151
|
Rosini R, Nicchi S, Pizza M, Rappuoli R. Vaccines Against Antimicrobial Resistance. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1048. [PMID: 32582169 PMCID: PMC7283535 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last century, life expectancy has increased considerably, thanks to the introduction of antibiotics, hygiene and vaccines that have contributed to the cure and prevention of many infectious diseases. The era of antimicrobial therapy started in the nineteenth century with the identification of chemical compounds with antimicrobial properties. However, immediately after the introduction of these novel drugs, microorganisms started to become resistant through different strategies. Although resistance mechanisms were already present before antibiotic introduction, their large-scale use and mis-use have increased the number of resistant microorganisms. Rapid spreading of mobile elements by horizontal gene transfer such as plasmids and integrative conjugative elements (ICE) carrying multiple resistance genes has dramatically increased the worldwide prevalence of relevant multi drug-resistant human pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Enterobacteriaceae. Today, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remains one of the major global concerns to be addressed and only global efforts could help in finding a solution. In terms of magnitude the economic impact of AMR is estimated to be comparable to that of climate global change in 2030. Although antibiotics continue to be essential to treat such infections, non-antibiotic therapies will play an important role in limiting the increase of antibiotic resistant microorganisms. Among non-antibiotic strategies, vaccines and therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) play a strategic role. In this review, we will summarize the evolution and the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, and the impact of AMR on life expectancy and economics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sonia Nicchi
- GSK, Siena, Italy
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (FaBiT), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Rino Rappuoli
- GSK, Siena, Italy
- vAMRes Lab, Toscana Life Sciences, Siena, Italy
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
152
|
Jorge P, Magalhães AP, Grainha T, Alves D, Sousa AM, Lopes SP, Pereira MO. Antimicrobial resistance three ways: healthcare crisis, major concepts and the relevance of biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2020; 95:5532357. [PMID: 31305896 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiz115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Worldwide, infections are resuming their role as highly effective killing diseases, as current treatments are failing to respond to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The social and economic burden of AMR seems ever rising, with health- and research-related organizations rushing to collaborate on a worldwide scale to find effective solutions. Resistant bacteria are spreading even in first-world nations, being found not only in healthcare-related settings, but also in food and in the environment. In this minireview, the impact of AMR in healthcare systems and the major bacteria behind it are highlighted. Ecological aspects of AMR evolution and the complexity of its molecular mechanisms are explained. Major concepts, such as intrinsic, acquired and adaptive resistance, as well as tolerance and heteroresistance, are also clarified. More importantly, the problematic of biofilms and their role in AMR, namely their main resistance and tolerance mechanisms, are elucidated. Finally, some of the most promising anti-biofilm strategies being investigated are reviewed. Much is still to be done regarding the study of AMR and the discovery of new anti-biofilm strategies. Gladly, considerable research on this topic is generated every day and increasingly concerted actions are being engaged globally to try and tackle this problem.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paula Jorge
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Andreia Patrícia Magalhães
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Tânia Grainha
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Diana Alves
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Ana Margarida Sousa
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Susana Patrícia Lopes
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Maria Olívia Pereira
- Centre of Biological Engineering, Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
153
|
Holden ER, Webber MA. MarA, RamA, and SoxS as Mediators of the Stress Response: Survival at a Cost. Front Microbiol 2020. [PMID: 32431683 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
To survive and adapt to changing environments, bacteria have evolved mechanisms to express appropriate genes at appropriate times. Exposure to antimicrobials triggers a global stress response in Enterobacteriaceae, underpinned by activation of a family of transcriptional regulators, including MarA, RamA, and SoxS. These control a program of altered gene expression allowing a rapid and measured response to improve fitness in the presence of toxic drugs. Increased expression of marA, ramA, and soxS up regulates efflux activity to allow detoxification of the cell. However, this also results in trade-offs in other phenotypes, such as impaired growth rates, biofilm formation and virulence. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding the trade-offs that exist between drug survival and other phenotypes that result from induction of marA, ramA, and soxS. Additionally, we present some new findings linking expression of these regulators and biofilm formation in Enterobacteriaceae, thereby demonstrating the interconnected nature of regulatory networks within the cell and explaining how trade-offs can exist between important phenotypes. This has important implications for our understanding of how bacterial virulence and biofilms can be influenced by exposure to antimicrobials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma R Holden
- Quadram Institute Biosciences, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A Webber
- Quadram Institute Biosciences, Norwich, United Kingdom.,Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
154
|
Holden ER, Webber MA. MarA, RamA, and SoxS as Mediators of the Stress Response: Survival at a Cost. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:828. [PMID: 32431683 PMCID: PMC7216687 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
To survive and adapt to changing environments, bacteria have evolved mechanisms to express appropriate genes at appropriate times. Exposure to antimicrobials triggers a global stress response in Enterobacteriaceae, underpinned by activation of a family of transcriptional regulators, including MarA, RamA, and SoxS. These control a program of altered gene expression allowing a rapid and measured response to improve fitness in the presence of toxic drugs. Increased expression of marA, ramA, and soxS up regulates efflux activity to allow detoxification of the cell. However, this also results in trade-offs in other phenotypes, such as impaired growth rates, biofilm formation and virulence. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding the trade-offs that exist between drug survival and other phenotypes that result from induction of marA, ramA, and soxS. Additionally, we present some new findings linking expression of these regulators and biofilm formation in Enterobacteriaceae, thereby demonstrating the interconnected nature of regulatory networks within the cell and explaining how trade-offs can exist between important phenotypes. This has important implications for our understanding of how bacterial virulence and biofilms can be influenced by exposure to antimicrobials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma R Holden
- Quadram Institute Biosciences, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A Webber
- Quadram Institute Biosciences, Norwich, United Kingdom.,Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
155
|
Robinson LJ, Verrett JN, Sorout N, Stavrinides J. A broad-spectrum antibacterial natural product from the cystic fibrosis isolate, Pantoea agglomerans Tx10. Microbiol Res 2020; 237:126479. [PMID: 32416447 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2020.126479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens has prompted considerable efforts to identify new antibacterials. Here we show that Pantoea agglomerans Tx10-an isolate from the sputum sample of a cystic fibrosis patient-is a strong competitor that inhibits the growth of a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria through the production of a secreted compound. A genetic screen to identify the genes involved in the production of this compound resulted in the delineation of a 6-gene biosynthetic cluster. We called this compound Pantoea Natural Product 2 (PNP-2). Assays with mutants deficient in PNP-2 production revealed they were still able to inhibit Erwinia amylovora, suggesting the production of a second antibiotic, which we identified as Pantocin A. We generated Pantocin A knockouts, and a PNP-2/Pantocin A double knockout and used these to evaluate the spectrum of activity of both natural products. We show that strains of Enterobacter, E. coli, Klebsiella, Kosakonia, Pseudocitrobacter, Salmonella, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus as well as the majority of Pantoea strains assayed are susceptible to PNP-2, indicating a broad spectrum of activity, and potential for therapeutic development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas J Robinson
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S0A2, Canada; Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
| | - Jennifer N Verrett
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S0A2, Canada
| | - Naveen Sorout
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S0A2, Canada
| | - John Stavrinides
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S0A2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
156
|
Integrating CRISPR-Enabled Trackable Genome Engineering and Transcriptomic Analysis of Global Regulators for Antibiotic Resistance Selection and Identification in Escherichia coli. mSystems 2020; 5:5/2/e00232-20. [PMID: 32317390 PMCID: PMC7174635 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00232-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing threat of antimicrobial resistance poses a serious threat to public health care and motivates efforts to understand the means by which resistance acquisition occurs and how this can be combatted. To address these challenges, we expedited the identification of novel mutations that enable complex phenotypic changes that result in improved tolerance to antibiotics by integrating CREATE and transcriptomic analysis of global regulators. The results give us a better understanding of the mechanisms of resistance to tetracycline antibiotics and aminoglycoside antibiotics and also indicate that the method may be used for quickly identifying resistance-related mutations. It is important to expedite our understanding of antibiotic resistance to address the increasing numbers of fatalities and environmental pollution due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance and multidrug-resistant strains. Here, we combined the CRISPR-enabled trackable genome engineering (CREATE) technology and transcriptomic analysis to investigate antibiotic tolerance in Escherichia coli. We developed rationally designed site saturation mutagenesis libraries targeting 23 global regulators to identify fitness-conferring mutations in response to diverse antibiotic stresses. We identified seven novel mutations that confer resistance to the ribosome-targeting antibiotics doxycycline, thiamphenicol, and gentamicin in E. coli. To the best of our knowledge, these mutations that we identified have not been reported previously during treatment with the indicated antibiotics. Transcriptome sequencing-based transcriptome analysis was further employed to evaluate the genome-wide changes in gene expression in E. coli for SoxR G121P and cAMP receptor protein (CRP) V140W reconstructions, and improved fitness in response to doxycycline and gentamicin was seen. In the case of doxycycline, we speculated that SoxR G121P significantly increased the expression of genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and energy metabolism to promote cell growth for improved adaptation. In the CRP V140W mutant with improved gentamicin tolerance, the expression of several amino acid biosynthesis genes and fatty acid degradation genes was significantly changed, and these changes probably altered the cellular energy state to improve adaptation. These findings have important significance for understanding such nonspecific mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and developing new antibacterial drugs. IMPORTANCE The growing threat of antimicrobial resistance poses a serious threat to public health care and motivates efforts to understand the means by which resistance acquisition occurs and how this can be combatted. To address these challenges, we expedited the identification of novel mutations that enable complex phenotypic changes that result in improved tolerance to antibiotics by integrating CREATE and transcriptomic analysis of global regulators. The results give us a better understanding of the mechanisms of resistance to tetracycline antibiotics and aminoglycoside antibiotics and also indicate that the method may be used for quickly identifying resistance-related mutations.
Collapse
|
157
|
Grim KP, Radin JN, Solórzano PKP, Morey JR, Frye KA, Ganio K, Neville SL, McDevitt CA, Kehl-Fie TE. Intracellular Accumulation of Staphylopine Can Sensitize Staphylococcus aureus to Host-Imposed Zinc Starvation by Chelation-Independent Toxicity. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:e00014-20. [PMID: 32071094 PMCID: PMC7148132 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00014-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The host restricts the availability of zinc to prevent infection. To overcome this defense, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa rely on zincophore-dependent zinc importers. Synthesis of the zincophore staphylopine by S. aureus and its import are both necessary for the bacterium to cause infection. In this study, we sought to elucidate how loss of zincophore efflux impacts bacterial resistance to host-imposed zinc starvation. In culture and during infection, mutants lacking CntE, the staphylopine efflux pump, were more sensitive to zinc starvation imposed by the metal-binding immune effector calprotectin than those lacking the ability to import staphylopine. However, disruption of staphylopine synthesis reversed the enhanced sensitivity phenotype of the ΔcntE mutant to calprotectin, indicating that intracellular toxicity of staphylopine is more detrimental than the impaired ability to acquire zinc. Unexpectedly, intracellular accumulation of staphylopine does not increase the expression of metal importers or alter cellular metal concentrations, suggesting that, contrary to prevailing models, the toxicity associated with staphylopine is not strictly due to intracellular chelation of metals. As P. aeruginosa and other pathogens produce zincophores with similar chemistry, our observations on the crucial importance of zincophore efflux are likely to be broadly relevant.IMPORTANCEStaphylococcus aureus and many other bacterial pathogens rely on metal-binding small molecules to obtain the essential metal zinc during infection. In this study, we reveal that export of these small molecules is critical for overcoming host-imposed metal starvation during infection and prevents toxicity due to accumulation of the metal-binding molecule within the cell. Surprisingly, we found that intracellular toxicity of the molecule is not due to chelation of cellular metals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle P Grim
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Jana N Radin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Paola K Párraga Solórzano
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Departmento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador
| | - Jacqueline R Morey
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Katie A Frye
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Katherine Ganio
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stephanie L Neville
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher A McDevitt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas E Kehl-Fie
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| |
Collapse
|
158
|
TSPphg Lysin from the Extremophilic Thermus Bacteriophage TSP4 as a Potential Antimicrobial Agent against Both Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive Pathogenic Bacteria. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020192. [PMID: 32050494 PMCID: PMC7077265 DOI: 10.3390/v12020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
New strategies against antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens are urgently needed but are not within reach. Here, we present in vitro and in vivo antimicrobial activity of TSPphg, a novel phage lysin identified from extremophilic Thermus phage TSP4 by sequencing its whole genome. By breaking down the bacterial cells, TSPphg is able to cause bacteria destruction and has shown bactericidal activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria, especially antibiotic-resistant strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae, in which the complete elimination and highest reduction in bacterial counts by greater than 6 logs were observed upon 50 μg/mL TSPphg treatment at 37 °C for 1 h. A murine skin infection model further confirmed the in vivo efficacy of TSPphg in removing a highly dangerous and multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from skin damage and in accelerating wound closure. Together, our findings may offer a therapeutic alternative to help fight bacterial infections in the current age of mounting antibiotic resistance, and to shed light on bacteriophage-based strategies to develop novel anti-infectives.
Collapse
|
159
|
Toleman MA. The Future of Peritoneal Dialysis in a Moving Landscape of Bacterial Resistance. Perit Dial Int 2020; 37:134-140. [DOI: 10.3747/pdi.2016.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Toleman
- Department of Infection and Immunity School of Medicine, Cardiff University The Heath hospital, Heath Park Cardiff, UK
| |
Collapse
|
160
|
Yasir M, Turner AK, Bastkowski S, Baker D, Page AJ, Telatin A, Phan MD, Monahan L, Savva GM, Darling A, Webber MA, Charles IG. TraDIS-Xpress: a high-resolution whole-genome assay identifies novel mechanisms of triclosan action and resistance. Genome Res 2020; 30:239-249. [PMID: 32051187 PMCID: PMC7050523 DOI: 10.1101/gr.254391.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the genetic basis for a phenotype is a central goal in biological research. Much has been learnt about bacterial genomes by creating large mutant libraries and looking for conditionally important genes. However, current genome-wide methods are largely unable to assay essential genes which are not amenable to disruption. To overcome this limitation, we developed a new version of "TraDIS" (transposon directed insertion-site sequencing) that we term "TraDIS-Xpress" that combines an inducible promoter into the transposon cassette. This allows controlled overexpression and repression of all genes owing to saturation of inserts adjacent to all open reading frames as well as conventional inactivation. We applied TraDIS-Xpress to identify responses to the biocide triclosan across a range of concentrations. Triclosan is endemic in modern life, but there is uncertainty about its mode of action with a concentration-dependent switch from bacteriostatic to bactericidal action unexplained. Our results show a concentration-dependent response to triclosan with different genes important in survival between static and cidal exposures. These genes include those previously reported to have a role in triclosan resistance as well as a new set of genes, including essential genes. Novel genes identified as being sensitive to triclosan exposure include those involved in barrier function, small molecule uptake, and integrity of transcription and translation. We anticipate the approach we show here, by allowing comparisons across multiple experimental conditions of TraDIS data, and including essential genes, will be a starting point for future work examining how different drug conditions impact bacterial survival mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Yasir
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - A Keith Turner
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Bastkowski
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - David Baker
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J Page
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Telatin
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - Minh-Duy Phan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Leigh Monahan
- Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - George M Savva
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron Darling
- Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Mark A Webber
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
- University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Ian G Charles
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom
- University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
161
|
Sidrim JJ, Amando BR, Gomes FI, do Amaral MS, de Sousa PC, Ocadaque CJ, Brilhante RS, A Cordeiro RD, Rocha MF, Scm Castelo-Branco DD. Chlorpromazine-impregnated catheters as a potential strategy to control biofilm-associated urinary tract infections. Future Microbiol 2020; 14:1023-1034. [PMID: 31469013 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2019-0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: This study proposes the impregnation of Foley catheters with chlorpromazine (CPZ) to control biofilm formation by Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Materials & methods: The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for CPZ and the effect of CPZ on biofilm formation were assessed. Afterward, biofilm formation and the effect of ciprofloxacin and meropenem (at MIC) on mature biofilms grown on CPZ-impregnated catheters were evaluated. Results: CPZ MIC range was 39.06-625 mg/l. CPZ significantly reduced (p < 0.05) biofilm formation in vitro and on impregnated catheters. In addition, CPZ-impregnation potentiated the antibiofilm activity of ciprofloxacin and meropenem. Conclusion: These findings bring perspectives for the use of CPZ as an adjuvant for preventing and treating catheter-associated urinary tract infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José Jc Sidrim
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Bruno R Amando
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Group of Applied Medical Microbiology, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Francisco If Gomes
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Group of Applied Medical Microbiology, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Marilia Smg do Amaral
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Group of Applied Medical Microbiology, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Paulo Cp de Sousa
- Walter Cantídio University Hospital, Rua Capitão Francisco Pedro, 1290 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, CE 60430-372, Brazil
| | - Crister J Ocadaque
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Group of Applied Medical Microbiology, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Raimunda Sn Brilhante
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Rossana de A Cordeiro
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Marcos Fg Rocha
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil.,College of Veterinary, State University of Ceará. Av. Dr. Silas Munguba, 1700, Campus do Itaperi - CEP 60714-903, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Débora de Scm Castelo-Branco
- Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil.,Department of Pathology & Legal Medicine, Postgraduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Group of Applied Medical Microbiology, Federal University of Ceará, Rua Cel, Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo - CEP 60430-275, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
162
|
Lamch Ł, Witek K, Jarek E, Obłąk E, Warszyński P, Wilk KA. New mild amphoteric sulfohydroxybetaine-type surfactants containing different labile spacers: Synthesis, surface properties and performance. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 558:220-229. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.09.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
163
|
McNeil HE, Alav I, Torres RC, Rossiter AE, Laycock E, Legood S, Kaur I, Davies M, Wand M, Webber MA, Bavro VN, Blair JMA. Identification of binding residues between periplasmic adapter protein (PAP) and RND efflux pumps explains PAP-pump promiscuity and roles in antimicrobial resistance. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008101. [PMID: 31877175 PMCID: PMC6975555 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Active efflux due to tripartite RND efflux pumps is an important mechanism of clinically relevant antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. These pumps are also essential for Gram-negative pathogens to cause infection and form biofilms. They consist of an inner membrane RND transporter; a periplasmic adaptor protein (PAP), and an outer membrane channel. The role of PAPs in assembly, and the identities of specific residues involved in PAP-RND binding, remain poorly understood. Using recent high-resolution structures, four 3D sites involved in PAP-RND binding within each PAP protomer were defined that correspond to nine discrete linear binding sequences or "binding boxes" within the PAP sequence. In the important human pathogen Salmonella enterica, these binding boxes are conserved within phylogenetically-related PAPs, such as AcrA and AcrE, while differing considerably between divergent PAPs such as MdsA and MdtA, despite overall conservation of the PAP structure. By analysing these binding sequences we created a predictive model of PAP-RND interaction, which suggested the determinants that may allow promiscuity between certain PAPs, but discrimination of others. We corroborated these predictions using direct phenotypic data, confirming that only AcrA and AcrE, but not MdtA or MsdA, can function with the major RND pump AcrB. Furthermore, we provide functional validation of the involvement of the binding boxes by disruptive site-directed mutagenesis. These results directly link sequence conservation within identified PAP binding sites with functional data providing mechanistic explanation for assembly of clinically relevant RND-pumps and explain how Salmonella and other pathogens maintain a degree of redundancy in efflux mediated resistance. Overall, our study provides a novel understanding of the molecular determinants driving the RND-PAP recognition by bridging the available structural information with experimental functional validation thus providing the scientific community with a predictive model of pump-contacts that could be exploited in the future for the development of targeted therapeutics and efflux pump inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen E. McNeil
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ilyas Alav
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | | | - Amanda E. Rossiter
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Eve Laycock
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Legood
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Inderpreet Kaur
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Davies
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Wand
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A. Webber
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Vassiliy N. Bavro
- School of Life Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (VNB); (JMAB)
| | - Jessica M. A. Blair
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (VNB); (JMAB)
| |
Collapse
|
164
|
Sharma A, Gupta VK, Pathania R. Efflux pump inhibitors for bacterial pathogens: From bench to bedside. Indian J Med Res 2019; 149:129-145. [PMID: 31219077 PMCID: PMC6563736 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_2079_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
With the advent of antibiotics, bacterial infections were supposed to be a thing of past. However, this instead led to the selection and evolution of bacteria with mechanisms to counter the action of antibiotics. Antibiotic efflux is one of the major mechanisms, whereby bacteria pump out the antibiotics from their cellular interior to the external environment using special transporter proteins called efflux pumps. Inhibiting these pumps seems to be an attractive strategy at a time when novel antibiotic supplies are dwindling. Molecules capable of inhibiting these pumps, known as efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs), have been viewed as potential therapeutic agents that can rejuvenate the activity of antibiotics that are no longer effective against bacterial pathogens. EPIs follow some general mechanisms of efflux inhibition and are derived from various natural as well as synthetic sources. This review focuses on EPIs and identifies the challenges that have kept these futuristic therapeutics away from the commercial realm so far.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atin Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
| | - Vivek Kumar Gupta
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
| | - Ranjana Pathania
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
| |
Collapse
|
165
|
Oniciuc EA, Likotrafiti E, Alvarez-Molina A, Prieto M, López M, Alvarez-Ordóñez A. Food processing as a risk factor for antimicrobial resistance spread along the food chain. Curr Opin Food Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
166
|
Zhang B, Li J, Yang X, Wu L, Zhang J, Yang Y, Zhao Y, Zhang L, Yang X, Yang X, Cheng X, Liu Z, Jiang B, Jiang H, Guddat LW, Yang H, Rao Z. Crystal Structures of Membrane Transporter MmpL3, an Anti-TB Drug Target. Cell 2019; 176:636-648.e13. [PMID: 30682372 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Despite intensive efforts to discover highly effective treatments to eradicate tuberculosis (TB), it remains as a major threat to global human health. For this reason, new TB drugs directed toward new targets are highly coveted. MmpLs (Mycobacterial membrane proteins Large), which play crucial roles in transporting lipids, polymers and immunomodulators and which also extrude therapeutic drugs, are among the most important therapeutic drug targets to emerge in recent times. Here, crystal structures of mycobacterial MmpL3 alone and in complex with four TB drug candidates, including SQ109 (in Phase 2b-3 clinical trials), are reported. MmpL3 consists of a periplasmic pore domain and a twelve-helix transmembrane domain. Two Asp-Tyr pairs centrally located in this domain appear to be key facilitators of proton-translocation. SQ109, AU1235, ICA38, and rimonabant bind inside the transmembrane region and disrupt these Asp-Tyr pairs. This structural data will greatly advance the development of MmpL3 inhibitors as new TB drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bing Zhang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jun Li
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.
| | - Xiaolin Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Lijie Wu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Jia Zhang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yao Zhao
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300353, China
| | - Xiuna Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Xiaobao Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Xi Cheng
- Drug Discovery and Design Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Zhijie Liu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Biao Jiang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Hualiang Jiang
- Drug Discovery and Design Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Luke W Guddat
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Haitao Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
| | - Zihe Rao
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China; State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300353, China; National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; Laboratory of Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| |
Collapse
|
167
|
Zwama M, Yamaguchi A, Nishino K. Phylogenetic and functional characterisation of the Haemophilus influenzae multidrug efflux pump AcrB. Commun Biol 2019; 2:340. [PMID: 31531401 PMCID: PMC6744504 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0564-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria can arise by the over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps, which can extrude a wide range of antibiotics. Here we describe the ancestral Haemophilus influenzae efflux pump AcrB (AcrB-Hi). We performed a phylogenetic analysis of hundreds of RND-type transporters. We found that AcrB-Hi is a relatively ancient efflux pump, which nonetheless can export the same range of antibiotics as its evolved colleague from Escherichia coli. AcrB-Hi was not inhibited by the efflux pump inhibitor ABI-PP, and could export bile salts weakly. This points to an environmental adaptation of RND transporters. We also explain the sensitivity of H. influenzae cells to β-lactams and novobiocin by the outer membrane porin OmpP2. This porin counterbalances the AcrB-Hi efflux by leaking the drugs back into the cells. We hypothesise that multidrug recognition by RND-type pumps is not an evolutionarily acquired ability, and has been present since ancient promiscuous transporters.
Collapse
Grants
- This work was supported by CREST and the Center of Innovation Program (COI) from the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), the Program for the Promotion of Fundamental Studies in Health Sciences of the National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Grants-in-Aid, Network Joint Research Center for Materials and Devices, Dynamic Alliance for Open Innovation Bridging Human, Environment and Materials from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT), Grant-in-Aid Research Activity Start-up (Kakenhi 18H06103) from MEXT, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (Kakenhi 17H03983) from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), and the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Zwama
- Department of Biomolecular Science and Regulation, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Akihito Yamaguchi
- Laboratory of Cell Membrane Biology, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Kunihiko Nishino
- Department of Biomolecular Science and Regulation, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
168
|
Ayangbenro AS, Babalola OO, Aremu OS. Bioflocculant production and heavy metal sorption by metal resistant bacterial isolates from gold mining soil. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 231:113-120. [PMID: 31128345 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Two bioflocculant producing bacterial isolates from mining soil samples were investigated for their application in heavy metal removal. The bacterial isolates were identified as Pseudomonas koreensis and Pantoea sp. using 16S rRNA gene. Cadmium resistant genes cadA and CzcD were detected in Pantoea sp. while P. koreensis harbor CzcD and chrA responsible for Cd and Cr resistance respectively. The isolates showed maximum flocculating activity of 71.3% and 51.7% with glucose and yield of 2.98 g L-1 and 3.26 g L-1 for Pantoea sp. and P. koreensis respectively. The optimum flocculating activity was achieved at pH 7.5 and temperature of 30 °C. Fourier transform infrared analysis of the bioflocculants produced by the two isolates showed the presence of carboxyl, hydroxyl and amino groups characteristic of polysaccharide and protein. Heavy metal sorption by bioflocculant of Pantoea sp. removed 51.2% Cd, 52.5% Cr and 80.5% Pb while that of P. koreensis removed 48.5% Cd, 42.5% Cr and 73.7% Pb. The bioflocculants produced have potential in metal removal from industrial wastes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ayansina Segun Ayangbenro
- Food Security and Safety Niche,Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho, 2735, South Africa
| | - Olubukola Oluranti Babalola
- Food Security and Safety Niche,Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho, 2735, South Africa.
| | - Oluwole Samuel Aremu
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
169
|
Jindal S, Yang L, Day PJ, Kell DB. Involvement of multiple influx and efflux transporters in the accumulation of cationic fluorescent dyes by Escherichia coli. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:195. [PMID: 31438868 PMCID: PMC6704527 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-019-1561-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is widely believed that most xenobiotics cross biomembranes by diffusing through the phospholipid bilayer, and that the use of protein transporters is an occasional adjunct. According to an alternative view, phospholipid bilayer transport is negligible, and several different transporters may be involved in the uptake of an individual molecular type. We recognise here that the availability of gene knockout collections allows one to assess the contributions of all potential transporters, and flow cytometry based on fluorescence provides a convenient high-throughput assay for xenobiotic uptake in individual cells. Results We used high-throughput flow cytometry to assess the ability of individual gene knockout strains of E coli to take up two membrane-permeable, cationic fluorescent dyes, namely the carbocyanine diS-C3(5) and the DNA dye SYBR Green. Individual strains showed a large range of distributions of uptake. The range of modal steady-state uptakes for the carbocyanine between the different strains was 36-fold. Knockouts of the ATP synthase α- and β-subunits greatly inhibited uptake, implying that most uptake was ATP-driven rather than being driven by a membrane potential. Dozens of transporters changed the steady-state uptake of the dye by more than 50% with respect to that of the wild type, in either direction (increased or decreased); knockouts of known influx and efflux transporters behaved as expected, giving credence to the general strategy. Many of the knockouts with the most reduced uptake were transporter genes of unknown function (‘y-genes’). Similarly, several overexpression variants in the ‘ASKA’ collection had the anticipated, opposite effects. Similar results were obtained with SYBR Green (the range being approximately 69-fold). Although it too contains a benzothiazole motif there was negligible correlation between its uptake and that of the carbocyanine when compared across the various strains (although the membrane potential is presumably the same in each case). Conclusions Overall, we conclude that the uptake of these dyes may be catalysed by a great many transporters of putatively broad and presently unknown specificity, and that the very large range between the ‘lowest’ and the ‘highest’ levels of uptake, even in knockouts of just single genes, implies strongly that phospholipid bilayer transport is indeed negligible. This work also casts serious doubt upon the use of such dyes as quantitative stains for representing either bioenergetic parameters or the amount of cellular DNA in unfixed cells (in vivo). By contrast, it opens up their potential use as transporter assay substrates in high-throughput screening. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-019-1561-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Srijan Jindal
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Lei Yang
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Philip J Day
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Douglas B Kell
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. .,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. .,Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark. .,Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Crown St, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
170
|
Pasqua M, Grossi M, Zennaro A, Fanelli G, Micheli G, Barras F, Colonna B, Prosseda G. The Varied Role of Efflux Pumps of the MFS Family in the Interplay of Bacteria with Animal and Plant Cells. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7090285. [PMID: 31443538 PMCID: PMC6780985 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7090285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Efflux pumps represent an important and large group of transporter proteins found in all organisms. The importance of efflux pumps resides in their ability to extrude a wide range of antibiotics, resulting in the emergence of multidrug resistance in many bacteria. Besides antibiotics, multidrug efflux pumps can also extrude a large variety of compounds: Bacterial metabolites, plant-produced compounds, quorum-sensing molecules, and virulence factors. This versatility makes efflux pumps relevant players in interactions not only with other bacteria, but also with plant or animal cells. The multidrug efflux pumps belonging to the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) are widely distributed in microbial genomes and exhibit a large spectrum of substrate specificities. Multidrug MFS efflux pumps are present either as single-component transporters or as tripartite complexes. In this review, we will summarize how the multidrug MFS efflux pumps contribute to the interplay between bacteria and targeted host cells, with emphasis on their role in bacterial virulence, in the colonization of plant and animal host cells and in biofilm formation. We will also address the complexity of these interactions in the light of the underlying regulatory networks required for the effective activation of efflux pump genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martina Pasqua
- Istituto Pasteur Italia, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "C. Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Via dei Sardi 70, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Milena Grossi
- Istituto Pasteur Italia, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "C. Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Via dei Sardi 70, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Zennaro
- Istituto Pasteur Italia, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "C. Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Via dei Sardi 70, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Fanelli
- Istituto Pasteur Italia, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "C. Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Via dei Sardi 70, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Gioacchino Micheli
- Istituto di Biologia e Patologia Molecolari, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Frederic Barras
- Département de Microbiologie, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France
- Équipe de Recherche Labellisée (ERL) Microbiology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Bianca Colonna
- Istituto Pasteur Italia, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "C. Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Via dei Sardi 70, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Gianni Prosseda
- Istituto Pasteur Italia, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "C. Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Via dei Sardi 70, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
171
|
Mao T, Zhai H, Duan G, Yang H. Patterns of Drug-Resistant Bacteria in a General Hospital, China, 2011-2016. Pol J Microbiol 2019; 68:225-232. [PMID: 31250593 PMCID: PMC7256857 DOI: 10.33073/pjm-2019-024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug-resistant bacteria has been a threat to public life and property. We described the trends and changes in antibiotic resistance of important pathogens in a general hospital in Zhengzhou, China from 2011 to 2016, to control antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in hospital and provide support to clinicians and decision-making departments. Five dominant bacteria were enrolled based on the data from the general hospital during 6 years. The results of antimicrobial susceptibility testing were interpreted according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). From 2011 to 2016, a total of 19,260 strains of bacteria were isolated, of which Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii accounted for 51.98%. The resistance rate of K. pneumoniae and E. coli to carbapenem was less than 15%, but resistance of K. pneumoniae to carbapenems increased with time and resistance of E. coli to meropenem increased. The rate of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production among K. pneumoniae and E. coli was decreasing. For most antibiotics, the resistance rate of ESBL-positive isolates was higher than that of ESBL-negative isolates, excluding carbapenems and cefoxitin. For S. aureus, the rate of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was stable. Resistance of S. aureus to mostly antibiotics decreased with time. Besides polymyxin B, P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii showed high resistance to other antibiotics. For A. baumannii, the resistance rate to mostly antibiotics was increasing. The bacteria showed high levels of resistance and multiple drug resistance. Continuous surveillance and optimizing the use of antibiotics are essential. Drug-resistant bacteria has been a threat to public life and property. We described the trends and changes in antibiotic resistance of important pathogens in a general hospital in Zhengzhou, China from 2011 to 2016, to control antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in hospital and provide support to clinicians and decision-making departments. Five dominant bacteria were enrolled based on the data from the general hospital during 6 years. The results of antimicrobial susceptibility testing were interpreted according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). From 2011 to 2016, a total of 19,260 strains of bacteria were isolated, of which Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii accounted for 51.98%. The resistance rate of K. pneumoniae and E. coli to carbapenem was less than 15%, but resistance of K. pneumoniae to carbapenems increased with time and resistance of E. coli to meropenem increased. The rate of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production among K. pneumoniae and E. coli was decreasing. For most antibiotics, the resistance rate of ESBL-positive isolates was higher than that of ESBL-negative isolates, excluding carbapenems and cefoxitin. For S. aureus, the rate of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was stable. Resistance of S. aureus to mostly antibiotics decreased with time. Besides polymyxin B, P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii showed high resistance to other antibiotics. For A. baumannii, the resistance rate to mostly antibiotics was increasing. The bacteria showed high levels of resistance and multiple drug resistance. Continuous surveillance and optimizing the use of antibiotics are essential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Mao
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health of Zhengzhou University , Zhengzhou, Henan , China
| | - Huijuan Zhai
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health of Zhengzhou University , Zhengzhou, Henan , China
| | - Guangcai Duan
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health of Zhengzhou University , Zhengzhou, Henan , China
| | - Haiyan Yang
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health of Zhengzhou University , Zhengzhou, Henan , China
| |
Collapse
|
172
|
Yang Y, Feye KM, Shi Z, Pavlidis HO, Kogut M, J. Ashworth A, Ricke SC. A Historical Review on Antibiotic Resistance of Foodborne Campylobacter. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1509. [PMID: 31402900 PMCID: PMC6676416 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter is one of the most commonly reported foodborne human bacterial gastrointestinal pathogens. Campylobacter is the etiological agent of campylobacteriosis, which is generally a self-limited illness and therefore does not require treatment. However, when patients are immunocompromised or have other co-morbidities, antimicrobial treatment may be necessary for clinical treatment of campylobacteriosis, macrolides and fluoroquinolones are the drugs of choices. However, the increase in antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter to clinically important antibiotics may become insurmountable. Because of the transmission between poultry and humans, the poultry industry must now allocate resources to address the problem by reducing Campylobacter as well as antimicrobial use, which may reduce resistance. This review will focus on the incidence of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter in poultry, the clinical consequences of this resistance, and the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance associated with Campylobacter.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yichao Yang
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Kristina M. Feye
- Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Zhaohao Shi
- Center of Food Safety, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | | | - Michael Kogut
- Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Amanda J. Ashworth
- Poultry Production and Product Safety Research Unit (USDA-ARS), Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Steven C. Ricke
- Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, College Station, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
173
|
Singh AK, Bhunia AK. Animal-Use Antibiotics Induce Cross-Resistance in Bacterial Pathogens to Human Therapeutic Antibiotics. Curr Microbiol 2019; 76:1112-1117. [PMID: 31346691 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-019-01744-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Exposure of bacteria to a sub-lethal dosage of antibiotic is one the major causes for the onset of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, we aimed to assess the emergence of antibiotic cross-resistance in bacteria after exposure to a sub-lethal dose of veterinary feed directive (VFD) antibiotics, tilmicosin, and florfenicol. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of tilmicosin and florfenicol against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes were determined. Next, the pathogens were exposed to a sub-inhibitory concentration of tilmicosin (0.5, 5, 20 µg/ml) and florfenicol (1, 20 µg/ml) for 24 h and 48 h, and acquired cross-resistance to human therapeutic antibiotics was measured by determining the increase in MIC values. MICs of ampicillin, tetracycline, nalidixic acid, and meropenem against Salmonella and Klebsiella were in the range of 20-1000 µg/ml, 5-62.5 µg/ml, 5-125 µg/ml, and 0.05-0.1 µg/ml, respectively, whereas MICs against Staphylococcus and Listeria were 2.5-10 µg/ml, 2.5 µg/ml, 62.5-500 µg/ml, and 0.1-0.2 µg/ml, respectively. Pre-exposure of these bacteria to a sub-inhibitory concentration of tilmicosin and florfenicol, increased cross-resistance against ampicillin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid from 1.25- to 40-fold compared to the antibiotic unexposed bacteria with the exception of meropenem, which did not show increased resistance. This study could serve as a foundation to understand the mechanisms of acquired cross-resistance to traditional therapeutic antibiotics, and to develop strategies to alleviate such problem by using alternative antimicrobials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atul K Singh
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA. .,Clear Labs, 3565 Haven Ave., Menlo Park, CA, USA.
| | - Arun K Bhunia
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA. .,Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
174
|
Durka K, Laudy AE, Charzewski Ł, Urban M, Stępień K, Tyski S, Krzyśko KA, Luliński S. Antimicrobial and KPC/AmpC inhibitory activity of functionalized benzosiloxaboroles. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 171:11-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
|
175
|
Bonardi S, Pitino R. Carbapenemase-producing bacteria in food-producing animals, wildlife and environment: A challenge for human health. Ital J Food Saf 2019; 8:7956. [PMID: 31316921 PMCID: PMC6603432 DOI: 10.4081/ijfs.2019.7956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is an increasing global health problem and one of the major concerns for economic impacts worldwide. Recently, resistance against carbapenems (doripenem, ertapenem, imipenem, meropenem), which are critically important antimicrobials for human cares, poses a great risk all over the world. Carbapenemases are β-lactamases belonging to different Ambler classes (A, B, D) and encoded by both chromosomal and plasmidic genes. They hydrolyze a broad variety of β-lactams, including carbapenems, cephalosporins, penicillins and aztreonam. Despite several studies in human patients and hospital settings have been performed in European countries, the role of livestock animals, wild animals and the terrestrial and aquatic environment in the maintenance and transmission of carbapenemase- producing bacteria has been poorly investigated. The present review focuses on the carbapenemase-producing bacteria detected in pigs, cattle, poultry, fish, mollusks, wild birds and wild mammals in Europe as well as in non-European countries, investigating the genetic mechanisms for their transmission among food-producing animals and wildlife. To shed light on the important role of the environment in the maintenance and genetic exchange of resistance determinants between environmental and pathogenic bacteria, studies on aquatic sources (rivers, lakes, as well as wastewater treatment plants) are described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Bonardi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
176
|
Tierney AR, Rather PN. Roles of two-component regulatory systems in antibiotic resistance. Future Microbiol 2019; 14:533-552. [PMID: 31066586 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2019-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Two-component regulatory systems (TCSs) are a major mechanism by which bacteria sense and respond to changes in their environment. TCSs typically consist of two proteins that bring about major regulation of the cell genome through coordinated action mediated by phosphorylation. Environmental conditions that activate TCSs are numerous and diverse and include exposure to antibiotics as well as conditions inside a host. The resulting regulatory action often involves activation of antibiotic defenses and changes to cell physiology that increase antibiotic resistance. Examples of resistance mechanisms enacted by TCSs contained in this review span those found in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive species and include cell surface modifications, changes in cell permeability, increased biofilm formation, and upregulation of antibiotic-degrading enzymes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Rp Tierney
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322 USA
| | - Philip N Rather
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322 USA.,Research Service, Department of Veterans' Affairs, Atlanta VA Health Care System, Decatur, GA, 30033 USA
| |
Collapse
|
177
|
Venter H. Reversing resistance to counter antimicrobial resistance in the World Health Organisation's critical priority of most dangerous pathogens. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20180474. [PMID: 30910848 PMCID: PMC6465202 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20180474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The speed at which bacteria develop antimicrobial resistance far outpace drug discovery and development efforts resulting in untreatable infections. The World Health Organisation recently released a list of pathogens in urgent need for the development of new antimicrobials. The organisms that are listed as the most critical priority are all Gram-negative bacteria resistant to the carbapenem class of antibiotics. Carbapenem resistance in these organisms is typified by intrinsic resistance due to the expression of antibiotic efflux pumps and the permeability barrier presented by the outer membrane, as well as by acquired resistance due to the acquisition of enzymes able to degrade β-lactam antibiotics. In this perspective article we argue the case for reversing resistance by targeting these resistance mechanisms - to increase our arsenal of available antibiotics and drastically reduce antibiotic discovery times - as the most effective way to combat antimicrobial resistance in these high priority pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henrietta Venter
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
178
|
Resistance and Virulence Mechanisms of Escherichia coli Selected by Enrofloxacin in Chicken. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.01824-18. [PMID: 30803968 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01824-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the genetic characteristics, antibiotic resistance patterns, and novel mechanisms involved in fluoroquinolone (FQ) resistance in commensal Escherichia coli isolates. The E. coli isolates were recovered from a previous clinical study and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing and molecular typing. Known mechanisms of FQ resistance (target site mutations, plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance [PMQR] genes, relative expression levels of efflux pumps and porins) were detected using DNA sequencing of PCR products and real-time quantitative PCR. Whole-genome shotgun sequencing was performed on 11 representative strains to screen for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The function of a key SNP (A1541G) was investigated by site-directed mutagenesis and allelic exchange. The results showed that long-term enrofloxacin treatment selected multidrug-resistant (MDR) E. coli isolates in the chicken gut and that these E. coli isolates had diverse genetic backgrounds. Multiple genetic alterations, including double mutations on GyrA (S83L and D87N), a single mutation on ParC (S80I) and ParE (S458E), activation of efflux pumps, and the presence of the QnrS1 protein, contributed to the high-level FQ resistance (enrofloxacin MIC [MICENR] ≥ 128 μg/ml), while the relatively low-level FQ resistance (MICENR = 8 or 16 μg/ml) was commonly mediated by decreased expression of the porin OmpF, besides enhancement of the efflux pumps. No significant relationship was observed between resistance mechanisms and virulence genes. Introduction of the A1541G mutation on aegA was able to increase FQ susceptibility by 2-fold. This study contributes to a better understanding of the development of MDR and the differences underlying the mechanisms of high-level and low-level FQ resistance in E. coli.
Collapse
|
179
|
Skariyachan S, Taskeen N, Ganta M, Venkata Krishna B. Recent perspectives on the virulent factors and treatment options for multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Crit Rev Microbiol 2019; 45:315-333. [PMID: 31012772 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2019.1600472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Acinetobacter baumannii (AB) is one of the most notorious and opportunistic pathogens, which caused high morbidity and mortality rate and World Health Organization (WHO) declared this bacterium as priority-1 pathogen in 2017. The current antibacterial agents, such as colistins, carbapenems, and tigecyclines have limited applications, which necessitate novel and alternative therapeutic remedies. Thus, the understanding of recent perspectives on the virulent factors and antibiotic resistance mechanism exhibited by the bacteria are extremely important. In addition to many combinatorial therapies of antibacterial, there is several natural compounds demonstrated significant antibacterial potential towards these bacteria. The computational systems biology and high throughput screening approaches provide crucial insights in identifying novel drug targets and lead molecules with therapeutics potential. Hence, this review provides profound insight on the recent aspects of the virulent factors associated with AB, role of biofilm formation in drug resistance and the mechanisms of multidrug resistance. This review further illustrates the status of current therapeutic agents, scope, and applications of natural therapeutics, such as herbal medicines and role of computational biology, immunoinformatics and virtual screening in novel lead developments. Thus, this review provides novel insight on latest developments in drug-resistance mechanism of multidrug-resistant A. baumannii (MDRAB) and discovery of probable therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sinosh Skariyachan
- a Department of Biotechnology, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering , Bangalore , India
| | - Neha Taskeen
- a Department of Biotechnology, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering , Bangalore , India
| | - Meghana Ganta
- a Department of Biotechnology, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering , Bangalore , India
| | - Bhavya Venkata Krishna
- a Department of Biotechnology, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering , Bangalore , India
| |
Collapse
|
180
|
Cunrath O, Meinel DM, Maturana P, Fanous J, Buyck JM, Saint Auguste P, Seth-Smith HMB, Körner J, Dehio C, Trebosc V, Kemmer C, Neher R, Egli A, Bumann D. Quantitative contribution of efflux to multi-drug resistance of clinical Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. EBioMedicine 2019; 41:479-487. [PMID: 30852163 PMCID: PMC6443642 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Efflux pumps mediate antimicrobial resistance in several WHO critical priority bacterial pathogens. However, most available data come from laboratory strains. The quantitative relevance of efflux in more relevant clinical isolates remains largely unknown. METHODS We developed a versatile method for genetic engineering in multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria, and used this method to delete tolC and specific antibiotic-resistance genes in 18 representative MDR clinical E. coli isolates. We determined efflux activity and minimal inhibitory concentrations for a diverse set of clinically relevant antibiotics in these mutants. We also deleted oprM in MDR P. aeruginosa strains and determined the impact on antibiotic susceptibility. FINDINGS tolC deletion abolished detectable efflux activity in 15 out of 18 tested E. coli strains, and modulated antibiotic susceptibility in many strains. However, all mutant strains retained MDR status, primarily because of other, antibiotic-specific resistance genes. Deletion of oprM altered antibiotic susceptibility in a fraction of clinical P. aeruginosa isolates. INTERPRETATION Efflux modulates antibiotic resistance in clinical MDR isolates of E. coli and P. aeruginosa. However, when other antimicrobial-resistance mechanisms are present, inhibition of MDR efflux pumps alone is often not sufficient to restore full susceptibility even for antibiotics with a dramatic impact of efflux in laboratory strains. We propose that development of novel antibiotics should include target validation in clinical MDR isolates. FUND: Innovative Medicines Initiative of European Union and EFPIA, Schweizerischer Nationalfonds, Swiss National Research Program 72, EU Marie Skłodowska-Curie program. The funders played no role in design, data collection, data analysis, interpretation, writing of the report, and in the decision to submit the paper for publication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Dominik M Meinel
- Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland; Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | - Helena M B Seth-Smith
- Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland; Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jonas Körner
- Biozentrum, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Vincent Trebosc
- BioVersys AG, Hochbergerstrasse 60C, Technology Park, 4057 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Kemmer
- BioVersys AG, Hochbergerstrasse 60C, Technology Park, 4057 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Adrian Egli
- Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland; Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dirk Bumann
- Biozentrum, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
181
|
Jo I, Kim JS, Xu Y, Hyun J, Lee K, Ha NC. Recent paradigm shift in the assembly of bacterial tripartite efflux pumps and the type I secretion system. J Microbiol 2019; 57:185-194. [PMID: 30806976 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-019-8520-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 12/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Tripartite efflux pumps and the type I secretion system of Gram-negative bacteria are large protein complexes that span the entire cell envelope. These complexes expel antibiotics and other toxic substances or transport protein toxins from bacterial cells. Elucidating the binary and ternary complex structures at an atomic resolution are crucial to understanding the assembly and working mechanism. Recent advances in cryoelectron microscopy along with the construction of chimeric proteins drastically shifted the assembly models. In this review, we describe the current assembly models from a historical perspective and emphasize the common assembly mechanism for the assembly of diverse tripartite pumps and type I secretion systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inseong Jo
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Food Safety and Toxicology, Center for Food and Bioconvergence, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Sik Kim
- Unit on Structural and Chemical Biology of Membrane Proteins, Cell Biology and Neurobiology Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Yongbin Xu
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Life Science, Dalian Minzu University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116600, P. R. China
| | - Jaekyung Hyun
- Electron Microscopy Research Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, 28119, Republic of Korea
| | - Kangseok Lee
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam-Chul Ha
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Food Safety and Toxicology, Center for Food and Bioconvergence, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
182
|
Li J, Zhang H, Ning J, Sajid A, Cheng G, Yuan Z, Hao H. The nature and epidemiology of OqxAB, a multidrug efflux pump. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2019; 8:44. [PMID: 30834112 PMCID: PMC6387526 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-019-0489-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background OqxAB efflux pump has been found to mediate multidrug resistance (MDR) in various bacteria over the past decades. The updates on the nature and epidemiology of OqxAB efflux pump need to be fully reviewed to broaden our understanding of this MDR determinant. Methods A literature search using the keyword of "oqxAB" was conducted in the online databases of Pubmed and ISI Web of Science with no restriction on the date of publication. The 87 publications were included into this review as references due to their close relevance to the nature and/or epidemiology of OqxAB efflux pump. Results The oqxAB gene generally locates on chromosome and/or plasmids flanked by IS26-like elements in clinical isolates of Enterobacteriaceae and Klebsiella pneumoniae, conferring low to intermediated resistance to quinoxalines, quinolones tigecycline, nitrofurantoin, several detergents and disinfectants (benzalkonium chloride, triclosan and SDS). It could co-spread with other antimicrobial resistance genes (bla CTX-M, rmtB and aac(6')-Ib etc.), virulence genes and heavy metal resistance genes (pco and sil operons). Both RarA (activator) and OqxR (repressor) play important roles on regulation of the expression of OqxAB. Conclusions The dissemination of oqxAB gene may pose a great risk on food safety and public health. Further investigation and understanding of the natural functions, horizontal transfer, and regulation mechanism of the OqxAB efflux pump will aid in future strategies of antimicrobial usage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Li
- 1National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and Key Laboratory of the Detection for Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China.,2Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014 Jiangsu China
| | - Heying Zhang
- 1National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and Key Laboratory of the Detection for Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Jianan Ning
- 1National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and Key Laboratory of the Detection for Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Abdul Sajid
- 1National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and Key Laboratory of the Detection for Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China.,4College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, KP Pakistan
| | - Guyue Cheng
- 3Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Livestock and Poultry Products (Wuhan), Ministry of Agriculture, P.R China, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Zonghui Yuan
- 1National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and Key Laboratory of the Detection for Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China.,3Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Livestock and Poultry Products (Wuhan), Ministry of Agriculture, P.R China, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Haihong Hao
- 1National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and Key Laboratory of the Detection for Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China.,3Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Livestock and Poultry Products (Wuhan), Ministry of Agriculture, P.R China, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| |
Collapse
|
183
|
Liu Y, Ding S, Shen J, Zhu K. Nonribosomal antibacterial peptides that target multidrug-resistant bacteria. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:573-592. [DOI: 10.1039/c8np00031j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes the development of nonribosomal antibacterial peptides from untapped sources that target multidrug-resistant bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Liu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health
- College of Veterinary Medicine
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- China
| | - Shuangyang Ding
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety Evaluation
- College of Veterinary Medicine
- China Agricultural University
- China
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health
- College of Veterinary Medicine
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- China
| | - Kui Zhu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health
- College of Veterinary Medicine
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- China
| |
Collapse
|
184
|
Biolog Phenotype Microarray Is a Tool for the Identification of Multidrug Resistance Efflux Pump Inducers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2018; 62:AAC.01263-18. [PMID: 30126958 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01263-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance efflux pumps frequently present low levels of basal expression. However, antibiotic-resistant mutants that overexpress these resistance determinants are selected during infection. In addition, increased expression of efflux pumps can be induced by environmental signals/cues, which can lead to situations of transient antibiotic resistance. In this study, we have applied a novel high-throughput methodology in order to identify inducers able to trigger the expression of the Stenotrophomonas maltophilia SmeVWX and SmeYZ efflux pumps. To that end, bioreporters in which the expression of the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) is linked to the activity of either smeVWX or smeYZ promoters were developed and used for the screening of potential inducers of the expression of these efflux pumps using Biolog phenotype microarrays. YFP production was also measured by flow cytometry, and the levels of expression of smeV and smeY in the presence of a set of selected compounds were also determined by real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). The expression of smeVWX was induced by iodoacetate, clioquinol, and selenite, while boric acid, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, and lincomycin triggered smeYZ expression. The susceptibility to antibiotics that are known substrates of the efflux pumps decreased in the presence of the inducers. However, the analyzed multidrug efflux systems did not contribute to S. maltophilia resistance to the studied inducers. To sum up, the use of fluorescent bioreporters in combination with Biolog plates is a valuable tool for identifying inducers of the expression of bacterial multidrug resistance efflux pumps, and likely of other bacterial systems whose expression is regulated in response to signals/cues.
Collapse
|
185
|
Blanco P, Sanz-García F, Hernando-Amado S, Martínez JL, Alcalde-Rico M. The development of efflux pump inhibitors to treat Gram-negative infections. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2018; 13:919-931. [PMID: 30198793 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2018.1514386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION One of the possibilities for reducing the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance is the use of anti-resistance compounds capable of resensitizing resistant microorganisms to current antimicrobials. For this purpose, multidrug efflux pumps, whose inhibition may increase bacterial susceptibility to several antibiotics, including macrolides to which Gram-negatives are considered intrinsically resistant, have emerged as suitable targets. Areas covered: In the current review, the authors discuss different mechanisms that can be exploited for inhibiting multidrug efflux pumps and describe the properties and the potential therapeutic value of already studied efflux pumps inhibitors. Although efforts have already been made to develop these inhibitors, there are currently no good candidates for treating infectious diseases. Consequently, the authors also discuss potential approaches for their development. Expert opinion: Classical anti-resistance drugs such as beta-lactamases inhibitors, while useful, are only purposeful for treating infections caused by beta-lactamase producers. However, inhibitors of multidrug efflux pumps, which are present on all organisms, can sensitize both susceptible and resistant bacteria to antibiotics belonging to several different structural families. Since some efflux pumps are involved in bacterial infections, their inhibition may also reduce the infectivity of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paula Blanco
- a Department of Microbial Biotechnology , Centro Nacional de Biotecnología. CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| | - Fernando Sanz-García
- a Department of Microbial Biotechnology , Centro Nacional de Biotecnología. CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| | - Sara Hernando-Amado
- a Department of Microbial Biotechnology , Centro Nacional de Biotecnología. CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| | - José Luis Martínez
- a Department of Microbial Biotechnology , Centro Nacional de Biotecnología. CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| | - Manuel Alcalde-Rico
- a Department of Microbial Biotechnology , Centro Nacional de Biotecnología. CSIC , Madrid , Spain
| |
Collapse
|
186
|
Begum J, Mir NA, Dev K, Khan IA. Dynamics of antibiotic resistance with special reference to Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 125:1228-1237. [PMID: 29957827 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of antibiotics was paralleled by the evolution of antibiotic resistance which is probably the best example of contemporary evolution in action. The selection pressure, imposed by indiscriminate use of antibiotics, has changed the scale, mode and tempo of antibiotic resistance evolution. The presence of multidrug resistance, wide range of adaptability features and the infectivity make antibiotic resistance of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) more dangerous. The characterization, prevalence and the virulence factors of STEC have been profusely reported, whereas, the antibiotic resistance has been largely ignored because the antibiotic use in STEC infections is controversial. Thus, the current review has focussed on the source, evolution, persistence, mechanism, dissemination and control of antibiotic resistance viz-a-viz the STEC infections. The resistance development occurs by the inactivation of antibiotics, regulating the membrane permeability, modification of natural antibiotic targets or the use of efflux pumps against antibiotics. And, the dissemination of resistance genes occurs vertically by DNA replication and horizontally by conjugation, transduction and transformation. The prevention of development and dissemination of antibiotic resistance needs international public health bodies to rationalize the antibiotic use, prevent the flux of antibiotics into the environment, develop the rapid diagnostics tests, undertake proper surveillance of antibiotic resistance, promote the research on antibiotic resistance prevention, promote the research and development of novel alternative antibiotics, and encourage the widespread social awareness campaigns against the inappropriate antibiotic usage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Begum
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, GBPUAT, Panthnagar, Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India
| | - N A Mir
- ICAR- Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - K Dev
- ICAR- Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - I A Khan
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| |
Collapse
|
187
|
Zhu X, Liu D, Singh AK, Drolia R, Bai X, Tenguria S, Bhunia AK. Tunicamycin Mediated Inhibition of Wall Teichoic Acid Affects Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes Cell Morphology, Biofilm Formation and Virulence. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1352. [PMID: 30034372 PMCID: PMC6043806 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of bacterial resistance to therapeutic antibiotics limits options for treatment of common microbial diseases. Subinhibitory antibiotics dosing, often aid in the emergence of resistance, but its impact on pathogen’s physiology and pathogenesis is not well understood. Here we investigated the effect of tunicamycin, a cell wall teichoic acid (WTA) biosynthesis inhibiting antibiotic at the subinhibitory dosage on Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes physiology, antibiotic cross-resistance, biofilm-formation, and virulence. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of tunicamycin to S. aureus and L. monocytogenes was 20–40 μg/ml and 2.5–5 μg/ml, respectively, and the subinhibitory concentration was 2.5–5 μg/ml and 0.31–0.62 μg/ml, respectively. Tunicamycin pre-exposure reduced cellular WTA levels by 18–20% and affected bacterial cell wall ultrastructure, cell membrane permeability, morphology, laser-induced colony scatter signature, and bacterial ability to form biofilms. It also induced a moderate level of cross-resistance to tetracycline, ampicillin, erythromycin, and meropenem for S. aureus, and ampicillin, erythromycin, vancomycin, and meropenem for L. monocytogenes. Pre-treatment of bacterial cells with subinhibitory concentrations of tunicamycin also significantly reduced bacterial adhesion to and invasion into an enterocyte-like Caco-2 cell line, which is supported by reduced expression of key virulence factors, Internalin B (InlB) and Listeria adhesion protein (LAP) in L. monocytogenes, and a S. aureus surface protein A (SasA) in S. aureus. Tunicamycin-treated bacteria or the bacterial WTA preparation suppressed NF-κB and inflammatory cytokine production (TNFα, and IL-6) from murine macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) indicating the reduced WTA level possibly attenuates an inflammatory response. These results suggest that at the subinhibitory dosage, tunicamycin-mediated inhibition of WTA biosynthesis interferes with cell wall structure, pathogens infectivity and inflammatory response, and ability to form biofilms but promotes the development of antibiotic cross-resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xingyue Zhu
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,College of Science, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Dongqi Liu
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Atul K Singh
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Rishi Drolia
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Xingjian Bai
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Shivendra Tenguria
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Arun K Bhunia
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
188
|
Reygaert WC. An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria. AIMS Microbiol 2018; 4:482-501. [PMID: 31294229 PMCID: PMC6604941 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2018.3.482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 604] [Impact Index Per Article: 100.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to antimicrobial agents has become a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. When antibiotics were first introduced in the 1900's, it was thought that we had won the war against microorganisms. It was soon discovered however, that the microorganisms were capable of developing resistance to any of the drugs that were used. Apparently most pathogenic microorganisms have the capability of developing resistance to at least some antimicrobial agents. The main mechanisms of resistance are: limiting uptake of a drug, modification of a drug target, inactivation of a drug, and active efflux of a drug. These mechanisms may be native to the microorganisms, or acquired from other microorganisms. Understanding more about these mechanisms should hopefully lead to better treatment options for infective diseases, and development of antimicrobial drugs that can withstand the microorganisms attempts to become resistant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wanda C Reygaert
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
189
|
Cai JY, Hou YN, Li J, Ma K, Yao GD, Liu WW, Hayashi T, Itoh K, Tashiro SI, Onodera S, Ikejima T. Prostaglandin E2 attenuates synergistic bactericidal effects between COX inhibitors and antibiotics on Staphylococcus aureus. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2018; 133:16-22. [PMID: 29789128 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
PGE2 is found to attenuate the bactericidal effects of kanamycin or ampicillin in Staphylococcus aureus, as well as the methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Co-treatment with cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors (celecoxib, aspirin or naproxen) synergistically enhances kanamycin or ampicillin-induced cell death of S. aureus and MRSA. COX inhibitors repressed bacterial multidrug resistance through down-regulating efflux pump activity in antibiotics-treated S. aureus and MRSA. However, this synergistic bactericidal effects are reduced by the treatment with PGE2. PGE2 restores the efflux pump activity as well as increases biofilm formation in S. aureus and MRSA. Collectively, the enhancement of efflux pump activity and biofilm formation with PGE2 might partially explain the resistance to synergistic bactericidal effects between COX inhibitors and antibiotics in PGE2-treated S. aureus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Yi Cai
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Yong-Na Hou
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Jian Li
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Kai Ma
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Guo-Dong Yao
- School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery (Ministry of Education), Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Wei-Wei Liu
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Toshihiko Hayashi
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Kikuji Itoh
- Biotechnical Center, Japan SLC, Inc., Shizuoka 431-1103, Japan.
| | - Shin-Ichi Tashiro
- Department of Medical Education & Primary Care, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Onodera
- Department of Clinical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan.
| | - Takashi Ikejima
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| |
Collapse
|
190
|
Ramaswamy VK, Vargiu AV, Malloci G, Dreier J, Ruggerone P. Molecular Determinants of the Promiscuity of MexB and MexY Multidrug Transporters of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1144. [PMID: 29910784 PMCID: PMC5992780 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Secondary multidrug transporters of the resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND) superfamily contribute crucially to antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Compared to the most studied transporter AcrB of Escherichia coli, little is known about the molecular determinants of distinct polyspecificities of the most important RND transporters MexB and MexY of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In an effort to add knowledge on this topic, we performed an exhaustive atomic-level comparison of the main putative recognition sites (access and deep binding pockets) in these two Mex transporters. We identified an underlying link between some structural, chemical and dynamical features of the binding pockets and the physicochemical nature of the corresponding substrates recognized by either one or both pumps. In particular, mosaic-like lipophilic and electrostatic surfaces of the binding pockets provide for both proteins several multifunctional sites for diffuse binding of diverse substrates. Specific lipophilicity signatures of the weakly conserved deep pocket suggest a key role of this site as a selectivity filter as in Acr transporters. Finally, the different dynamics of the bottom-loop in MexB and MexY support its possible role in binding of large substrates. Our work represents the first comparative study of the major RND transporters in P. aeruginosa and also the first structure-based study of MexY, for which no experimental structure is available yet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Attilio V Vargiu
- Department of Physics, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Giuliano Malloci
- Department of Physics, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Jürg Dreier
- Basilea Pharmaceutica International Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Paolo Ruggerone
- Department of Physics, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
191
|
Zwama M, Yamaguchi A. Molecular mechanisms of AcrB-mediated multidrug export. Res Microbiol 2018; 169:372-383. [PMID: 29807096 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps belonging to the Resistance-Nodulation-Division (RND) superfamily is one of the main causes of multidrug-resistance (MDR) in Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. AcrB is the most thoroughly studied RND transporter and has functioned as a model for our understanding of efflux-mediated MDR. This multidrug-exporter can recognize and transport a wide range of structurally unrelated compounds (including antibiotics, dyes, bile salts and detergents), while it shows a strict inhibitor specificity. Here we discuss our current knowledge of AcrB, and include recent advances, regarding its structure, mechanism of drug transport, substrate recognition, different intramolecular entry pathways and the drug export driven by remote conformational coupling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Zwama
- Laboratory of Cell Membrane Structural Biology, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan; Department of Biomolecular Science and Regulation, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan; Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Akihito Yamaguchi
- Laboratory of Cell Membrane Structural Biology, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
192
|
Neuberger A, Du D, Luisi BF. Structure and mechanism of bacterial tripartite efflux pumps. Res Microbiol 2018; 169:401-413. [PMID: 29787834 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Efflux pumps are membrane proteins which contribute to multi-drug resistance. In Gram-negative bacteria, some of these pumps form complex tripartite assemblies in association with an outer membrane channel and a periplasmic membrane fusion protein. These tripartite machineries span both membranes and the periplasmic space, and they extrude from the bacterium chemically diverse toxic substrates. In this chapter, we summarise current understanding of the structural architecture, functionality, and regulation of tripartite multi-drug efflux assemblies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Neuberger
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1GA, UK
| | - Dijun Du
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1GA, UK
| | - Ben F Luisi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1GA, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
193
|
Abstract
Our limited understanding of the molecular basis for compound entry into and efflux out of Gram-negative bacteria is now recognized as a key bottleneck for the rational discovery of novel antibacterial compounds. Traditional, large-scale biochemical or target-agnostic phenotypic antibacterial screening efforts have, as a result, not been very fruitful. A main driver of this knowledge gap has been the historical lack of predictive cellular assays, tools, and models that provide structure-activity relationships to inform optimization of compound accumulation. A variety of recent approaches has recently been described to address this conundrum. This Perspective explores these approaches and considers ways in which their integration could successfully redirect antibacterial drug discovery efforts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Tommasi
- Entasis Therapeutics, Inc., 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Ramkumar Iyer
- Entasis Therapeutics, Inc., 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Alita A. Miller
- Entasis Therapeutics, Inc., 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| |
Collapse
|
194
|
Pan F, Zhang H, Dong X, Ye W, He P, Zhang S, Zhu JX, Zhong N. Comparative genomic analysis of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. Infect Drug Resist 2018; 11:659-670. [PMID: 29765237 PMCID: PMC5939923 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s147858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Multidrug resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae has emerged as a serious problem to public health. A further understanding of the genetic diversity in antibiotic-resistant S. pneumoniae isolates is needed. Methods We conducted whole-genome resequencing for 25 pneumococcal strains isolated from children with different antimicrobial resistance profiles. Comparative analysis focus on detection of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and insertions and deletions (indels) was conducted. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis was applied to investigate the genetic relationship among these strains. Results The genome size of the isolates was ~2.1 Mbp, covering >90% of the total estimated size of the reference genome. The overall G+C% content was ~39.5%, and there were 2,200–2,400 open reading frames. All isolates with different drug resistance profiles harbored many indels (range 131–171) and SNPs (range 16,103–28,128). Genetic diversity analysis showed that the variation of different genes were associated with specific antibiotic resistance. Known antibiotic resistance genes (pbps, murMN, ciaH, rplD, sulA, and dpr) were identified, and new genes (regR, argH, trkH, and PTS-EII) closely related with antibiotic resistance were found, although these genes were primarily annotated with functions in virulence as well as carbohydrate and amino acid transport and metabolism. Phylogenetic analysis unambiguously indicated that isolates with different antibiotic resistance profiles harbored similar genetic backgrounds. One isolate, 14-LC.ER1025, showed a much weaker phylogenetic relationship with the other isolates, possibly caused by genomic variation. Conclusion In this study, although pneumococcal isolates had similar genetic backgrounds, strains were diverse at the genomic level. These strains exhibited distinct variations in their indel and SNP compositions associated with drug resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fen Pan
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyan Dong
- Department of Respiratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weixing Ye
- Shanghai Personal Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping He
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shulin Zhang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Nanbert Zhong
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Respiratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China.,New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
195
|
Zhang Y, Dong R, Zhang M, Gao H. Native efflux pumps of Escherichia coli responsible for short and medium chain alcohol. Biochem Eng J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
196
|
Chignell JF, Park S, Lacerda CMR, De Long SK, Reardon KF. Label-Free Proteomics of a Defined, Binary Co-culture Reveals Diversity of Competitive Responses Between Members of a Model Soil Microbial System. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2018; 75:701-719. [PMID: 28975425 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-017-1072-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Interactions among members of microbial consortia drive the complex dynamics in soil, gut, and biotechnology microbiomes. Proteomic analysis of defined co-cultures of well-characterized species provides valuable information about microbial interactions. We used a label-free approach to quantify the responses to co-culture of two model bacterial species relevant to soil and rhizosphere ecology, Bacillus atrophaeus and Pseudomonas putida. Experiments determined the ratio of species in co-culture that would result in the greatest number of high-confidence protein identifications for both species. The 281 and 256 proteins with significant shifts in abundance for B. atrophaeus and P. putida, respectively, indicated responses to co-culture in overall metabolism, cell motility, and response to antagonistic compounds. Proteins associated with a virulent phenotype during surface-associated growth were significantly more abundant for P. putida in co-culture. Co-culture on agar plates triggered a filamentous phenotype in P. putida and avoidance of P. putida by B. atrophaeus colonies, corroborating antagonistic interactions between these species. Additional experiments showing increased relative abundance of P. putida under conditions of iron or zinc limitation and increased relative abundance of B. atrophaeus under magnesium limitation were consistent with patterns of changes in abundance of metal-binding proteins during co-culture. These results provide details on the nature of interactions between two species with antagonistic capabilities. Significant challenges remaining for the development of proteomics as a tool in microbial ecology include accurate quantification of low-abundance peptides, especially from rare species present at low relative abundance in a consortium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J F Chignell
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - S Park
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - C M R Lacerda
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - S K De Long
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - K F Reardon
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
197
|
Schuldiner S. The Escherichia coli effluxome. Res Microbiol 2018; 169:357-362. [PMID: 29574104 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug transporters function in a coordinated mode to provide an essential first-line defense mechanism that prevents antibiotics from reaching lethal concentrations, until a number of stable efficient adaptations occur that allow survival. Single-component efflux transporters remove the toxic compounds from the cytoplasm to the periplasmic space where TolC-dependent transporters expel them from the cell. The close interaction between the two types of transporters ensures handling of a wide range of xenobiotics and prevents rapid leak of the hydrophobic substrates back into the cell. In this review, we discuss the concept of the bacterial effluxome of the Gram-negative Escherichia coli that is the entire set of transporters expressed at a given time, under defined conditions. The process of identification of its members and the elucidation of the nature of the interactions throw a novel light on the roles of transporters in bacterial physiology and drug resistance development. We anticipate that the concept of an effluxome where each member contributes to the removal of noxious chemicals from the cell should contribute to improving the present strategy of searching for transport inhibitors as adjuvants of existing antibiotics and provide novel targets for this urgent undertaking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shimon Schuldiner
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Life Sciences, Silberman Bldg. 1-339, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
198
|
van Geelen L, Meier D, Rehberg N, Kalscheuer R. (Some) current concepts in antibacterial drug discovery. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:2949-2963. [PMID: 29455386 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-8843-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The rise of multidrug resistance in bacteria rendering pathogens unresponsive to many clinical drugs is widely acknowledged and considered a critical global healthcare issue. There is broad consensus that novel antibacterial chemotherapeutic options are extremely urgently needed. However, the development pipeline of new antibacterial drug lead structures is poorly filled and not commensurate with the scale of the problem since the pharmaceutical industry has shown reduced interest in antibiotic development in the past decades due to high economic risks and low profit expectations. Therefore, academic research institutions have a special responsibility in finding novel treatment options for the future. In this mini review, we want to provide a broad overview of the different approaches and concepts that are currently pursued in this research field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lasse van Geelen
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Meier
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Nidja Rehberg
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Rainer Kalscheuer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Dusseldorf, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
199
|
Bergsveinson J, Goerzen S, Redekop A, Zoerb S, Ziola B. Genetic Variability in the Hop-Tolerance horC Gene of Beer-Spoiling Lactic Acid Bacteria. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-2016-3962-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordyn Bergsveinson
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
| | - Scott Goerzen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
| | - Anna Redekop
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
| | - Sheree Zoerb
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
| | - Barry Ziola
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
| |
Collapse
|
200
|
Bergsveinson J, Kajala I, Goerzen S, Ziola B. Detection of a Hop-Tolerance Gene horA Insertion Variant in Lactic Acid Bacteria That Results in a Truncated HorA Lacking the Walker B Motif Necessary for Transport Function. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-2017-4682-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordyn Bergsveinson
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 41 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0W8, Canada
| | - Ilkka Kajala
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., PL 1000, 02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Scott Goerzen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 41 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0W8, Canada
| | - Barry Ziola
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 41 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0W8, Canada
| |
Collapse
|