Oxidative stress induces nucleo-cytoplasmic translocation of pancreatic transcription factor PDX-1 through activation of c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase

Role of oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase in pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance

Type 2 diabetes is the most prevalent and serious metabolic disease affecting people all over the world. Pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance are the hallmark of type 2 diabetes. Normal beta-cells can compensate for insulin resistance by increasing insulin secretion and/or beta-cell mass, but insufficient compensation leads to the onset of glucose intolerance. Once hyperglycemia becomes apparent, beta-cell function gradually deteriorates and insulin resistance aggravates. Under diabetic conditions, oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress are induced in various tissues, leading to activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway. The activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase suppresses insulin biosynthesis and interferes with insulin action. Indeed, suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in diabetic mice improves insulin resistance and ameliorates glucose tolerance. Thus, the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway plays a central role in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and could be a potential target for diabetes therapy.

Beneficial effects of candesartan, an angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker, on beta-cell function and morphology in db/db mice

Several epidemiological studies suggested that treatment with angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker (ARB) provided a risk reduction of developing type 2 diabetes. In this study, we investigated whether and how ARB treatment can improve abnormalities of pancreatic islets in diabetes state. We randomized db/db mice, a model of type 2 diabetes with obesity, at the age of 8 weeks to receive candesartan, an ARB, for 6 weeks. We also studied age-matched db/misty mice as control. Glucose tolerance test revealed that candesartan treatment improved glucose tolerance with the modest increase in serum insulin level in db/db mice. Concurrently, candesartan increased beta-cell mass, increased staining intensity of insulin, and decreased staining intensity of components of NAD(P)H oxidase, p22phox and gp91phox, and those of oxidative stress markers in beta-cells. These changes were accompanied by reduction of mitochondrial volume. Treatment with candesartan also reduced fibrosis in and around the islets and prevented the loss of endothelial cells in islets. Our results showed that candesartan partially prevented deterioration of glucose tolerance by providing protection against progressive beta-cell damage in diabetes.

Oxidative stress and pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction

Oxidative stress is induced under diabetic conditions through various pathways, including the electron transport chain in mitochondria and the nonenzymatic glycosylation reaction, and is likely involved in progression of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction developing in diabetes. beta-Cells are vulnerable to oxidative stress, possibly due to low levels of antioxidant enzyme expression. When oxidative stress was induced in vitro in beta cells, the insulin gene promoter activity and mRNA levels were suppressed, accompanied by the reduced activity of pancreatic and duodenal homeobox factor-1 (PDX-1) (also known as IDX-1/STF-1/IPF1), an important transcription factor for the insulin gene. The suppression of oxidative stress by a potent antioxidant, N-acetyl-l-cysteine or probucol, led to the recovery of insulin biosynthesis and PDX-1 expression in nuclei and improved glucose tolerance in animal models for type 2 diabetes. As a possible cause of this, we recently found that PDX-1 was translocated from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in response to oxidative stress. Furthermore, the addition of a dominant-negative form of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibited the oxidative stress-induced PDX-1 translocation, suggesting an essential role of JNK in mediating the phenomenon. Taken together, the oxidative stress-mediated activation of the JNK pathway leads to nucleocytoplasmic translocation of PDX-1 and thus is likely involved in the progression of beta-cell dysfunction found in diabetes.

Phosphorylation marks IPF1/PDX1 protein for degradation by glycogen synthase kinase 3-dependent mechanisms

The transcription factor IPF1/PDX1 plays a crucial role in both pancreas development and maintenance of beta-cell function. Targeted disruption of this transcription factor in beta-cells leads to diabetes, whereas reduced expression levels affect insulin expression and secretion. Therefore, it is essential to determine molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of this key transcription factor on mRNA levels and, most importantly, on protein levels. Here we show that a minor portion of IPF1/PDX1 is phosphorylated on serine 61 and/or serine 66 in pancreatic beta-cells. This phosphorylated form of IPF1/PDX1 preferentially accumulates following proteasome inhibition, an effect that is prevented by inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) activity. Oxidative stress, which is associated with the diabetic state, (i) increases IPF1/PDX1 Ser61 and/or Ser66 phosphorylation and (ii) increases the degradation rate and decreases the half-life of IPF-1/PDX-1 protein. In addition, we provide evidence that GSK3 activity participates in oxidative stress-induced effects on beta-cells. Thus, this current study uncovers a new mechanism that might contribute to diminished levels of IPF1/PDX1 protein and beta-cell dysfunction during the progression of diabetes.

The Forkhead Transcription Factor Foxo1 Bridges the JNK Pathway and the Transcription Factor PDX-1 through Its Intracellular Translocation

It has been shown that oxidative stress and activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway induce the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of the pancreatic transcription factor PDX-1, which leads to pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction. In this study, we have shown that the forkhead transcription factor Foxo1/FKHR plays a role as a mediator between the JNK pathway and PDX-1. Under oxidative stress conditions, Foxo1 changed its intracellular localization from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in the pancreatic beta-cell line HIT-T15. The overexpression of JNK also induced the nuclear localization of Foxo1, but in contrast, suppression of JNK reduced the oxidative stress-induced nuclear localization of Foxo1, suggesting the involvement of the JNK pathway in Foxo1 translocation. In addition, oxidative stress or activation of the JNK pathway decreased the activity of Akt in HIT cells, leading to the decreased phosphorylation of Foxo1 following nuclear localization. Furthermore, adenovirus-mediated Foxo1 overexpression reduced the nuclear expression of PDX-1, whereas repression of Foxo1 by Foxo1-specific small interfering RNA retained the nuclear expression of PDX-1 under oxidative stress conditions. Taken together, Foxo1 is involved in the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of PDX-1 by oxidative stress and the JNK pathway.

Psammomys obesus, a model for environment-gene interactions in type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance and progressive beta-cell failure. Deficient insulin secretion, with increased proportions of insulin precursor molecules, is a common feature of type 2 diabetes; this could result from inappropriate beta-cell function and/or reduced beta-cell mass. Most studies using tissues from diabetic patients are retrospective, providing only limited information on the relative contribution of beta-cell dysfunction versus decreased beta-cell mass to the "beta-cell failure" of type 2 diabetes. The gerbil Psammomys obesus is a good model to address questions related to the role of insulin resistance and beta-cell failure in nutritionally induced diabetes. Upon a change from its natural low-calorie diet to the calorie-rich laboratory food, P. obesus develops moderate obesity associated with postprandial hyperglycemia. Continued dietary load, superimposed on its innate insulin resistance, results in depletion of pancreatic insulin stores, with increased proportions of insulin precursor molecules in the pancreas and the blood. Inadequate response of the preproinsulin gene to the increased insulin needs is an important cause of diabetes progression. Changes in beta-cell mass do not correlate with pancreatic insulin stores and are unlikely to play a role in disease initiation and progression. The major culprit is the inappropriate insulin production with depletion of insulin stores as a consequence. Similar mechanisms could operate during the evolution of type 2 diabetes in humans.

Palmitate inhibits insulin gene expression by altering PDX-1 nuclear localization and reducing MafA expression in isolated rat islets of Langerhans

Abnormalities in lipid metabolism have been proposed as contributing factors to both defective insulin secretion from the pancreatic beta cell and peripheral insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes. Previously, we have shown that prolonged exposure of isolated rat islets of Langerhans to excessive fatty acid levels impairs insulin gene transcription. This study was designed to assess whether palmitate alters the expression and binding activity of the key regulatory factors pancreas-duodenum homeobox-1 (PDX-1), MafA, and Beta2, which respectively bind to the A3, C1, and E1 elements in the proximal region of the insulin promoter. Nuclear extracts of isolated rat islets cultured with 0.5 mm palmitate exhibited reduced binding activity to the A3 and C1 elements but not the E1 element. Palmitate did not affect the overall expression of PDX-1 but reduced its nuclear localization. In contrast, palmitate blocked the stimulation of MafA mRNA and protein expression by glucose. Combined adenovirus-mediated overexpression of PDX-1 and MafA in islets completely prevented the inhibition of insulin gene expression by palmitate. These results demonstrate that prolonged exposure of islets to palmitate inhibits insulin gene transcription by impairing nuclear localization of PDX-1 and cellular expression of MafA.

Regulation of the pancreatic duodenal homeobox-1 protein by DNA-dependent protein kinase

The transcription factor PDX-1 plays a crucial role during pancreatic development and in the function of insulin-producing beta cells. Disruption of the pdx-1 gene in these cells induces overt diabetes in mice, and this gene is modified in several type 2 diabetic families. It is thus crucial to determine the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of PDX-1 expression and/or activation. We identified new proteins associated with PDX-1 by mass spectrometry. These proteins, Ku70 and Ku80, are regulatory subunits of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK). We determined that the interaction between PDX-1 and Ku70 or Ku80 is dependent on the homeodomain of PDX-1. Most interestingly, we demonstrated in vitro that the DNA-PK phosphorylates PDX-1 on threonine 11. Although this residue is located in the transactivation domain, this phosphorylation does not seem to be implicated in the transcriptional activation of PDX-1. However, in response to radiation, which activates DNA-PK, a second form of the PDX-1 protein appears rapidly. This form is phosphorylated on threonine and seems to drive PDX-1 degradation by the proteosome. In correlation with this degradation, we observed a subsequent reduction in the activation of the insulin promoter and a decrease in PDX-1-mediated gene expression, i.e. glut2 and glucokinase. Our study demonstrates that radiation, through the activation of DNA-PK, may regulate PDX-1 protein expression.

Cell permeable peptide of JNK inhibitor prevents islet apoptosis immediately after isolation and improves islet graft function

Although application of the Edmonton protocol has markedly improved outcomes for pancreatic islet transplantation, the insulin independence rate after islet transplantation from one donor pancreas has proven to remain low. During the isolation process and subsequent clinical transplantation, islets are subjected to severe adverse conditions that impair survival and ultimately contribute to graft failure. Pancreas preservation with the two-layer method (TLM) has proven to improve transplant results by protecting isolated islets against apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway. However, pancreas storage with TLM cannot protect against activation of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) in isolated islets. This study investigated whether delivery of a JNK inhibitory peptide (JNKI) via the protein transduction system can prevent apoptosis of islet cells immediately after isolation. For efficient delivery of the (JNKI into isolated islets, we synthesized JNKI as a C-terminal fusion peptide with the 11-arginine protein transduction domain (11R-JNKI). 11R efficiently delivered the JNKI into isolated islets and 11R-JNKI prevented islet apoptosis immediately after isolation and improved islet graft function. These findings suggest that peptide drugs could be useful for the prevention of the impairment of islet cells and lead to improvement in the outcomes for pancreatic islet transplantation.

Role of oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase in pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance

Type 2 diabetes is the most prevalent and serious metabolic disease affecting people all over the world. Pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance are the hallmark of type 2 diabetes. Normal beta-cells can compensate for insulin resistance by increasing insulin secretion and/or beta-cell mass, but insufficient compensation leads to the onset of glucose intolerance. Once hyperglycemia becomes apparent, beta-cell function gradually deteriorates and insulin resistance aggravates. Under diabetic conditions, oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress are induced in various tissues, leading to activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway. The activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase suppresses insulin biosynthesis and interferes with insulin action. Indeed, suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in diabetic mice improves insulin resistance and ameliorates glucose tolerance. Thus, the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway plays a central role in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and could be a potential target for diabetes therapy.

Oxidative stress, ER stress, and the JNK pathway in type 2 diabetes

Pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance are observed in type 2 diabetes. Under diabetic conditions, oxidative stress and ER stress are induced in various tissues, leading to activation of the JNK pathway. This JNK activation suppresses insulin biosynthesis and interferes with insulin action. Indeed, suppression of the JNK pathway in diabetic mice improves insulin resistance and ameliorates glucose tolerance. Thus, the JNK pathway plays a central role in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and may be a potential target for diabetes therapy.

Involvement of oxidative stress and the JNK pathway in glucose toxicity

The hallmark of type 2 diabetes is pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. Normal beta-cells can compensate for insulin resistance by increasing insulin secretion, but insufficient compensation leads to the onset of glucose intolerance. Once hyperglycemia becomes apparent, beta-cell function gradually deteriorates and insulin resistance becomes aggravated. Such phenomena are collectively called "glucose toxicity". Under diabetic conditions, oxidative stress is induced and the JNK pathway is activated, which is involved in "glucose toxicity". Activation of the JNK pathway suppresses insulin biosynthesis and interferes with insulin action. Indeed, suppression of the JNK pathway in diabetic mice improves insulin resistance and ameliorates glucose tolerance. Consequently, the JNK pathway plays a crucial role in the progression of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance and thus could be a potential therapeutic target for the "glucose toxicity" found in diabetes.

Possible novel therapy for diabetes with cell-permeable JNK-inhibitory peptide

The JNK pathway is known to be activated in several tissues in the diabetic state, and is possibly involved in the development of insulin resistance and suppression of insulin biosynthesis. Here we show a potential new therapy for diabetes using cell-permeable JNK-inhibitory peptide. Intraperitoneal administration of the peptide led to its transduction into various tissues in vivo, and this treatment markedly improved insulin resistance and ameliorated glucose tolerance in diabetic mice. These data indicate that the JNK pathway is critically involved in diabetes and that the cell-permeable JNK-inhibitory peptide may have promise as a new therapeutic agent for diabetes.

Thrombopoietin induces HOXA9 nuclear transport in immature hematopoietic cells: potential mechanism by which the hormone favorably affects hematopoietic stem cells

Members of the homeobox family of transcription factors are major regulators of hematopoiesis. Overexpression of either HOXB4 or HOXA9 in primitive marrow cells enhances the expansion of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). However, little is known of how expression or function of these proteins is regulated during hematopoiesis under physiological conditions. In our previous studies we demonstrated that thrombopoietin (TPO) enhances levels of HOXB4 mRNA in primitive hematopoietic cells (K. Kirito, N. Fox, and K. Kaushansky, Blood 102:3172-3178, 2003). To extend our studies, we investigated the effects of TPO on HOXA9 in this same cell population. Although overall levels of the transcription factor were not affected, we found that TPO induced the nuclear import of HOXA9 both in UT-7/TPO cells and in primitive Sca-1(+)/c-kit(+)/Gr-1(-) hematopoietic cells in a mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent fashion. TPO also controlled MEIS1 expression at mRNA levels, at least in part due to phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation. Collectively, TPO modulates the function of HOXA9 by leading to its nuclear translocation, likely mediated by effects on its partner protein MEIS1, and potentially due to two newly identified nuclear localization signals. Our data suggest that TPO controls HSC development through the regulation of multiple members of the Hox family of transcription factors through multiple mechanisms.

Role of oxidative stress in pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction

Oxidative stress is produced under diabetic conditions and is likely involved in progression of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction found in diabetes. Possibly caused by low levels of antioxidant enzyme expressions, pancreatic beta-cells are vulnerable to oxidative stress. When beta-cell-derived HIT-T15 cells or isolated rat islets were exposed to oxidative stress, insulin gene expression was markedly decreased. To investigate the significance of oxidative stress in the progression of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes, we evaluated the effects of antioxidants in diabetic C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice. According to an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test, the treatment with antioxidants retained glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and moderately decreased blood glucose levels. Histological analyses of the pancreata revealed that the beta-cell mass was significantly larger in the mice treated with the antioxidants, and the antioxidant treatment suppressed apoptosis in beta-cells without changing the rate of beta-cell proliferation. The antioxidant treatment also preserved the amounts of insulin content and insulin mRNA, making the extent of insulin degranulation less evident. As possible mechanism underlying the phenomena, expression of pancreatic and duodenal homeobox factor-1 (also known as IDX-1/STF-1/IPF1), an important transcription factor for the insulin gene, was more clearly visible in the nuclei of islet cells after the antioxidant treatment. Under diabetic conditions, JNK is activated by oxidative stress and involved in the suppression of insulin gene expression. This JNK effect appears to be mediated in part by nucleocytoplasmic translocation of PDX-1, which is also downstream of JNK activation. Taken together, oxidative stress and consequent activation of the JNK pathway are involved in progression of beta-cell dysfunction found in diabetes. Antioxidants may serve as a novel mechanism-based therapy for type 2 diabetes.