might therapeutically be used for intervention of lymphatic metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yihai Cao
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis Research, Department of Microbiology, Tumor, and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
169
|
Tong S, Yuan F. Dose response of angiogenesis to basic fibroblast growth factor in rat corneal pocket assay: I. Experimental characterizations. Microvasc Res 2007; 75:10-5. [PMID: 17706726 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2007.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2007] [Accepted: 06/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Understanding mechanisms of formation of vascular networks under different experimental conditions is essential for improving treatment of angiogenesis-dependent diseases. To this end, we investigated the dose response of angiogenesis to basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) using the rat corneal pocket assay. The response was quantified, in terms of (i) the migration distance of vascular networks, (ii) the total vessel length, (iii) the distribution of the projected width of vessels, (iv) the distribution of the number of vessels, and (v) the distribution of vessel diameters. The quantification was based on new image analysis methods developed in the study. It was observed that the migration distance and the total vessel length increased by 82% and 199%, respectively, when the dose of bFGF was increased from 5 ng to 50 ng. The number and the diameter of vessels increased with the dose of bFGF as well. However, the last two parameters at a given dose of bFGF were approximately independent of the location in the middle region between the pellet and the limbus. These results provided useful information for understanding mechanisms of angiogenesis induced by bFGF and important data for validating a mathematical model of angiogenesis described in the second part of the study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Tong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
170
|
Taniguchi K, Kohno RI, Ayada T, Kato R, Ichiyama K, Morisada T, Oike Y, Yonemitsu Y, Maehara Y, Yoshimura A. Spreds are essential for embryonic lymphangiogenesis by regulating vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 signaling. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:4541-50. [PMID: 17438136 PMCID: PMC1900061 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01600-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Spred/Sprouty family proteins negatively regulate growth factor-induced ERK activation. Although the individual physiological roles of Spred-1 and Spred-2 have been investigated using gene-disrupted mice, the overlapping functions of Spred-1 and Spred-2 have not been clarified. Here, we demonstrate that the deletion of both Spred-1 and Spred-2 resulted in embryonic lethality at embryonic days 12.5 to 15.5 with marked subcutaneous hemorrhage, edema, and dilated lymphatic vessels filled with erythrocytes. This phenotype resembled that of Syk(-/-) and SLP-76(-/-) mice with defects in the separation of lymphatic vessels from blood vessels. The number of LYVE-1-positive lymphatic vessels and lymphatic endothelial cells increased markedly in Spred-1/2-deficient embryos compared with WT embryos, while the number of blood vessels was not different. Ex vivo colony assay revealed that Spred-1/2 suppressed lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation and/or differentiation. In cultured cells, the overexpression of Spred-1 or Spred-2 strongly suppressed vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C)/VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-3-mediated ERK activation, while Spred-1/2-deficient cells were extremely sensitive to VEGFR-3 signaling. These data suggest that Spreds play an important role in lymphatic vessel development by negatively regulating VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Koji Taniguchi
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Fukuoka, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
171
|
Furtado GC, Marinkovic T, Martin AP, Garin A, Hoch B, Hubner W, Chen BK, Genden E, Skobe M, Lira SA. Lymphotoxin beta receptor signaling is required for inflammatory lymphangiogenesis in the thyroid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:5026-31. [PMID: 17360402 PMCID: PMC1829258 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0606697104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2006] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Infiltration of lymphocytes into the thyroid gland and formation of lymph node-like structures is a hallmark of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Here we demonstrate that lymphatic vessels are present within these infiltrates. Mice overexpressing the chemokine CCL21 in the thyroid (TGCCL21 mice) developed similar lymphoid infiltrates and lymphatic vessels. TGCCL21 mice lacking mature T and B cells (RAGTGCCL21 mice) did not have cellular infiltrates or increased number of lymphatic vessels compared with controls. Transfer of CD3(+)CD4(+) T cells into RAGTGCCL21 mice promoted the development of LYVE-1(+)podoplanin(+)Prox-1(+) vessels in the thyroid. Genetic deletion of lymphotoxin beta receptor or lymphotoxin alpha abrogated development of lymphatic vessels in the inflamed areas in the thyroid but did not affect development of neighboring lymphatics. These results define a model for the study of inflammatory lymphangiogenesis in the thyroid and implicate lymphotoxin beta receptor signaling in this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mihaela Skobe
- *Immunology Insitute and
- Oncological Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029-6574
| | | |
Collapse
|
172
|
Tazzari PL, Tabellini G, Bortul R, Papa V, Evangelisti C, Grafone T, Martinelli G, McCubrey JA, Martelli AM. The insulin-like growth factor-I receptor kinase inhibitor NVP-AEW541 induces apoptosis in acute myeloid leukemia cells exhibiting autocrine insulin-like growth factor-I secretion. Leukemia 2007; 21:886-96. [PMID: 17361225 DOI: 10.1038/sj.leu.2404643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and its receptor (IGF-IR) have been implicated in the pathophysiology of many human cancers, including those of hematopoietic lineage. We investigated the therapeutic potential of the novel IGF-IR tyrosine kinase activity inhibitor, NVP-AEW541, on human acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. NVP-AEW541 was tested on a HL60 cell subclone, which is dependent on autocrine secretion of IGF-I for survival and drug resistance, as well as primary drug resistant leukemia cells. NVP-AEW541 treatment (24 h) induced dephosphorylation of IGF-IR. NVP-AEW541 also caused Akt dephosphorylation and changes in the expression of key regulatory proteins of the cell cycle. At longer incubation times (48 h), NVP-AEW541-induced apoptotic cell death, as demonstrated by caspase-3 cleavage. Apoptosis was accompanied by decreased expression of anti-apoptotic proteins. NVP-AEW541 enhanced sensitivity of HL60 cells to either cytarabine or etoposide. Moreover, NVP-AEW541 reduced the clonogenic capacity of AML CD34(+) cells cultured in the presence of IGF-I. Chemoresistant AML blasts displayed enhanced IGF-I secretion, and were sensitized to etoposide-induced apoptosis by NVP-AEW541. Our findings indicate that NVP-AEW541 might be a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of those AML cases characterized by IGF-I autocrine secretion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P L Tazzari
- Servizio di Immunoematologia e Trasfusionale, Policlinico S.Orsola-Malpighi, Bologna, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
173
|
Samani AA, Yakar S, LeRoith D, Brodt P. The role of the IGF system in cancer growth and metastasis: overview and recent insights. Endocr Rev 2007; 28:20-47. [PMID: 16931767 DOI: 10.1210/er.2006-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 730] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR) signaling and functions are mediated through the activities of a complex molecular network of positive (e.g., type I IGF) and negative (e.g., the type II IGF receptor, IGF-IIR) effectors. Under normal physiological conditions, the balance between the expression and activities of these molecules is tightly controlled. Changes in this delicate balance (e.g., overexpression of one effector) may trigger a cascade of molecular events that can ultimately lead to malignancy. In recent years, evidence has been mounting that the IGF axis may be involved in human cancer progression and can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. Here we review old and more recent evidence on the role the IGF system in malignancy and highlight experimental and clinical studies that provide novel insights into the complex mechanisms that contribute to its oncogenic potential. Controversies arising from conflicting evidence on the relevance of IGF-IR and its ligands to human cancer are discussed. Our review highlights the importance of viewing the IGF axis as a complex multifactorial system and shows that changes in the expression levels of any one component of the axis, in a given malignancy, should be interpreted with caution and viewed in a wider context that takes into account the expression levels, state of activation, accessibility, and functionality of other interacting components. Because IGF targeting for anticancer therapy is rapidly becoming a clinical reality, an understanding of this complexity is timely because it is likely to have an impact on the design, mode of action, and clinical outcomes of newly developed drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amir Abbas Samani
- Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital, Room H6.25687, Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Québec, Canada H3A 1A1
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
174
|
Guvakova MA. Insulin-like growth factors control cell migration in health and disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 39:890-909. [PMID: 17113337 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2006.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2006] [Revised: 10/13/2006] [Accepted: 10/19/2006] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II) have an ancient origin and play essential roles in fundamental biological processes. Although IGFs are principally known for their roles in regulating cell growth and survival, their ability to influence cell motility is just as significant. In the past 20 years, research has provided indisputable evidence for the regulatory role of IGFs in the migration of various cell types. Cell migration is crucial for reproduction, development, and tissue regeneration; IGFs play an important role in coordinating these processes. Moreover, studies continue to uncover the IGFs' role in stimulating cancer cell migration, invasion and metastasis. This review surveys current knowledge on the cell migration-modulating properties of IGFs and the biochemical pathways by which these peptides regulate cell movement in both physiological and pathological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina A Guvakova
- Division of Endocrine and Oncologic Surgery, Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
175
|
Affiliation(s)
- David G Jackson
- MRC Human Immunology Unit and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| |
Collapse
|
176
|
Cao Y, Liu Q. Therapeutic Targets of Multiple Angiogenic Factors for the Treatment of Cancer and Metastasis. Adv Cancer Res 2007; 97:203-24. [PMID: 17419947 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(06)97009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Like any growing healthy tissues, tumors build up their blood vessels by three mechanisms: angiogenesis, vasculogenesis, and intersucception. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) is one of the key factors responsible for stimulation and maintenance of the disorganized, leaky, and torturous tumor vasculature. In addition to VEGF-A, tumors produce multiple other factors to stimulate blood vessel growth. These include members in the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), VEGF-C, insulin-like growth factor (IGF), angiopoietin (Ang), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) families. Recent studies show that these angiogenic factors can also promote lymphangiogenesis and potentially lymphatic metastasis. Understanding the roles of individual and combined angiogenic factors in promoting tumor angiogenesis is crucial for defining therapeutic targets and antiangiogenic drug development for the treatment of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yihai Cao
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis Research, Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
177
|
Saintigny P, Morère JF, Breau JL, Bernaudin JF, Kraemer M. Lymph node metastasis as a new target for cancer treatment. Target Oncol 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s11523-006-0037-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
178
|
Van der Auwera I, Cao Y, Tille JC, Pepper MS, Jackson DG, Fox SB, Harris AL, Dirix LY, Vermeulen PB. First international consensus on the methodology of lymphangiogenesis quantification in solid human tumours. Br J Cancer 2006; 95:1611-25. [PMID: 17117184 PMCID: PMC2360768 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The lymphatic system is the primary pathway of metastasis for most human cancers. Recent research efforts in studying lymphangiogenesis have suggested the existence of a relationship between lymphatic vessel density and patient survival. However, current methodology of lymphangiogenesis quantification is still characterised by high intra- and interobserver variability. For the amount of lymphatic vessels in a tumour to be a clinically useful parameter, a reliable quantification technique needs to be developed. With this consensus report, we therefore would like to initiate discussion on the standardisation of the immunohistochemical method for lymphangiogenesis assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I Van der Auwera
- Translational Cancer Research Group Antwerp, Laboratory of Pathology, University of Antwerp/University Hospital Antwerp, Edegem 2650, Belgium; Oncology Centre, General Hospital Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Y Cao
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis Research, Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - J C Tille
- Department of Microbiology, Laboratory of Angiogenesis Research, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - M S Pepper
- NetCare Molecular Medicine Institute, Unitas Hospital and Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
| | - D G Jackson
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - S B Fox
- Department of Pathology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victoria 8006, Australia
| | - A L Harris
- Cancer Research UK Molecular Oncology Laboratories, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - L Y Dirix
- Translational Cancer Research Group Antwerp, Laboratory of Pathology, University of Antwerp/University Hospital Antwerp, Edegem 2650, Belgium; Oncology Centre, General Hospital Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - P B Vermeulen
- Translational Cancer Research Group Antwerp, Laboratory of Pathology, University of Antwerp/University Hospital Antwerp, Edegem 2650, Belgium; Oncology Centre, General Hospital Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
- Laboratory of Pathology, General Hospital St-Augustinus, Oosterveldlaan 24, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
179
|
Diehl D, Oesterle D, Elmlinger MW, Hoeflich A, Wolf E, Lahm H. IGF-II transgenic mice display increased aberrant colon crypt multiplicity and tumor volume after 1,2-dimethylhydrazine treatment. J Carcinog 2006; 5:24. [PMID: 17118177 PMCID: PMC1660565 DOI: 10.1186/1477-3163-5-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2006] [Accepted: 11/21/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In colorectal cancer insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) is frequently overexpressed. To evaluate, whether IGF-II affects different stages of tumorigenesis, we induced neoplastic alterations in the colon of wild-type and IGF-II transgenic mice using 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH). Aberrant crypt foci (ACF) served as markers of early lesions in the colonic mucosa, whereas adenomas and carcinomas characterized the endpoints of tumor development. DMH-treatment led initially to significantly more ACF in IGF-II transgenic than in wild-type mice. This increase in ACF was especially prominent for those consisting of > or =three aberrant crypts (AC). Nevertheless, adenomas and adenocarcinomas of the colon, present after 34 weeks in both genetic groups, were not found at different frequency. Tumor volumes, however, were significantly higher in IGF-II transgenic mice and correlated with serum IGF-II levels. Immunohistochemical staining for markers of proliferation and apoptosis revealed increased cell proliferation rates in tumors of IGF-II transgenic mice without significant affection of apoptosis. Increased proliferation was accompanied by elevated localization of beta-catenin in the cytosol and cell nuclei and reduced appearance at the inner plasma membrane. In conclusion, we provide evidence that IGF-II, via activation of the beta-catenin signaling cascade, promotes growth of ACF and tumors without affecting tumor numbers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Diehl
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 25, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Doris Oesterle
- Institute of Toxicology, GSF-National Research Center for Environment and Health, Ingolstädter Landstr.1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Martin W Elmlinger
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Children's Hospital, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str.1, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Hoeflich
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 25, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Eckhard Wolf
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 25, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Harald Lahm
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 25, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
180
|
Achen MG, Stacker SA. Tumor lymphangiogenesis and metastatic spread-new players begin to emerge. Int J Cancer 2006; 119:1755-60. [PMID: 16557570 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The metastatic spread of tumor cells is the most lethal aspect of cancer and can occur via various routes, including the lymphatic vasculature. Studies of tumor models in animals and clinicopathological data have indicated that growth of lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis) in the vicinity of solid tumors may contribute to lymphatic metastasis. Research over the past 5 years has identified a range of lymphangiogenic growth factors that could conceivably play a role in promoting tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis. The most extensively studied signaling system that promotes lymphangiogenesis in tumors involves the secreted lymphangiogenic proteins vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and VEGF-D, and their cognate receptor on lymphatic endothelium VEGF receptor-3 (VEGFR-3). More recent studies have identified other signaling molecules that can also promote lymphangiogenesis in vivo, including hepatocyte growth factor and members of the fibroblast growth factor, angiopoietin, platelet-derived growth factor and insulin-like growth factor families of secreted proteins. This article provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms that control lymphangiogenic signaling, emphasizing the more recently identified lymphangiogenic growth factors and the roles they may play in cancer biology. Molecular approaches for inhibiting lymphangiogenic signaling in cancer, designed to restrict tumor metastasis, are also examined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc G Achen
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Victoria 3050, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
181
|
Cueni LN, Detmar M. New Insights into the Molecular Control of the Lymphatic Vascular System and its Role in Disease. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126:2167-77. [PMID: 16983326 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jid.5700464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The cutaneous lymphatic system plays an important role in the maintenance of tissue fluid homeostasis, in the afferent phase of the immune response, and in the metastatic spread of skin cancers. However, the lymphatic system has not received as much scientific attention as the blood vascular system, largely due to a lack of lymphatic-specific markers and to the dearth of knowledge about the molecular regulation of its development and function. The recent identification of genes that specifically control lymphatic development and the growth of lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis), together with the discovery of new lymphatic endothelium-specific markers, have now provided new insights into the molecular mechanisms that control lymphatic growth and function. Moreover, studies of several genetic mouse models have set the framework for a new molecular model for embryonic lymphatic vascular development, and have identified molecular pathways whose mutational inactivation leads to human diseases associated with lymphedema. These scientific advances have also provided surprising evidence that malignant tumors can directly promote lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis, and that lymphatic vessels play a major role in cutaneous inflammation and in the cutaneous response to UVB irradiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leah N Cueni
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
182
|
Affiliation(s)
- A Bikfalvi
- INSERM E113 'Molecular Angiogenesis Laboratory', Université Bordeaux I, Talence, France
| |
Collapse
|
183
|
Lieskovska J, Ling Y, Badley-Clarke J, Clemmons DR. The role of Src kinase in insulin-like growth factor-dependent mitogenic signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:25041-53. [PMID: 16825188 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m602866200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of the MAPK pathway mediates insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I)-dependent proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells (SMC). Our previous studies have shown that IGF-I-induced Shc phosphorylation is necessary for sustained activation of MAPK and increased cell proliferation of SMCs, and both Shc and the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 must be recruited to the membrane protein SHPS-1 in order for Shc to be phosphorylated. These studies were undertaken to determine whether Src kinase activity is required to phosphorylate Shc in response to IGF-I in SMC and because SHP-2 binds to Src whether their interaction was also required for IGF-I-stimulated mitogenesis. Our results show that IGF-I induces activation of Src kinase and that is required for Shc phosphorylation and for optimal MAPK activation. We tested whether Shc is a substrate of c-Src in SMC by disrupting Src/Shc association using a peptide containing a YXXL (Tyr328) motif sequence derived from Src. The peptide blocked the binding of Src and Shc in vitro and in vivo. Cells expressing a mutant Src (Src-FF) that had Tyr328/Tyr358 substituted with phenylalanines (Src-FF) showed defective Src/Shc binding, impaired IGF-I-dependent Shc phorylation, and impaired mitogenesis. This supports the conclusion that Src phosphorylates Shc. IGF-I induced both Src/SHP-2 and Src/SHPS-1 association. SMCs expressing an SHP-2 mutant that had the polyproline-rich region of SH2 deleted (SHP-2Delta10) had disrupted SHP-2/Src association, impaired IGF-I-dependent Shc phosphorylation, and an attenuated mitogenic response. IGF-I-induced association of Src and SHPS-1 was also impaired in SHP-2Delata10-expressing cells, although SHP-2/SHPS-1 association was unaffected. Upon IGF-I stimulation, a complex assembles on SHPS-1 that contains SHP-2, c-Src, and Shc wherein Src phosphorylates Shc, a signaling step that is necessary for an optimal mitogenic response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslava Lieskovska
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7170, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
184
|
Blei F. Literature Watch. Lymphat Res Biol 2006. [DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2006.4.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Francine Blei
- NYU Medical Center, Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Medical Coordinator, Vascular Anomaly Program, New York, NY
| |
Collapse
|
185
|
Cao R, Björndahl MA, Gallego MI, Chen S, Religa P, Hansen AJ, Cao Y. Hepatocyte growth factor is a lymphangiogenic factor with an indirect mechanism of action. Blood 2006; 107:3531-6. [PMID: 16424394 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2005-06-2538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) has previously been reported to act as a hemangiogenic factor, as well as a mitogenic factor for a variety of tumor cells. Here, we demonstrate that HGF is a lymphangiogenic factor, which may contribute to lymphatic metastasis when overexpressed in tumors. In a mouse corneal lymphangiogenesis model, implantation of HGF induces sprouting and growth of new lymphatic vessel expressing the lymphatic vessel endothelial specific marker hyaluronan receptor-1 (Lyve-1). Unlike blood vessels, the Lyve-1-positive structures consist of blunt-ended vessels of large diameters that generally lack expression of CD31. The growth of HGF-induced lymphatic vessels can be partially blocked by a soluble VEGFR-3, suggesting that HGF may stimulate lymphatic vessel growth through an indirect mechanism. Consistent with this finding, the HGF receptor (c-Met) is only localized on corneal blood vessels but is absent on lymphatic vessels in a mouse corneal assay. In a transgenic mouse model that expresses HGF under the control of the whey acidic protein (WAP) gene promoter, transgenic females develop tumors in the mammary glands after several pregnancies. Interestingly, dilated Lyve-1-positive lymphatic vessels accumulate in the peritumoral area and occasionally penetrate into the tumor tissue. Our findings indicate that HGF may play a critical role in lymphangiogenesis and potentially contribute to lymphatic metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renhai Cao
- Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
186
|
|
187
|
Kawada M, Inoue H, Masuda T, Ikeda D. Insulin-like Growth Factor I Secreted from Prostate Stromal Cells Mediates Tumor-Stromal Cell Interactions of Prostate Cancer. Cancer Res 2006; 66:4419-25. [PMID: 16618768 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-4239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer shows high expression of type I insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) receptor (IGF-IR) and prostate stromal cells (PrSC) produce IGF-I. Although high plasma level of IGF-I is a risk factor of prostate cancer, the significance of the prostate stromal IGF-I in the regulation of prostate cancer remains elusive. Here we show that the stromal IGF-I certainly regulates the development of prostate cancer. Coinoculation of PrSC increased the growth of human prostate cancer LNCaP and DU-145 tumors in severe combined immunodeficient mice. The conditioned medium of PrSC, as well as IGF-I, induced phosphorylation of IGF-IR and increased the growth of LNCaP and DU-145 cells. PrSC, but not LNCaP and DU-145 cells, secreted significant amounts of IGF-I. Coculture with PrSC increased the growth of DU-145 cells in vitro but the pretreatment of PrSC with small interfering RNA of IGF-I did not enhance it. Furthermore, various chemical inhibitors consisting of 79 compounds with approximately 60 different targets led to the finding that only IGF-IR inhibitor suppressed the PrSC-induced growth enhancement of DU-145 cells. Thus, these results show that the prostate stromal IGF-I mediates tumor-stromal cell interactions of prostate cancer to accelerate tumor growth, supporting the idea that the IGF-I signaling is a valuable target for the treatment of prostate cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Kawada
- Drug Development Unit, Numazu Bio-Medical Research Institute, Microbial Chemistry Research Center, Miyamoto, Numazu-shi, Shizuoka, Japan.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
188
|
Rockson SG. Literature watch. Lymphat Res Biol 2006; 4:57-61. [PMID: 16569210 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2006.4.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley G Rockson
- Stanford Center for Lymphatic and Venous Disorders, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
189
|
Albini A, Dell'Eva R, Vené R, Ferrari N, Buhler DR, Noonan DM, Fassina G. Mechanisms of the antiangiogenic activity by the hop flavonoid xanthohumol: NF‐κB and Akt as targets. FASEB J 2005; 20:527-9. [PMID: 16403733 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-5128fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Xanthohumol (XN), the principal flavonoid of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus L.) and a constituent of beer, has been suggested to have potential cancer chemopreventive activities. We have observed that most cancer chemopreventive agents show antiangiogenic properties in vitro and in vivo, a concept we termed "angioprevention." Here we show for the first time that XN can inhibit growth of a vascular tumor in vivo. Histopathology and in vivo angiogenesis assays indicated that tumor angiogenesis inhibition was involved. Further, we show the mechanisms for its inhibition of angiogenesis in vivo and related endothelial cell activities in vitro. XN repressed both the NF-kappaB and Akt pathways in endothelial cells, indicating that components of these pathways are major targets in the molecular mechanism of XN. Moreover, using in vitro analyses, we show that XN interferes with several points in the angiogenic process, including inhibition of endothelial cell invasion and migration, growth, and formation of a network of tubular-like structures. Our results suggest that XN can be added to the expanding list of antiangiogenic chemopreventive drugs whose potential in cancer prevention and therapy should be evaluated.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- 3T3 Cells/metabolism
- Administration, Oral
- Angiogenesis Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Animals
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cell Line, Transformed/drug effects
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Chemotaxis/drug effects
- Collagen
- Culture Media, Conditioned/pharmacology
- Drug Combinations
- Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor
- Endothelial Cells/drug effects
- Endothelial Cells/metabolism
- Endothelial Cells/ultrastructure
- Endothelium, Vascular/drug effects
- Flavonoids
- Humans
- Humulus/chemistry
- I-kappa B Proteins/metabolism
- Laminin
- Mice
- Mice, Nude
- Morphogenesis/drug effects
- NF-KappaB Inhibitor alpha
- NF-kappa B/antagonists & inhibitors
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Phosphorylation/drug effects
- Propiophenones/pharmacology
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational/drug effects
- Protein Transport/drug effects
- Proteoglycans
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/antagonists & inhibitors
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/blood supply
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/drug therapy
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/pathology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Albini
- Molecular Oncology Laboratory, Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
190
|
Giovannucci E. Insulin, insulin-like growth factors and colon cancer: a review of the evidence. J Nutr 2001; 43:189-94. [PMID: 22022297 PMCID: PMC3192881 DOI: 10.4143/crt.2011.43.3.189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axes are major determinants of proliferation and apoptosis and thus may influence carcinogenesis. In various animal models, modulation of insulin and IGF-1 levels through various means, including direct infusion, energy excess or restriction, genetically induced obesity, dietary quality including fatty acid and sucrose content, inhibition of normal insulin secretion and pharmacologic inhibition of IGF-1, influences colonic carcinogenesis. Human evidence also associates high levels of insulin and IGF-1 with increased risk of colon cancer. Clinical conditions associated with high levels of insulin (noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and hypertriglyceridemia) and IGF-1 (acromegaly) are related to increased risk of colon cancer, and increased circulating concentrations of insulin and IGF-1 are related to a higher risk of colonic neoplasia. Determinants and markers of hyperinsulinemia (physical inactivity, high body mass index, central adiposity) and high IGF-1 levels (tall stature) are also related to higher risk. Many studies indicate that dietary patterns that stimulate insulin resistance or secretion, including high consumption of sucrose, various sources of starch, a high glycemic index and high saturated fatty acid intake, are associated with a higher risk of colon cancer. Although additional environmental and genetic factors affect colon cancer, the incidence of this malignancy was invariably low before the technological advances that rendered sedentary lifestyles and obesity common, and increased availability of highly processed carbohydrates and saturated fatty acids. Efforts to counter these patterns are likely to have the most potential to reduce colon cancer incidence, as well as cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Giovannucci
- Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|