Pharmacological actions of Cordyceps, a prized folk medicine

Culture conditions and medium components for the production of mycelial biomass and exo-polysaccharides with Paecilomyces japonica in liquid culture

In this study, the liquid culture conditions were optimized for maximal production of mycelial biomass and exo-polysaccharide by Paecilomyces japonica. The effects of medium composition, C/N ratio and physical parameters were investigated. From these experiments, 30 g glucose, 20 g yeast extract, 0.5 g KH2PO4, and 0.1 g CuCl2 2H2O in 1-l distilled water were found to be the most suitable carbon, nitrogen, and mineral sources, respectively. The optimal temperature, initial pH, agitation, and aeration were determined to be 27°C, uncontrolled pH, 400 rpm, and 1.0 vvm, respectively. Under these optimal conditions, the maximum mycelial growth and polysaccharides production were 23.1 g/l and 2.5 g/l, respectively.

Cardiovascular protection and antioxidant activity of the extracts from the mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis act partially via adenosine receptors

Mycelia of cultured Cordyceps sinensis (CS) is one of the most common substitutes for natural CS and was approved for arrhythmia in China. However, the role of CS in ameliorating injury during ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is still unclear. We examined effects of extracts from CS on I/R and investigated the possible mechanisms. Post-ischemic coronary perfusion pressure, ventricular function, and coronary flow were measured using the Langendorff mouse heart model. Oxidative stress of cardiac homogenates was performed using an ELISA. Our results indicate that CS affords cardioprotection possibly through enhanced adenosine receptor activation. Cardioprotection was demonstrated by reduced post-ischemic diastolic dysfunction and improved recovery of pressure development and coronary flow. Treatment with CS largely abrogates oxidative stress and damage in glucose- or pyruvate-perfused hearts. Importantly, observed reductions in oxidative stress [glutathione disulfide (GSSG)]/[GSSG + glutathione] and [malondialdehyde (MDA)]/[superoxide dismutase + MDA] ratios as well as the resultant damage upon CS treatment correlate with functional markers of post-ischemic myocardial outcome. These effects of CS were partially blocked by 8-ρ-sulfophenyltheophylline, an adenosine receptor antagonist. Our results demonstrate a suppressive role of CS in ischemic contracture. Meanwhile, the results also suggest pre-ischemic adenosine receptor activation may be involved in reducing contracture in hearts pretreated with CS.

The genus Cordyceps: a chemical and pharmacological review

Objectives

Natural remedies are becoming increasingly popular and important in the public and scientific communities. Historically, natural remedies have been shown to present interesting biological and pharmacological activity and are used as chemotherapeutic agents. For centuries Cordyceps, which is a genus of more than 400 species in the family Clavicipitaceae, has been used in traditional Chinese medicine. This study highlights the chemistry and pharmacology of Cordyceps, especially Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. and C. militaris (Fr.) L. Information was obtained from Google Scholar and the journal databases PubMed and Scopus.

Key findings

Many bioactive components of Cordyceps have been extracted, such as cordycepin, cordycepic acid, ergosterol, polysaccharides, nucleosides and peptides. Studies show that Cordyceps and its active principles possess a wide range of pharmacological actions, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour, antihyperglycaemic, antiapoptosis, immunomodulatory, nephroprotective, and hepatoprotective.

Summary

More research is required to discover the full extent of the activity of Cordyceps.

Cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine) attenuates age-related oxidative stress and ameliorates antioxidant capacity in rats

Free radical-induced oxidative damage is considered to be the most important consequence of the aging process. The activities and capacities of antioxidant systems of cells decline with increased age, leading to the gradual loss of pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance and resulting in increased oxidative stress. Our investigation was focused on the effects of cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine) on lipid peroxidation and antioxidation in aged rats. Age-associated decline in the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), reduced glutathione (GSH), vitamin C and vitamin E, and elevated levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) were observed in the liver, kidneys, heart and lungs of aged rats, when compared to young rats. Furthermore, serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), urea, and creatinine were found to be significantly elevated in aged rats compared to young rats. Aged rats receiving cordycepin treatment show increased activity of SOD, CAT, GPx, GR and GST, and elevated levels of GSH, and vitamins C and E such that the values of most of these parameters did not differ significantly from those found in young rats. In addition, the levels of MDA, AST, ALT, urea and creatinine became reduced upon administration of cordycepin to aged rats. These results suggest that cordycepin is effective for restoring antioxidant status and decreasing lipid peroxidation in aged rats.

The extract of Cordyceps sinensis inhibited airway inflammation by blocking NF-κB activity

Aiming the extract of Cordyceps sinensis significantly inhibits airway inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and the infiltration of eosinophils in the airway of rats and may be related to the modulation of T helper (Th)1 and Th2 cells functions. The mechanisms of C. sinensis involved in modulation of suppression inflammation are not yet determined. In this study, the mechanism involved in the extract of C. sinensis-C.S.3-modulated suppression of inflammation was investigated in vivo and in vitro systems. The results showed that C.S.3 reduced airway inflammation in ovalbumin-induced allergic mice. Furthermore, we found C.S.3 could decrease extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling pathway to suppress activity of nuclear factor-κB in lung cells and cultured airway smooth muscle cells. Conclusion C.S.3 may provide clinical applications for asthma in the future.

Activation of macrophages by polysaccharide isolated from Paecilomyces cicadae through toll-like receptor 4

Paecilomyces cicadae have been reported to have immunomodulatory properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of polysaccharide (PCP) isolated from P. cicadae on the macrophages. PCP increased the production of nitric oxide (NO) and the gene expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in RAW 264.7 cells. To investigate the membrane receptor, we examined the effect of PCP on primary macrophages isolated from wild type C3H/HeN and C3H/HeJ mice having mutant-TLR4. PCP induced NO production and cytokine gene expression in macrophages from C3H/HeN, but not from tlr4-mutated C3H/HeJ mice, which suggests that TLR4 is the membrane receptor for PCP. PCP induced the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38, and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p50/p65, which are the main signaling molecules downstream from TLR4. Among them, p38 and NF-κB signaling played a crucial role in PCP-induced NO production by macrophages. These results indicate that PCP activates macrophages through the TLR4 signaling pathway.

β Cell Protecting and Immunomodulatory Activities of Paecilomyces Hepiali Chen Mycelium in STZ Induced T1DM Mice

The anti-hyperglycemic and immunomodulatory activities of the ethanol extract from Paecilomyces Hepiali Chen (PHC), a Chinese medicine, were investigated in streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetic (T1DM) mice. Male Balb/c mice, which were i.p. injected with streptozotocin (STZ, 50 mg/kg, for 5 consecutive days) on Day 7, were orally administered saline (the normal control and diabetic control group), Metformin (60 mg/kg, b.w., positive group), or the extract (100 mg/kg, b.w., PHC prevention group) from Day 1 to Day 28, Mice i.p. injected with streptozotocin (STZ, 50 mg/kg, b.w.) for 5 consecutive days prior to PHC treatment (100 mg/kg, b.w.) were used as the PHC treatment group. The effects of PHC on postprandial blood glucose concentrations, plasmatic insulin levels, morphology of pancreatic β cells and CD4+ T cells proliferation after 28-day treatment were monitored. Results showed that PHC administered 6 days before STZ induction of diabetes in mice significantly decreased blood glucose level (p < 0.01). An increase of insulin level was also observed as compared to those in the diabetic control group (p < 0.01). In addition, fewer inflammatory cells infiltrated the pancreatic islet and fewer β cells death by apoptosis within the inflamed islets were observed. More importantly, the CD4+ T cell proliferation was remarkably attenuated ex vivo in mice preventively treated with PHC (p < 0.01). In comparison to the PHC prevention group, no significant hypoglycemia, changes of insulin level and β cell protection were observed in mice treated with PHC after STZ administration. Our findings demonstrated that preventive administration of PHC protected β cells from apoptosis in type 1 diabetes induced by STZ, and the underlying mechanism may be involved in suppressing CD4+ T cells reaction, reducing inflammatory cells infiltration and protecting beta cell apoptosis in pancreatic islet.

Improvement of Sperm Production in Subfertile Boars by Cordyceps militaris Supplement

Cordyceps species have been traditionally used for the enhancement of sexual function, however, there is few direct evidence to prove this. We investigated the spermatogenic effect of Cordyceps militaris (CM) by supplementation with CM mycelium to subfertile boars. Seventeen Duroc and 12 Landrace boars (29 to 40 months old) were selected to feed with regular diet (control groups, n = 8 and 6, respectively) or diet supplemented with CM mycelium (treatment groups, n = 9 and 6, respectively) for 2 months. Semen was collected once a week. The quality of fertile sperm (normally greater than 62% of motility and 70% of normal morphology) and the quantity (semen volume, and total sperm number) were compared in these boars. The result showed that sperm production was enhanced significantly at the end of first month ( p < 0.05), peaked at the second month ( p < 0.01) of supplementation with CM and was maintained for 2 weeks after stopping the treatment ( p < 0.01). Plasma cordycepin concentration was detected in boars supplemented with CM but not in the controls. More importantly, the percentages of motile sperm cells and sperm morphology were also improved significantly in most of treated boars during the second month of supplementation ( p < 0.01) and 2 weeks after the treatment ( p < 0.05) as compared to their initial values. These results indicate that supplementation with CM mycelium improves sperm quality and quantity in subfertile boars and may partly support the role of Cordyceps in sexual enhancement.

Immunosuppressive Effect of Cordyceps CS-4 on Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cellsin Vitro

Cordyceps CS-4 (C.CS-4), a vegetative form of Cordyceps that contains the same active compounds as the fruit body, is widely used as a substitute of Cordyceps in China. A number of studies have shown that Cordyceps can positively stimulate the activation of T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and macrophages. In our previous study, we found that C.CS-4 could inhibit the proliferation of CD4+ T cells in autoimmune diseases and prevent the lymphocyte infiltration in tissues. However, it is still unclear how the lymphocytes are regulated by C.CS-4. In this study, we investigate the effect of C.CS-4 on human monocyte-derived dendritic cells ( Mo -DCs), which are generated from PBMCs by the treatment with GM-CSF and IL-4. It is observed that Mo -DCs pretreated with C.CS-4 show an immature phenotype. Moreover, C.CS-4 significantly inhibits proliferation of CD4+ T cells, attenuates the production of cytokines in Mo -DCs and balances the Th1 and Th2 response in immune system. Our findings indicate that C.CS-4 exerts the immunosuppressive effect through inhibiting the CD4+ T cells proliferation, regulating cytokine secretions of Th1 and Th2 response ( Mo -DCs) and inducing phenotypic immature of Mo -DCs which may be related to the antigen presenting dysfunction.

Anti-inflammatory principles from Cordyceps sinensis

In order to explore the anti-inflammatory principles of the mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis, the crude extract and partially purified fractions were examined for their inhibition of superoxide anion generation and elastase release. Further chemical investigation of the bioactive fractions has resulted in the identification of 50 compounds, including five constituents, cordysinins A-E (1-5), reported from a natural source for the first time. In addition, compounds were examined for their anti-inflammatory activity. 1-(5-Hydroxymethyl-2-furyl)-β-carboline displayed the most significant inhibition of superoxide anion generation and elastase release with IC50 values of 0.45±0.15 and 1.68±0.32 μM, respectively.

Cordycepin blocks lung injury-associated inflammation and promotes BRCA1-deficient breast cancer cell killing by effectively inhibiting PARP

Cordycepin has been shown to interfere with a myriad of molecular processes from RNA elongation to kinase activity, and prevents numerous inflammatory processes in animal models. Here we show in a mouse model of LPS-induced acute lung injury that cordycepin prevents airway neutrophilia via a robust blockade of expression of several inflammatory genes, including the adhesion molecule ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, the cytokine/chemokine MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-2 and KC, and the chemokine receptor CXCR2. Such a blockade appears to be related to a severe reduction in TNF-α expression. Interestingly, in an in vitro system of A549 epithelial cell inflammation, cordycepin effectively blocked LPS-induced, but not TNF-α-induced, VCAM-1 expression. Such effects correlated with a marked reduction in p65-NF-κB activation as assessed by its phosphorylation at serine-536 but without an apparent effect on its nuclear translocation. The effects of cordycepin on the expression of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1, and of NF-κB activation and nuclear translocation upon TNF-α stimulation resembled the effects achieved upon poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibition, suggesting that cordycepin may function as a PARP inhibitor. Indeed, cordycepin blocked H(2)O(2)-induced PARP activation in A549 cells. In a cell-free system, cordycepin inhibited PARP-1 activity at nanomolar concentrations. Similar to PARP inhibitors, cordycepin significantly induced killing of breast cancer susceptibility gene (BRCA1)-deficient MCF-7 cells, supporting its therapeutic use for the treatment of BRCA-deficient breast cancers. With added antiinflammatory characteristics, therapies that include cordycepin may prevent potential inflammation triggered by traditional chemotherapeutic drugs. Cordycepin, to the best of our knowledge, represents the first natural product possessing PARP inhibitory traits.

Cordycepin protects against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in vivo and in vitro

Cordycepin, (3'-deoxyadenosine), a bioactive compound of Cordyceps militaris, has been shown to exhibit many pharmacological actions, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and anticancer activities. Little is known about the neuroprotective action of cordycepin as well as its molecular mechanisms. In this study, cordycepin was investigated for its neuroprotective potential in mice with ischemia following 15 min of the bilateral common carotid artery occlusion and 4h of reperfusion. The effect of cordycepin was also studied in mice brain slices treated with oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) injury. Our results showed that cordycepin was able to prevent postischemic neuronal degeneration and brain slice injury. Excitatory amino acids such as glutamate and aspartate in brain homogenized supernatant, which were increased in ischemia/reperfusion group, were detected by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results showed that cordycepin was able to decrease the extracellular level of glutamate and aspartate significantly. Moreover, cordycepin was able to increase the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and decrease the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), ameliorating the extent of oxidation. Furthermore, matrix metalloproteinase-3(MMP-3), a key enzyme involved in inflammatory reactions, was markedly increased after ischemia reperfusion, whereas cordycepin was able to inhibit its expression obviously. In conclusion, our in vivo and in vitro study showed that cordycepin was able to exert a potent neuroprotective function after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion.

The in vivo and in vitro stimulatory effects of cordycepin on mouse leydig cell steroidogenesis

Cordycepin, a pure compound of Cordyceps sinensis (CS), is known as an adenosine analog. We have found that CS stimulated Leydig cell steroidogenesis. Here we investigated the in vivo and in vitro effects of cordycepin in primary mouse Leydig cell steroidogenesis. The results indicate that cordycepin increased the plasma testosterone concentration. Cordycepin also stimulated in vitro mouse Leydig cell testosterone production in dose- and time-dependent manners. We further observed that cordycepin regulated the mRNA expression of the A1, A2a, A2b, and A3 adenosine receptors in the mouse Leydig cells, and that antagonists of A1, A2a, and A3 suppressed testosterone production 20-50% testosterone production. Furthermore, Rp-cAMPS (cAMP antagonist) and Protein Kinase A (PKA) inhibitors (H89 and PKI) significantly decreased cordycepin-induced testosterone production, indicating that the PKA-cAMP signal pathway was activated by cordycepin through adenosine receptors. Moreover, cordycepin induced StAR protein expression, and H89 suppressed cordycepin-induced steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein expression. Conclusively, cordycepin associated with adenosine receptors to activate cAMP-PKA-StAR pathway and steroidogenesis in the mouse Leydig cells.

Inhibition of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis by topical application of the butanol extract of Cordyceps bassiana in NC/Nga mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The Cordyceps species are insect-borne mushrooms that have been ethnopharmacologically used for skin diseases such as eczema and dermatitis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we investigated the curative effects of the butanol fraction (CBBF) of Cordyceps bassiana on atopic dermatitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dermatitis was induced by repeated application of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) in NC/Nga mice. After a topical application of CBBF on the skin lesions, the dermatitis score, epidermal thickness, mast cell number, and interleukin (IL)-4 and interferon (IFN)-γ, as well as the levels of histamine and immunoglobulin E (IgE) in the serum, were measured. Moreover, effect of CBBF on histamine release was examined using RBL-2H3 under stimulation with 2,4-dinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (DNP-BSA).

RESULTS

CBBF inhibited atopic dermatitis symptoms and signs in the DNFB-treated NC/Nga mice. The suppressive activity of topically applied CBBF may be due to the dose-dependent blockade of a series of immunopathological events, including the release of histamine, the production of IgE, and the secretion of IL-4 and IFN-γ. However, this extract did not directly suppress the degranulation process, assessed by measuring β-hexosaminidase release.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that CBBF can be applied as an effective herbal remedy to treat atopic dermatitis.

Photoprotective potential of Cordyceps polysaccharides against ultraviolet B radiation-induced DNA damage to human skin cells

BACKGROUND

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes DNA damage resulting in photoageing and skin cancer. UVB (290-320 nm) interacts directly with DNA, inducing two major photoproducts: cyclobutane-pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and (6-4) pyrimidine-pyrimidone photoproducts. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. is a medicinal fungus with reported anticancer and cytoprotective effects.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate genoprotective effects of polysaccharide-rich Cordyceps mycelial components against UVB-induced damage in normal human fibroblast cells.

METHODS

Cultured human fibroblasts (BJ cells) were treated for 30 min and, separately, for 24 h with hot water extract of Cordyceps fungal mycelia or exopolysaccharides. Cells were washed, irradiated with UVB (302 nm), and immediately lysed, after which DNA damage, as strand breaks, was measured using an enzyme-assisted comet assay that detects CPDs.

RESULTS

DNA damage in UVB-irradiated cells was significantly lowered (P < 0·01) with Cordyceps pretreatment. Similar results were seen with 30 min and 24 h pretreatment. Specifically, and in comparison with irradiated cells with no Cordyceps pretreatment, there was a 27% reduction in CPDs in irradiated cells with 24 h pretreatment with 200 μg mL(-1) of the hot water Cordyceps extract, and a 34% reduction with 24 h pretreatment with 200 μg mL(-1) of the exopolysaccharide extract.

CONCLUSIONS

Clear evidence of protection against UVB-induced CPDs was seen with Cordyceps mycelial extracts. Results indicate that Cordyceps may offer photoprotection and lower the risk of basal cell carcinoma, the main skin cancer caused by CPDs. Further study is needed to identify protective mechanisms.

Cordymin, an antifungal peptide from the medicinal fungus Cordyceps militaris

Cordymin, an antifungal peptide with a molecular mass of 10,906 Da and an N-terminal amino acid sequence distinct from those of previously reported proteins, was purified from the medicinal mushroom Cordyceps militaris. The isolation protocol comprised ion exchange chromatography of the aqueous extract on SP-Sepharose and Mono S and gel filtration on Superdex 75 by a fast protein liquid chromatography system. Cordymin was adsorbed on both cation exchangers. The peptide inhibited mycelial growth in Bipolaris maydis, Mycosphaerella arachidicola, Rhizoctonia solani and Candida albicans with an IC(50) of 50 μM, 10 μM, 80 μM, and 0.75 mM, respectively. However, there was no effect on Aspergillus fumigatus, Fusarium oxysporum and Valsa mali when tested up to 2 mM. The antifungal activity of the peptide was stable up to 100°C and in the pH range 6-13, and unaffected by 10 mM Zn(2+) and 10 mM Mg(2+). Cordymin inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase with an IC(50) of 55 μM. Cordymin displayed antiproliferative activity toward breast cancer cells (MCF-7) but there was no effect on colon cancer cells (HT-29). There was no mitogenic activity toward mouse spleen cells and no nitric oxide inducing activity toward mouse macrophages when tested up to 1 mM.

Purification and characterization of a novel fibrinolytic enzyme from fruiting bodies of Korean Cordyceps militaris

A fibrinolytic enzyme has been purified from the fruiting bodies of Korean Cordyceps militaris. The molecular mass of the enzyme was estimated to be 34 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), fibrin-zymography, and gel filtration chromatography. The 15 amino acid residues of the N-terminal sequence of the enzyme were APVEQCDAPVGLARL, which is dissimilar to those of fibrinolytic enzymes from other mushrooms. Optimal pH and temperature values of the enzyme were 7.0 and 40°C, respectively. The enzyme activity was completely inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), TPCK, 1,10-phenanthroline, Cu(2+), and Ba(2+). It was also significantly inhibited by aprotinin, EDTA, and EGTA. The enzyme showed a higher specificity for a synthetic substrate, N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-p-nitroanilide, exhibiting that it is a chymotrypsin-like serine metalloprotease. The enzyme preferentially hydrolyzed the fibrinogen Aα-, followed by the Bβ-chains and the γ-chain. The α, β, and γ-γ chains of fibrin were also degraded by the enzyme.

Hericium erinaceus enhances doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

It has been demonstrated that the Hericium erinaceus (HE) mushroom, which primarily consists of polysaccharides, possesses anti-tumor activities. However, the mechanisms by which HE inhibits human hepatocellular carcinoma growth remain unknown. Our study demonstrates that HE acts as an enhancer to sensitize doxorubicin (Dox)-mediated apoptotic signaling, and this sensitization can be achieved by reducing c-FLIP expression via JNK activation and enhancing intracellular Dox accumulation via the inhibition of NF-κB activity. These findings suggest that HE in combination with Dox serves as an effective tool for treating drug-resistant human hepatocellular carcinoma.

Anti-inflammatory effects of cordycepin via suppression of inflammatory mediators in BV2 microglial cells

Cordyceps militaris, a traditional medicinal mushroom, produces the bioactive compound cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine). Although cordycepin has been shown to have pharmacological, immunological stimulating, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory activities, its activities and cellular mechanisms during microglial activation have yet to be elucidated. Thus, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of cordycepin on the production of inflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine BV2 microglia. We also investigated the effects of cordycepin on LPS-induced nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) activation and on phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). After LPS stimulation, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and pro-inflammatory cytokine production was detected in BV2 microglia. However, we found that cordycepin significantly inhibited the excessive production of NO, PGE₂, and pro-inflammatory cytokines in a concentration-dependent manner without causing cytotoxicity. In addition, cordycepin suppressed NF-κB translocation by blocking IkappaB-α (IκB-α) degradation and inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt, ERK-1/2, JNK, and p38 kinase. Our results indicate that the inhibitory effect of cordycepin on LPS-stimulated inflammatory mediator production in BV2 microglia is associated with the suppression of the NF-κB, Akt, and MAPK signaling pathways. Therefore, cordycepin may be useful in treating neurodegenerative diseases by inhibiting inflammatory mediator production in activated microglia.

Ribonucleases of different origins with a wide spectrum of medicinal applications

Ribonucleases (RNases) are a type of nucleases that catalyze the degradation of RNA into smaller components. They exist in a wide range of life forms from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. RNase-controlled RNA degradation is a determining factor in the control of gene expression, maturation and turnover, which are further associated with the progression of cancers and infectious diseases. Over the years, RNases purified from multiple origins have drawn increasing attention from medical scientists due to their remarkable antitumor properties. In this review, we present a brief summary of the representative RNases of fungal, bacterial, plant, and animal origins and outline their potential medicinal value in the treatment of tumor and AIDS. Among them, the most clinically promising RNases are mushroom RNases, Binase and Barnase from bacteria, ginseng RNases, and Onconase from frog (Rana pipiens). Fast developing protein engineering of RNases, which display more potent cytotoxic activity on and greater selectivity for malignant cells, has also aroused the interest of researchers. The multiple anti-cancer mechanisms of RNases are also included. To sum up, these inspiring studies unveil a new perspective for RNases as potential therapeutic agents.

Medicinal uses of the mushroom Cordyceps militaris: current state and prospects

Cordyceps militaris is a potential harbour of bio-metabolites for herbal drugs and evidences are available about its applications for revitalization of various systems of the body from ancient times. Amongst all the species, C. militaris is considered as the oldest source of some useful chemical constituents. Besides their popular applications for tonic medicine by the all stairs of the community, the constituents of C. militaris are now used extensively in modern systems of medicine. The current survey records the mysterious potentials of C. militaris are boosting up the present herbal treatments, as well as gearing up the green pharmacy revolution, in order to create a friendly environment with reasonable safety. Evidence showed that the active principles of C. militaris are beneficial to act as pro-sexual, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant/anti-aging, anti-tumour/anti-cancer/anti-leukemic, anti-proliferative, anti-metastatic, immunomodulatory, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-protozoal, insecticidal, larvicidal, anti-fibrotic, steroidogenic, hypoglacaemic, hypolipidaemic, anti-angiogenetic, anti-diabetic, anti-HIV, anti-malarial, anti-fatigue, neuroprotective, liver-protective, reno-protective as well as pneumo-protective, let alone their other synergistic activities, which let it be marketable in the western countries as over-the-counter medicine. A number of culture techniques for this mushroom have been noticed, for example, storage/stock culture, pre-culture, popular/indigenous culture (spawn culture, husked rice culture and saw dust culture) and, special/laboratory culture (shaking culture, submerged culture, surface liquid culture and continuous/repeated batch culture). The prospects for herbal biotechnology regarding drug discovery using C. militaris delivering what it has promised are high, as the technology is now extremely more powerful than before. This study chiefly highlights the medicinal uses of the mushroom C. militaris including its culture techniques, also aiming to draw sufficient attention of the researchers to the frontier research needs in this context.

Evaluation of carbohydrates in natural and cultured Cordyceps by pressurized liquid extraction and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry

Free and polymeric carbohydrates in Cordyceps, a valued edible mushroom and well-known traditional Chinese medicine, were determined using stepwise pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) extraction and GC-MS. Based on the optimized PLE conditions, acid hydrolysis and derivatization, ten monosaccharides, namely rhamnose, ribose, arabinose, xylose, mannose, glucose, galactose, mannitol, fructose and sorbose in 13 samples of natural and cultured Cordyceps were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed and compared with myo-inositol hexaacetate as internal standard. The results showed that natural C. sinensis contained more than 7.99% free mannitol and a small amount of glucose, while its polysaccharides were usually composed of mannose, glucose and galactose with a molar ratio of 1.00:16.61-3.82:1.60-1.28. However, mannitol in cultured C. sinensis and cultured C. militaris were less than 5.83%, and free glucose was only detected in a few samples, while their polysaccharides were mainly composed of mannose, glucose and galactose with molar ratios of 1.00:3.01-1.09:3.30-1.05 and 1.00:2.86-1.28:1.07-0.78, respectively. Natural and cultured Cordyceps could be discriminated by hierarchical clustering analysis based on its free carbohydrate contents.

Cordyceps pruinosa extracts induce apoptosis of HeLa cells by a caspase dependent pathway

AIM OF THE STUDY

Cordyceps is a parasitic fungus and has long been used as a traditional Chinese medicine to treat illnesses, promote longevity, increase athletic power, and relieve exhaustion and cancer. In this study, we reveal the mechanisms underlying apoptosis induced by Cordyceps pruinosa butanol fraction (CPBF) in the human cervical adenocarcinoma cell line, HeLa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Proliferation and apoptosis of cells were examined by MTT assay, DNA fragmentation, phosphatidyl serine distribution assay, Western blot analysis, and immunocytochemistry. To determine the association between CPBF related apoptosis and ROS, electron spin resonance (ESR) trapping experiments were used.

RESULTS

CPBF inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in HeLa cells in a dose-dependent manner using a MTT assay, DNA fragmentation, and a phosphatidyl serine distribution assay. Western blot analysis showed that apoptosis in HeLa cells was caspase-3- and -9-dependent. Proteolytic cleavage of PARP and the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytosol were significantly increased and the Bcl-2/Bax protein ratio was decreased. Apoptosis induced by CPBF was not prevented by various antioxidants.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that apoptotic effects of CPBF on HeLa cells are mediated by mitochondria-dependent death-signaling pathway independent of reactive oxygen species, suggesting that CPBF might be effective as an anti-proliferative agent for cancer.

Cordycepin (3‘-deoxyadenosine) inhibits human platelet aggregation induced by U46619, a TXA2 analogue

Cordycepin (3′-deoxyadenosine), which comes from Cordyceps militaris, the Chinese medicinal fungal genus Cordyceps, is known to have anti-tumour activity. In this study, we investigated the novel effect of cordycepin on human platelet aggregation that was induced by U46619, a thromboxane A2 (TXA2) analogue. TXA2 is an aggregation-inducing autacoidal molecule that is produced in various agonist-activated platelets. Cordycepin completely inhibited U46619-induced platelet aggregation and simultaneously reduced cytosolic free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i), which was increased by U46619 (5 μM) up to 66%. Furthermore, the U46619-stimulated phosphorylation of Ca2+-dependent proteins (20 kDa of a myosin light chain and 47 kDa of pleckstrin) was strongly inhibited by cordycepin. These results suggest that cordycepin may have a beneficial effect on autacoidal TXA2-mediated thrombotic diseases by inhibiting TXA2-induced platelet aggregation via suppression of the Ca2+ level.

Cordycepin inhibits protein synthesis and cell adhesion through effects on signal transduction

3′-Deoxyadenosine, also known as cordycepin, is a known polyadenylation inhibitor with a large spectrum of biological activities, including anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study we confirm that cordycepin reduces the length of poly(A) tails, with some mRNAs being much more sensitive than others. The low doses of cordycepin that cause poly(A) changes also reduce the proliferation of NIH3T3 fibroblasts. At higher doses of the drug we observed inhibition of cell attachment and a reduction of focal adhesions. Furthermore, we observed a strong inhibition of total protein synthesis that correlates with an inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, as observed by reductions in Akt kinase and 4E-binding protein (4EBP) phosphorylation. In 4EBP knock-out cells, the effect of cordycepin on translation is strongly reduced, confirming the role of this modification. In addition, the AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) was shown to be activated. Inhibition of AMPK prevented translation repression by cordycepin and abolished 4EBP1 dephosphorylation, indicating that the effect of cordycepin on mTOR signaling and protein synthesis is mediated by AMPK activation. We conclude that many of the reported biological effects of cordycepin are likely to be due to its effects on mTOR and AMPK signaling.

Column chromatographic extraction and preparation of cordycepin from Cordyceps militaris waster medium

Large amounts of solid medium containing cordycepin, used in the industrial production of Cordyceps militaris through solid fermentation, are discarded as waste and contaminate the environment. We have developed a new column chromatographic extraction (CCE) method for the extraction of cordycepin from this waste and a preparation method for further separation and purification. Dried waste material was imbibed in four times its volume of water for 6 h, transferred to columns and eluted with water. Eluates were directly separated with macroporous resin DM130 columns followed by purification steps, including precipitation, crystallization, and polyamide column chromatography. Extraction rates of more than 97% were obtained with 12 volumes of water for a single column and 4 volumes of water for eluates circulated through 3 different columns designed to concentrate cordycepin. Cordycepin (98% pure) was obtained following the separation and purification processes, with an overall recovery rate of more than 90%. The CCE method has high extraction efficiency, uses a minimum volume of solvent and can be used for both quantitative analysis and large preparations of cordycepin from waste. The preparation method is simple, highly efficient, energy-saving, environmentally friendly, and has been demonstrated to be effective for large preparations of cordycepin from waste with low equipment and operating costs.

Cordycepin inhibits IL-1beta-induced MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts

OBJECTIVE

MMP is a key enzyme in the degradation of extracellular matrices, and its expression plays important roles in inflammatory diseases. Cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine), a bioactive compound of Cordyceps militaris, has been shown to exhibit many pharmacological activities, such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-infection activities. In this study, we aimed at the inhibitory effect of cordycepin on IL-1beta-induced MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression as well as the molecular basis using RA synovial fibroblasts (RASFs).

METHODS

RASFs were isolated from synovial tissue obtained from 12 patients with RA and cultured in monolayer. Expression of MMP-1 and MMP-3 was evaluated using western blotting and real-time PCR. Chemokines were analysed by ELISA. The phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase was measured by western blotting. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay was performed to evaluate binding activities of DNA to nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and activator protein-1 (AP-1).

RESULTS

Cordycepin inhibited IL-1beta-induced MMP-1 and MMP-3 expressions in RASFs in a dose-dependent manner. Among various chemokines [such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), GRO-alpha, regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed and presumably secreted (RANTES) and epithelial neutrophil activating peptide 78 (ENA-78)], cordycepin specifically blocked IL-1beta-induced ENA-78 production in RASF. Moreover, cordycepin significantly inhibited IL-1beta-induced p38/JNK and AP-1 activation, but not extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and NF-kappaB activation.

CONCLUSIONS

Cordycepin is a potent inhibitor of IL-1beta-induced chemokine production and MMP expression and strongly blocks the p38/JNK/AP-1 signalling pathway in RASFs.