Mycotoxins as human carcinogens-the IARC Monographs classification

Optical and Electrochemical Aptasensors for Sensitive Detection of Aflatoxin B1 and Aflatoxin M1 in Blood Serum, Grape Juice, and Milk Samples

Aflatoxin food contamination with toxic and carcinogenic impacts on human health is a global concern. We have developed aptasensors for the detection of Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) and B₁ (AFB₁) using electrochemical and optical methods. In the first method, an electrochemical aptasensor was designed for the detection of AFM₁ based on complementary strand of AFM₁ aptamer that was attached onto the gold nanoparticles and a hairpin-shaped AFM₁ aptamer. The designed electrochemical aptasensor showed high selectivity toward AFM₁ with a limit of detection (LOD) as low as 0.9 nM. Moreover, the developed aptasensor was successfully used to detect AFM₁ in milk and serum with LODs of 1.8 and 1.2 nM, respectively. In the second method, a novel electrochemical aptasensor was developed based on the π-shape structure of AFB₁ aptamer. The detection limit was found to be 2 pg/mL in buffer. Also, the developed aptasensor was used to analyze AFB₁ spiked human serum and grape juice samples, and the recoveries were 95.4-108.1%. In another method, a fluorescent sensing scheme was developed for AFB₁ detection based on a hairpin structure of G-quadruplex oligonucleotide-aptamer chimera, streptavidin-coated silica nanoparticles (SNP-streptavidin) and N-methyl mesoporphyrin IX (NMM). The LOD was reported as 8 pg/mL with a linear range of 30-900 pg/mL. Moreover, the developed sensor could detect AFB₁ in serum and grape juice with the LOD of 9.8 and 11.2 pg/mL, respectively.

Ecotoxicological Effects of Aflatoxins on Earthworms under Different Temperature and Moisture Conditions

Aflatoxin contamination remains one of the most important threats to food safety and human health. Aflatoxins are mainly found in soil, decaying plant material and food storage systems and are particularly abundant during drought stress. Regulations suggest the disposal of aflatoxin-contaminated crops by incorporation into the soil for natural degradation. However, the fate and consequences of aflatoxin in soil and on soil organisms providing essential ecological services remain unclear and could potentially pose a risk to soil health and productivity. The protection of soil biodiversity and ecosystem services are essential for the success of the declared United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. The focus of this study was to investigate the toxicological consequences of aflatoxins to earthworms’ survival, growth, reproduction and genotoxicity under different temperature and moisture conditions. Results indicated an insignificant effect of aflatoxin concentrations between 10 and 100 µg/kg on the survival, growth and reproduction but indicated a concentration-dependent increase in DNA damage at standard testing conditions. However, the interaction of the toxin with different environmental conditions, particularly low moisture, resulted in significantly reduced reproduction rates and increased DNA damage in earthworms.

Mycotoxins detection: view in the lens of molecularly imprinted polymer and nanoparticles

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are tailor-made functional composites which selectively recognize and bind the target molecule of interest. MIP composites are products of the massively cross-linked polymer matrices, generated via polymerization, with bio-inspired recognition cavities that are morphologically similar in size, shape and spatial patterns to the target conformation. These features have enabled researchers to expand the field of molecular recognition, more specifically for target with peculiar requirements. Nevertheless, MIPs alone are characterized with weak sensitivity. Besides, nanoparticles (NPs) are remarkably sensitive but also suffer from poor selectivity. Intriguingly, the combination of the two results in a highly sensitive and selective MIP composite. For instance, the conjugation of different functional NPs with MIPs can generate new flexible target capture tools, either a dynamic sensor or a novel drug delivery system. In this regard, although the technology is considered an established and feasible approach, it is still perceived as a burgeoning technology for various fields, which makes it unceasingly worthy reviewing. Therefore, in this review, we attempt to give an update on various custom-made biosensors based on MIPs in combination with various NPs for the detection of mycotoxins, the toxic secondary metabolites of fungi. We first summarize the classification, prevalence, and toxicological characteristics of common mycotoxins. Next, we provide an overview of MIP composites and their characterization, and then segment the role of NPs with respect to common types of MIP-based sensors. At last, conclusions and outlook are discussed.

Efficient and simple simultaneous adsorption removal of multiple aflatoxins from various liquid foods

In this study, a polydopamine modified nanofibers membrane (PDA-PS NFsM) was prepared and evaluated as the adsorbent for simultaneous removal of a variety of aflatoxins in various liquid foods, including edible oil, soy sauce and milk, rice vinegar and liquor. The removal efficiency for every single aflatoxin from all samples involved above was more than 76.5% within 1 h at 25 °C, except the liquors with higher ethanol content, for which the efficiency was lower. Moreover, PDA-PS NFsM can be removed directly after the adsorption process without any subsequent separation. The results suggested that the adsorption mechanism of the aflatoxins onto PDA-PS NFsM was chemisorption-based spontaneous endothermic reaction and aflatoxins were adsorbed by electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding and π-π interaction. This study confirmed that the PDA-PS NFsM has a good practical application potential in the simultaneous removal of a variety of aflatoxins from various liquid foods.

A fluorescent aptasensor for the detection of Aflatoxin B1 by graphene oxide mediated quenching and release of fluorescence

Aflatoxin B1 contamination in food and agro commodities has been major concern of global food safety and trade industry. There is an urgent need to develop sensitive and on-site detection methods for aflatoxins mainly, AFB1 monitoring. In the present study, a fluorophore (Alexa Fluor 488) based aptamer biosensor was devised in combination with graphene oxide (GO) for the detection of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The optimized diagnostic procedure consisted of a fluorescent modified aptamer (Ax-AFLA5) as detection probe and GO mediated quenching of the same; to the quenched system AFB1 was added resulting in subsequent release of fluorescence. The principle of GO based adsorption of ssDNA and successive desorption in the presence of target mycotoxin was utilised in development of the bioassay. In presence of target mycotoxin, the GO adsorbed ssDNA attained a structural conformation resulting in desorption and subsequent release of fluorescence. Assay parameters such as concentration of fluorescent probe, GO and incubation time were evaluated and optimized. The optical signal thus generated could determine presence of AFB1 in the given sample. Selectivity of the method with other mycotoxins was evaluated. The linear range of AFB1 from 0.2-200 ppb was assessed. Visible green fluorescence release was observed at 20 ppb under UV transilluminator and the detection limit of the developed assay was interpreted as 20 ppb of AFB1. The suitability of the assay for AFB1 quantification in groundnut and natural samples was also evaluated. Thus, the developed assay can be a field deployable, reliable and rapid alternative tool for onsite screening method of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins at field level.

Traditional Foods From Maize (Zea mays L.) in Europe

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the major crops of the world for feed, food, and industrial uses. It was originated in Central America and introduced into Europe and other continents after Columbus trips at the end of the 15th century. Due to the large adaptability of maize, farmers have originated a wide variability of genetic resources with wide diversity of adaptation, characteristics, and uses. Nowadays, in Europe, maize is mainly used for feed, but several food specialties were originated during these five centuries of maize history and became traditional food specialties. This review summarizes the state of the art of traditional foodstuffs made with maize in Southern, South-Western and South-Eastern Europe, from an historic evolution to the last research activities that focus on improving sustainability, quality and safety of food production.

Dysregulation of Intestinal Physiology by Aflatoxicosis in the Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata)

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin often present in food. This study aimed to understand the physiological effects of AFB1 on the seabream (Sparus aurata) gastrointestinal system. In a first in vitro approach, we investigated ion transport using the short-circuit current (Isc) technique in Ussing chambers in the anterior intestine (AI). Application of apical/luminal AFB1 concentrations of 8 and 16 μM to healthy tissues was without effect on tissue transepithelial electrical resistance (TER), and apparent tissue permeability (Papp) was measured using fluorescein FITC (4 kD). However, it resulted in dose-related effects on Isc. In a second approach, seabream juveniles fed with different AFB1 concentrations (1 and 2 mg AFB1 kg⁻¹ fish feed) for 85 days showed significantly reduced gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) and H⁺-ATPase (HA) activities in the posterior intestine (PI). Moreover, dietary AFB1 modified Isc in the AI and PI, significantly affecting TER in the AI. To understand this effect on TER, we analyzed the expression of nine claudins and three occludins as markers of intestinal architecture and permeability using qPCR. Around 80% of the genes presented significantly different relative mRNA expression between AI and PI and had concomitant sensitivity to dietary AFB1. Based on the results of our in vitro, in vivo, and molecular approaches, we conclude that the effects of dietary AFB1 in the gastrointestinal system are at the base of the previously reported growth impairment caused by AFB1 in fish.

Mycotoxin Interactions along the Gastrointestinal Tract: In Vitro Semi-Dynamic Digestion and Static Colonic Fermentation of a Contaminated Meal

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) naturally co-occur in several foods, but no studies have followed the fate of mycotoxins' interactions along the gastrointestinal tract using in vitro digestion models. This study used a novel semi-dynamic model that mimics gradual acidification and gastric emptying, coupled with a static colonic fermentation phase, in order to monitor mycotoxins' bioaccessibility by the oral route. AFB1 and OTA bioaccessibility patterns differed in single or co-exposed scenarios. When co-exposed (MIX meal), AFB1 bioaccessibility at the intestinal level increased by ~16%, while OTA bioaccessibility decreased by ~20%. Additionally, a significant increase was observed in both intestinal cell viability and NO production. With regard to mycotoxin-probiotic interactions, the MIX meal showed a null effect on Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strain growth, while isolated AFB1 reduced bacterial growth parameters. These results were confirmed at phylum and family levels using a gut microbiota approach. After colonic fermentation, the fecal supernatant did not trigger the NF-kB activation pathway, indicating reduced toxicity of mycotoxins. In conclusion, if single exposed, AFB1 will have a significant impact on intestinal viability and probiotic growth, while OTA will mostly trigger NO production; in a co-exposure situation, both intestinal viability and inflammation will be affected, but the impact on probiotic growth will be neglected.

Aflatoxin B1 targeted gene expression profiles in human placental primary trophoblast cells

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Gene expression profiles were studied in human primary trophoblast cells.

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170 genes were significantly dysregulated in aflatoxin B1-exposed trophoblasts.

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AhR-mediated estrogen receptor signalling was dysregulated in response to AFB1.

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Transcripts involved in endocrine signalling and energy homeostasis were disrupted.

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Cellular growth and development, cell cycle and DNA repair processes were affected.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. A high exposure (40 nM and 1 µM AFB1 for 72 h) was used to study mechanistic effects of AFB1 on gene expression patterns in human primary trophoblast cells, isolated from full term placentae after delivery. Gene expression profiling was conducted, and Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) software was used to identify AFB1-regulated gene networks and regulatory pathways.

In response to 40 nM AFB1, only 7 genes were differentially expressed whereas 1 µM AFB1 significantly dysregulated 170 genes (124 down- and 46 upregulated, ±1.5-fold, p < 0.05) in AFB1-exposed trophoblasts when compared to controls. The top downregulated genes were involved in endocrine signalling and biosynthesis of hormones, and lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. The top upregulated genes were involved in protein synthesis and regulation of cell cycle. The main canonical pathways identified by IPA were associated with endocrine signalling including growth hormone signalling, and corticotropin releasing hormone signalling. Furthermore, genes involved in aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-mediated estrogen receptor signalling were dysregulated in response to AFB1.

Our findings indicate that a high concentration 72 h AFB1 exposure caused relatively moderate number of changes on transcript level to human placental primary trophoblast cells. However, these preliminary results need to be confirmed with human-relevant concentrations of AFB1.

Visual detection of aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone via activating a new catalytic reaction of “naked” DNAzyme

It was found for the first time that the catalytic activity of “naked” DNAzyme can be modulated by aflatoxins and zearalenone to generate different color changes, which could be applied to the visual detection for the above two analytes.

Review of occurrence of mycotoxins in Serbian food items in the period from 2005 to 2022

This paper aimed to review the publications on mycotoxins' presence in cereals and foodstuffs originated from the Serbian market covering the period from 2005 to 2022. The review covers all the important steps in mycotoxins analysis including sampling, sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and concentration ranges in which the mycotoxins were found. Also, the results were interpreted from the European Union regulation point of view. The review emphasizes the importance of multi-mycotoxins analysis for determining the simultaneous presence of mycotoxins that can negatively affect the Serbian human population. The most frequently used instrumental technique in the mycotoxin analysis of Serbian products was the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay followed by the Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Most of the studies undertaken in Serbia until now investigated a few groups of matrices such as wheat, maize, milk, and dairy products. Only a few studies involved specific matrices such as nuts, dried fruits, biscuits, cookies, and spices. The review showed that contamination of milk and dairy products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), occurred at the very beginning of 2013, was the major health issue related to the population health. The contamination of milk and dairy products with the AFM1 was a consequence of maize contamination with aflatoxins which occurred in the year 2012, characterized by drought conditions. The studies dealing with the analysis of masked and emerging mycotoxins are rare and more attention should be paid to monitoring the presence of these types of mycotoxins in foodstuffs from Serbia.

Review of occurrence of mycotoxins in Serbian food items in the period from 2005 to 2022

This paper aimed to review the publications on mycotoxins' presence in cereals and foodstuffs originated from the Serbian market covering the period from 2005 to 2022. The review covers all the important steps in mycotoxins analysis including sampling, sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and concentration ranges in which the mycotoxins were found. Also, the results were interpreted from the European Union regulation point of view. The review emphasizes the importance of multi-mycotoxins analysis for determining the simultaneous presence of mycotoxins that can negatively affect the Serbian human population. The most frequently used instrumental technique in the mycotoxin analysis of Serbian products was the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay followed by the Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Most of the studies undertaken in Serbia until now investigated a few groups of matrices such as wheat, maize, milk, and dairy products. Only a few studies involved specific matrices such as nuts, dried fruits, biscuits, cookies, and spices. The review showed that contamination of milk and dairy products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), occurred at the very beginning of 2013, was the major health issue related to the population health. The contamination of milk and dairy products with the AFM1 was a consequence of maize contamination with aflatoxins which occurred in the year 2012, characterized by drought conditions. The studies dealing with the analysis of masked and emerging mycotoxins are rare and more attention should be paid to monitoring the presence of these types of mycotoxins in foodstuffs from Serbia.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of AFB1 and OTA-toxicity through immunofluorescence and flow cytometry techniques: A systematic review

Due to the globalization, mycotoxins have been considered a major risk to human health being the main contaminants of foodstuffs. Among them, AFB1 and OTA are the most toxic and studied. Therefore, the goal of this review is to deepen the knowledge about the toxicological effects that AFB1 and OTA can induce on human health by using flow cytometry and immunofluorescence techniques in vitro and in vivo models. The examination of the selected reports shows that the majority of them are focused on immunotoxicity while the rest are concerned about nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, neurotoxicity, embryotoxicity, reproductive system, breast, esophageal and lung toxicity. In relation to immunofluorescence analysis, biological processes related to AFB1- and OTA-toxicity were evaluated such as inflammation, neuronal differentiation, DNA damage, oxidative stress and cell death. In flow cytometry analysis, a wide range of assays have been performed across the reviewed studies being apoptosis assay, cell cycle analysis and intracellular ROS measurement the most employed. Although, the toxic effects of AFB1 and OTA have been reported, further research is needed to clarify AFB1 and OTA-mechanism of action on human health.

The Protective Effects of Lactoferrin on Aflatoxin M1-Induced Compromised Intestinal Integrity

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), the only toxin with maximum residue levels in milk, has adverse effects on the intestinal barrier, resulting in intestinal inflammatory disease. Lactoferrin (LF), one of the important bioactive proteins in milk, performs multiple biological functions, but knowledge of the protective effects of LF on the compromised intestinal barrier induced by AFM1 has not been investigated. In the present study, results using Balb/C mice and differentiated Caco-2 cells showed that LF intervention decreased AFM1-induced increased intestinal permeability, improved the protein expression of claudin-3, occludin and ZO-1, and repaired the injured intestinal barrier. The transcriptome and proteome were used to clarify the underlying mechanisms. It was found that LF reduced the intestinal barrier dysfunction caused by AFM1 and was associated with intestinal cell survival related pathways, such as cell cycle, apoptosis and MAPK signaling pathway and intestinal integrity related pathways including endocytosis, tight junction, adherens junction and gap junction. The cross-omics analysis suggested that insulin receptor (INSR), cytoplasmic FMR1 interacting protein 2 (CYFIP2), dedicator of cytokinesis 1 (DOCK1) and ribonucleotide reductase regulatory subunit M2 (RRM2) were the potential key regulators as LF repaired the compromised intestinal barrier. These findings indicated that LF may be an alternative treatment for the compromised intestinal barrier induced by AFM1.

Recent technological advances in mechanism, toxicity, and food perspectives of enzyme-mediated aflatoxin degradation

Aflatoxins are carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus section Flavi that contaminates a wide variety of food and feed products and is responsible for serious health and economic consequences. Fermented foods are prepared with a wide variety of substrates over a long fermentation time and are thus vulnerable to contamination by aflatoxin-producing fungi, leading to the production of aflatoxin B1. The mitigation and control of aflatoxin is currently a prime focus for developing safe aflatoxin-free food. This review summarizes the role of major aflatoxin-degrading enzymes such as laccase, peroxidase, and lactonase, and microorganisms in the context of their application in food. A putative mechanism of enzyme-mediated aflatoxin degradation and toxicity evaluation of the degraded products are also extensively discussed to evaluate the safety of degradation processes for food applications. The review also describes aflatoxin-degrading microorganisms isolated from fermented products and investigates their applicability in food as aflatoxin preventing agents. Furthermore, a summary of recent technological advancements in protein engineering, nanozymes, in silico and statistical optimization approaches are explored to improve the industrial applicability of aflatoxin-degrading enzymes.

In Vivo Kinetics and Biotransformation of Aflatoxin B1 in Dairy Cows Based on the Establishment of a Reliable UHPLC-MS/MS Method

The in vivo kinetics of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and its carry-over as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk as well as the toxin loads in the tissue of dairy cows were assessed through a repetitive feeding trial of an AFB1-contaminated diet of 4 μg kg-1 body weight (b.w.) for 13 days. This was followed by a clearance period that ended with a single dose trial of an AFB1-contaminated diet of 40 μg kg-1 b.w. An ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and successfully validated by the determination of linearity (R 2 ≥ 0.990), sensitivity (lower limit of quantification, 0.1-0.2 ng ml-1), recovery (79.5-111.2%), and precision relative standard deviation (RSD) ≤14.7%) in plasma, milk, and various tissues. The repetitive ingestion of AFB1 indicated that the biotransformation of AFB1 to AFM1 occurred within 48 h, and the clearance period of AFM1 in milk was not more than 2 days. The carry-over rate of AFM1 in milk during the continuous ingestion experiment was in the range of 1.15-2.30% at a steady state. The in vivo kinetic results indicated that AFB1 reached a maximum concentration of 3.8 ± 0.9 ng ml-1 within 35.0 ± 10.2 min and was slowly eliminated from the plasma, with a half-life time (T1/2) of 931.1 ± 30.8 min. Meanwhile, AFM1 reached a plateau in plasma (0.5 ± 0.1 ng ml-1) at 4 h after the ingestion. AFB1 was found in the heart, spleen, lungs, and kidneys at concentrations of 1.6 ± 0.3, 4.1 ± 1.2, 3.3 ± 0.9 and 5.6 ± 1.4 μg kg-1, respectively. AFM1 was observed in the spleen and kidneys at concentrations of only 0.7 ± 0.2 and 0.8 ± 0.1 μg kg-1, respectively. In conclusion, the in vivo kinetics and biotransformation of AFB1 in dairy cows were determined using the developed UHPLC-MS/MS method, and the present findings could be helpful in assessing the health risks to consumers.

Natural Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in Spices Marketed in the Czech Republic during 2019-2020

Spices are a popular ingredient in cuisine worldwide but can pose a health risk as they are prone to fungal infestation and mycotoxin contamination. The purpose of this study was to evaluate ochratoxin A (OTA) in 54 single-kind traditional and less traditional spices, each of which was purchased in six samples of different batches (324 samples in total) at the Czech market during 2019-2020. The HPLC-FLD method with pre-treatment by immunoaffinity columns was employed to determine OTA. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.03 ng g^-1 and 0.10 ng g^-1, respectively. A total of 101 (31%) samples of 19 spice kinds were positive at concentrations ranging from 0.11-38.46 ng g^-1. Only turmeric was contaminated with an OTA level exceeding the European Union limits. However, most spices have no regulation, thus further extensive monitoring of various mycotoxins in various kinds of spices is necessary. Chilli and black pepper are the most studied spices for OTA contamination, however, many other kinds of spice can also be highly contaminated, but studies on them are less common, rare, or have not yet been performed. The uniqueness of this study lies in the wide range of spice types studied for the presence of OTA on the Czech market.

Exposure and risk characterizations of ochratoxins A and aflatoxins through maize (Zea mays) consumed in different agro-ecological zones of Ghana

Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs is a serious food safety concern globally as the prolonged ingestion of these toxins has the tendency to worsen the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. This study aimed at estimating ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin (AF) levels above international (European Food Safety Authority, EFSA) and local (Ghana Standards Authority, GSA) standards as well as the health risks associated with the consumption of maize (n = 180) sampled from six (6) regions representing the agro-ecological zones of Ghana. OTA and AF were measured with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescence detector. Out of the 180 samples analyzed for total aflatoxins (AFtotal), 131/180 tested positive and 127 (70.50%) exceeded the limits of EFSA and ranged 4.27-441.02 µg/kg. While for GSA, 116 (64.44%) of samples exceeded this limit and ranged between 10.18 and 441.02 µg/kg. For OTA, 103/180 tested positive and 94 (52.22%) of samples between the range 4.00-97.51 µg/kg exceeded the tolerable limit of EFSA, whereas 89 (49.44%) and were in the range of 3.30-97.51 µg/kg exceeded the limits of GSA. Risk assessment values for total aflatoxins (AFtotal) ranged between 50 and 1150 ng/kg bw/day, 0.4-6.67, 0-0.0323 aflatoxins ng/kg bw/day and 1.62-37.15 cases/100,000 person/year for Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Margin of Exposure (MOE), Average Potency, and Cancer Risks respectively. Likewise, ochratoxin (OTA) values were in the ranges of 8.6 × 10-3-450 ng/kg bw/day, 0.05-2059.97, 0-0.0323 ochratoxins ng/kg bw/day and 2.78 × 10-4-14.54 cases/100,000 person/year. Consumption of maize posed adverse health effects in all age categories of the locations studied since the calculated MOE values were less than 10,000.

Antifungal and antitoxin effects of propolis and its nanoemulsion formulation against Aspergillus flavus isolated from human sputum and milk powder samples

Background and Aim:

Aspergillus flavus causes human and animal diseases through either inhalation of fungal spores or ingestion of mycotoxins as aflatoxins produced in human and animal feed as secondary metabolites. This study was aimed to detect the incidence of A. flavus and its aflatoxins in human sputum and milk powder samples and explore the efficacy of pure propolis (PP) and propolis nanoemulsion (PNE) as natural decontaminants against fungal growth and its released aflatoxins.

Materials and Methods:

A. flavus was isolated by mycological culture and identified macroscopically and microscopically. Coconut agar medium and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) were used to qualitatively detect aflatoxins in the isolated strains. Toxins were extracted from toxigenic strains by the fast extraction technique. The quantitative detection of toxin types was explored by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). PNE was prepared by a novel method using natural components and characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Zetasizer, and transmission electron microscopy. The effects of PP and PNE on A. flavus growth and its toxin were determined by the well-diffusion method and HPLC.

Results:

The mycological culture showed that 30.9% and 29.2% of sputum and milk powder samples were positive for A. flavus, respectively. TLC confirmed the production of 61.8% and 63.2% aflatoxin by the isolated strains in sputum and milk powder, respectively. PP and PNE showed antifungal activity on A. flavus growth with mean±standard error (SE) inhibition zones of 27.55±3.98 and 39.133±5.32 mm, respectively. HPLC revealed positive contamination of toxin extracts with AFB1, AFB2, and AFG2 at 0.57±0.026, 0.28±0.043, and 0.1±0.05 mg/L, respectively. After treatment with PP and PNE, a significant decrease in AFB1, AFB2, and AFG2 concentrations was observed.

Conclusion:

This study suggested using propolis and its nanoformulation as antifungal and antitoxins in human medicine and the food industry to increase the food safety level and stop food spoilage.

Urinary Biomarkers of Mycotoxin Induced Nephrotoxicity-Current Status and Expected Future Trends

The intensifying world-wide spread of mycotoxigenic fungal species has increased the possibility of mycotoxin contamination in animal feed and the human food chain. Growing evidence shows the deleterious toxicological effects of mycotoxins from infants to adults, while large population-based screening programs are often missing to identify affected individuals. The kidney functions as the major excretory system, which makes it particularly vulnerable to nephrotoxic injury. However, few studies have attempted to screen for kidney injury biomarkers in large, mycotoxin-exposed populations. As a result, there is an urgent need to screen them with sensitive biomarkers for potential nephrotoxicity. Although a plethora of biomarkers have been tested to estimate the harmful effects of a wide spectrum of toxicants, β₂-microglobulin (β₂-MG) and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) are currently the dominant biomarkers employed routinely in environmental toxicology research. Nevertheless, kidney injury molecule 1 (KIM-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) are also emerging as useful and informative markers to reveal mycotoxin induced nephrotoxicity. In this opinion article we consider the nephrotoxic effects of mycotoxins, the biomarkers available to detect and quantify the kidney injuries caused by them, and to recommend biomarkers to screen mycotoxin-exposed populations for renal damage.

A superefficient ochratoxin A hydrolase with promising potential for industrial applications

As the most seriously controlled mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp., ochratoxin A (OTA) results in various toxicological effects and widely contaminates agro-products. Biological detoxification of OTA is the most priority in food and feed industry, but currently available detoxification enzymes are relatively low effectiveness in time and cost. Here we show a superefficient enzyme ADH3 identified from Stenotrophomonas acidaminiphila with a strong ability to transform OTA into non-toxic ochratoxin-α by acting as an amidohydrolase. Recombinant ADH3 (1.2 μg/mL) completely degrades 50 μg/L OTA within 90 seconds, while the availably most efficient OTA hydrolases takes several hours. The kinetic constant showed that rADH3 (Kcat/Km) catalytic efficiency was 56.7-35000 times higher than those of previous hydrolases rAfOTase, rOTase and commercial carboxypeptidase A (CPA). Protein structure-based assay suggested that ADH3 has a preference for hydrophobic residues to form a larger hydrophobic area than other detoxifying enzymes at the cavity of the catalytic sites, and this structure makes the OTA easier to access to catalytic sites. In addition, ADH3 shows considerable temperature adaptability to exert hydrolytic function at the temperature down to 0°C or up to 70°C. Collectively, we report a superefficient OTA detoxifying enzyme with promising potential for industrial applications. IMPORTANCE Ochratoxin A (OTA) can result in various toxicological effects and widely contaminates agro-products and feedstuffs. OTA detoxifications by microbial strains and bio-enzymes are significant to food safety. Although previous studies showed OTA could be transformed through several pathways, the ochratoxin-α pathway is recognized as the most effective one. However, the most currently available enzymes are not efficient enough. Here, a superefficient hydrolase ADH3 which can completely transform 50 μg/L OTA into ochratoxin-α within 90 seconds was screened and characterized. The hydrolase ADH3 shows considerable temperature adaptability (0-70°C) to exert the hydrolytic function. Findings of this study supplied an efficient OTA detoxifying enzyme and predicted the superefficient degradation mechanism which lay a foundation for future industrial applications.

Mycotoxins—Prevention, Detection, Impact on Animal Health

Mycotoxins are defined as secondary metabolites of some species of mold fungi. They are present in many foods consumed by animals. Moreover, they most often contaminate products of plant and animal origin. Fungi of genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillum are most often responsible for the production of mycotoxins. They release toxic compounds that, when properly accumulated, can affect many aspects of breeding, such as reproduction and immunity, as well as the overall liver detoxification performance of animals. Mycotoxins, which are chemical compounds, are extremely difficult to remove due to their natural resistance to mechanical, thermal, and chemical factors. Modern methods of analysis allow the detection of the presence of mycotoxins and determine the level of contamination with them, both in raw materials and in foods. Various food processes that can affect mycotoxins include cleaning, grinding, brewing, cooking, baking, frying, flaking, and extrusion. Most feeding processes have a variable effect on mycotoxins, with those that use high temperatures having the greatest influence. Unfortunately, all these processes significantly reduce mycotoxin amounts, but they do not completely eliminate them. This article presents the risks associated with the presence of mycotoxins in foods and the methods of their detection and prevention.

Investigation of ochratoxin A biomarkers in biological materials obtained from patients suffering from renal cell carcinoma

Ochratoxin A (OTA) exposure can result in chronic renal diseases and cancer. The incidence of kidney, renal pelvis, and ureter malignant neoplasms in the Czech Republic is approximately 29.5 renal tumours per 100,000 inhabitants. The question arises whether mycotoxins are also involved in kidney disease and cancer. A sensitive validated analytical methodology, based on an immunoaffinity clean-up followed by HPLC with fluorescence detection, was developed to explore whether OTA accumulates in clear renal cell carcinoma-adenocarcinoma in Czech patients. Simultaneously, DNA-adducts and OTA metabolites were qualitatively analysed in tissues and urine. OTA was analysed in 33 kidney and tumour samples from 26 men and 7 women collected during nephrectomy from patients of the East Bohemian region from 2015 to 2017. OTA was found in 76% of the analysed samples. Its concentrations ranged from not detectable to 390 ng/kg with a median of 167 ng/kg in kidney samples and from not detectable to 430 ng/kg with a median of 122 ng/kg in tumour samples. Urinary OTA metabolites and DNA adducts were qualitatively analysed for the corresponding 20 patients. The presence of some OTA metabolites such as ochratoxin A hydroquinone and/or decarboxylated ochratoxin A hydroquinone correlate with the presence of OTA-DNA adducts.

Agronomic Factors Influencing the Scale of Fusarium Mycotoxin Contamination of Oats

Seven agronomic factors (crop season, farming system, harvest date, moisture, county, oat variety, and previous crop) were recorded for 202 oat crops grown across Ireland, and samples were analysed by LC-MS/MS for four major Fusarium mycotoxins: deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin. Type A trichothecenes were present in 62% of crops, with 7.4% exceeding European regulatory limits. DON (6.4%) and ZEN (9.9%) occurrences were relatively infrequent, though one and three samples were measured over their set limits, respectively. Overall, the type of farming system and the previous crop were the main factors identified as significantly influencing mycotoxin prevalence or concentration. Particularly, the adherence to an organic farming system and growing oats after a previous crop of grass were found to decrease contamination by type A trichothecenes. These are important findings and may provide valuable insights for many other types of cereal crops as Europe moves towards a much greater organic-based food system.

Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Ochratoxin A in Lebanese Students and Its Urinary Biomarker Analysis

The present study investigated the dietary and urinary OTA occurrence among 44 Lebanese children. Relying on HPLC-FLD analysis, OTA was found in all the urine samples and in 46.5% and 25% of the 24 h duplicate diet and dinner samples, respectively. The means of OTA levels in positive samples were 0.32 ± 0.1 ng/g in 24 h diet, 0.32 ± 0.18 ng/g in dinner and 0.022 ± 0.012 ng/mL in urines. These values corresponded to margin of exposure (MOE) means of 7907 ± 5922 (neoplastic) and 2579 ± 1932 (non-neoplastic) calculated from positive 24 h diet, while 961 ± 599 (neoplastic) and 313 ± 195 (non-neoplastic) calculated from the urine. Since the MOE levels for the neoplastic effect were below the limit (10,000), a major health threat was detected and must be addressed as a health institutions' priority. Besides, the wide difference between PDIs and MOEs calculated from food and urine suggests conducting further OTA's toxicokinetics studies before using urine to measure OTA exposure.

Potential of Kale and Lettuce Residues as Natural Adsorbents of the Carcinogen Aflatoxin B1 in a Dynamic Gastrointestinal Tract-Simulated Model

Adsorption of the carcinogen aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) onto agro-waste-based materials is a promising alternative over conventional inorganic binders. In the current study, two unmodified adsorbents were eco-friendly prepared from kale and lettuce agro-wastes. A dynamic gastrointestinal tract-simulated model was utilized to evaluate the removal efficiency of the sorptive materials (0.5%, w/w) when added to an AFB1-contaminated diet (100 µg AFB1/kg). Different characterization methodologies were employed to understand the interaction mechanisms between the AFB1 molecule and the biosorbents. Based on adsorption results, the biosorbent prepared from kale was the best; its maximum adsorption capacity was 93.6%, which was significantly higher than that of the lettuce biosorbent (83.7%). Characterization results indicate that different mechanisms may act simultaneously during adsorption. Non-electrostatic (hydrophobic interactions, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding) and electrostatic interactions (ionic attractions) together with the formation of AFB1-chlorophyll complexes appear to be the major influencing factors driving AFB1 biosorption.

Hepatic susceptibility to oxidative damage after repeated concomitant exposure to aspartame and aflatoxin B1 in rats

The potential interactions among food additives/contaminants and the consequences to biological systems is a topic that is rarely addressed in scientific literature. Thus, the current study investigated if the combined administration of ASP and AFB₁ would impair hepatic and renal oxidative status. Male Wistar rats received during 14 days once a day ASP (75 mg/Kg) and/or AFB₁ (250 µg/Kg) through intragastric route. At the end of experimental protocol, samples of liver and kidneys were collected for assessing biochemical markers of oxidative status. In the hepatic tissue, the treatment with a single substance (ASP or AFB₁) caused an increase in TBARS levels, and a reduction in non-enzymatic antioxidant defenses (Vit C and NPSH levels and FRAP test). In the kidneys, TBARS levels were increased only in the group that received ASP + AFB₁. The association reduced NPSH content, while the treatment with AFB₁ reduced the FRAP levels. GST and CAT activities were increased in all treatments. Overall, ASP and AFB1 association presented higher toxic effects to the tissues. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating that the associated use of both ASP and AFB1 induces more extensive injuries in comparison to the effects caused by each one alone. Therefore, these data demonstrated that concomitant exposure to ASP and AFB₁ potentiated their oxidative damage in hepatic tissue, suggesting that this organ is particularly sensitive to the toxic action induced by these substances.

A worldwide systematic review, meta-analysis, and health risk assessment study of mycotoxins in beers

Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs), and zearalenone (ZEN), have been reported as beer contaminants. This systematic review and meta-analysis provide the prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins in beers and their worldwide distribution. Mycotoxin's exposure and cancer risk through beer consumption were determined. The overall pooled prevalence of mycotoxins in beers was 31% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 28%-35%; I²  = 90%, p = .00). The most prevalent mycotoxins in beers were DON and its derivatives (53%), OTA (52%), FBs (47%), followed by AFs (12%). Iran (99%), Hungary (95%), Denmark (92%), Armenia (83%), and Cyprus (83%) had the highest mycotoxin prevalence in beers. The global mycotoxins average concentration in beers was 12.52 μg/L (95% CI = 10.70-14.75 μg/L; I²  = 100%, p = .00). DON and its derivatives showed the highest concentration (26.91 μg/L), followed by FBs (23.19 μg/L), ZEN and its derivatives (20.25 μg/L), and AFs (15.65 μg/L). African region had the highest mycotoxins concentration (73.95 μg/L) mostly due to the high levels reported in beers from Cameroon (293.02 μg/L), Malawi (132.34 μg/L), and Eastern Cape province (126.12 μg/L). The meta-regression indicated stability (p ≥ .05) of the global pooled concentration of mycotoxins in beers over the years, whereas FBs concentration increased. The intake of DON and its derivatives, FBs, ZEN and its derivatives, and OTA through beers is of concern in African countries. OTA is also of concern in Brazil and Belgium. Results show high mycotoxins concentration in beers worldwide and highlight the health risks through contaminated beer consumption.

Fatty acid profile and safety aspects of the edible oil prepared by artisans' at small-scale agricultural companies

The aim of this study was to analyze the fatty acid (FA) profiles and mycotoxin and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in sea buckthorn (SB1, SB2), flaxseed (FL3, FL4, FL5), hempseed (HE6, HE7, HE8), camelina (CA9, CA10), and mustard (MU11) edible oils, prepared by artisans' by artisanal at small-scale agricultural companies in Lithuania. The dominant FAs were palmitic and oleic acids in SB; palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in FL; palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in HE; palmitic, oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic acids in CA; and oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic acids in MU. In SB2 oil samples, T-2 toxin and zearalenone concentrations higher than 1.0 µg/kg were found (1.7 and 3.0 µg/kg, respectively). In sample FL4, an ochratoxin A concentration higher than 1.0 µg/kg was established (1.2 µg/kg); also, in HE8 samples, 2.0 µg/kg of zearalenone was found. None of the tested edible oils exceeded the limits for PAH concentration. Finally, because of the special place of edible oils in the human diet, not only should their contamination with mycotoxins and PAHs be controlled but also their FA profile, as an important safety characteristic, must be taken into consideration to ensure higher safety standards.

Mycotoxins in Pistachios (Pistacia vera L.): Methods for Determination, Occurrence, Decontamination

The consumption of pistachios (Pistacia vera L.) has been increasing, given their important benefit to human health. In addition to being an excellent nutritional source, they have been associated with chemical hazards, such as mycotoxins, resulting in fungal contamination and its secondary metabolism. Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most common mycotoxins in pistachio and the most toxic to humans, with hepatotoxic effects. More mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEA) and trichothecenes (T2, HT2 and DON) and emerging mycotoxins have been involved in nuts. Because of the low levels of concentration and the complexity of the matrix, the determination techniques must be very sensitive. The present paper carries out an extensive review of the state of the art of the determination of mycotoxins in pistachios, concerning the trends in analytical methodologies for their determination and the levels detected as a result of its contamination. Screening methods based on immunoassays are useful due to their simplicity and rapid response. Liquid chromatography (LC) is the gold standard with new improvements to enhance accuracy, precision and sensitivity and a lower detection limit. The reduction of Aspergillus' and aflatoxins' contamination is important to minimize the public health risks. While prevention, mostly in pre-harvest, is the most effective and preferable measure to avoid mycotoxin contamination, there is an increased number of decontamination processes which will also be addressed in this review.

Development and Validation of QuEChERS Followed by UHPLC-ToF-MS Method for Determination of Multi-Mycotoxins in Pistachio Nuts

Pistachios are one of the types of tree nut fruits with the highest mycotoxin contamination, especially of aflatoxins, worldwide. This study developed a Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) method that was followed by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography combined with Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-ToF-MS) for the determination of mycotoxins in pistachios. Different approaches to dispersive solid phase extraction as a clean-up method for high lipid matrices were evaluated. For this, classic sorbents such as C18 (octadecyl-modified silica) and PSA (primary secondary amine), and new classes of sorbents, namely EMR-Lipid (enhanced matrix removal-lipid) and Z-Sep (modified silica gel with zirconium oxide), were used. The QuEChERS method, followed by Z-Sep d-SPE clean-up, provided the best analytical performance for aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), toxin T2 (T2) and toxin HT-2 (HT2) in pistachios. The method was validated in terms of linearity, sensitivity, repeatability, interday precision and recovery; it achieved good results according to criteria imposed by Commission Regulation (EC) no. 401/2006. The method was applied to real samples and the results show that pistachios that are available in Portuguese markets are safe from mycotoxins that are of concern to human health.

Interaction of aflatoxin G1 with free DNA in vitro and possibility of its application in removing aflatoxin G1

The present study sought to evaluate the interaction between aflatoxin G₁ and free DNA in vitro through different analytical techniques. The UV-visible spectra results showed that the structure of DNA might be changed with a new aflatoxin G₁-DNA complex forming, which indicated that the interacting mode between them was the intercalating mode. The DNA melting temperature increased by 12.80 °C, suggesting that the DNA double helix structure was more compact and stable through intercalation. The circular dichroism (CD) spectra results indicated that the interaction of aflatoxin G₁ with DNA induced the DNA base stacking changes. The results of agarose gel electrophoresis and fluorescence microscope further verified that the interacting mode between aflatoxin G₁ and DNA was intercalation mode. According to the fluorescence spectrum data, the binding constant was calculated 6.24 × 10⁴ L·mol^-1. The thermodynamic results demonstrated that the reaction of aflatoxin G₁ intercalating to DNA was a spontaneous reaction. The elimination results suggested that aflatoxin G₁ could be enriched and removed by DNA intercalation through magnetic beads separation, with the removal efficiency of 93.73%. The study results would provide a theoretical basis for establishing a new aflatoxin removal method based on DNA intercalation.

Genomic Analyses of Penicillium Species Have Revealed Patulin and Citrinin Gene Clusters and Novel Loci Involved in Oxylipin Production

Blue mold of apple is caused by several different Penicillium species, among which P. expansum and P. solitum are the most frequently isolated. P. expansum is the most aggressive species, and P. solitum is very weak when infecting apple fruit during storage. In this study, we report complete genomic analyses of three different Penicillium species: P. expansum R21 and P. crustosum NJ1, isolated from stored apple fruit; and P. maximae 113, isolated in 2013 from a flooded home in New Jersey, USA, in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy. Patulin and citrinin gene cluster analyses explained the lack of patulin production in NJ1 compared to R21 and lack of citrinin production in all three strains. A Drosophila bioassay demonstrated that volatiles emitted by P. solitum SA and P. polonicum RS1 were more toxic than those from P. expansum and P. crustosum strains (R27, R11, R21, G10, and R19). The toxicity was hypothesized to be related to production of eight-carbon oxylipins. Putative lipoxygenase genes were identified in P. expansum and P. maximae strains, but not in P. crustosum. Our data will provide a better understanding of Penicillium spp. complex secondary metabolic capabilities, especially concerning the genetic bases of mycotoxins and toxic VOCs.

A Rapid and Sensitive Fluorescent Microsphere-Based Lateral Flow Immunoassay for Determination of Aflatoxin B1 in Distillers' Grains

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a toxic compound naturally produced by the genera Aspergillus. Distillers' grains can be used as animal feed since they have high content of crude protein and other nutrients. However, they are easily contaminated by mycotoxins, and currently there are no rapid detection methods for AFB1 in distillers' grains. In this study, a lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) based on red fluorescent microsphere (FM), is developed for quantitative detection of AFB1 in distillers' grains. The whole test can be completed within 15 min, with the cut-off value being 25.0 μg/kg, and the quantitative limit of detection (qLOD) being 3.4 μg/kg. This method represents satisfactory recoveries of 95.2-113.0%, and the coefficients of variation (CVs) are less than 7.0%. Furthermore, this technique is successfully used to analyze AFB1 in real samples, and the results indicates good consistency with that of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The correlation coefficient is found to be greater than 0.99. The proposed test strip facilitates on-site, cost-effective, and sensitive monitoring of AFB1 in distillers' grains.

Potential of Near Infrared Spectroscopy as a Rapid Method to Discriminate OTA and Non-OTA-Producing Mould Species in a Dry-Cured Ham Model System

The ripening process of dry-cured meat products is characterised by the development of fungi on the product's surface. This population plays a beneficial role, but, uncontrolled moulds represent a health risk, since some of them may produce mycotoxins, such as ochratoxin A (OTA). The aim of the present work is to assess the potential of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for the detection of OTA-producing mould species on dry-cured ham-based agar. The collected spectra were used to develop Support Vector Machines-Discriminant Analysis (SVM-DA) models by a hierarchical approach. Firstly, an SVM-DA model was tested to discriminate OTA and non-OTA producers; then, two models were tested to discriminate species among the OTA producers and the non-OTA producers. OTA and non-OTA-producing moulds were discriminated with 85% sensitivity and 86% specificity in the prediction. Furthermore, the SVM-DA model could differentiate non-OTA-producing species with a 95% sensitivity and specificity. Promising results were obtained for the prediction of the four OTA-producing species tested, with a 69% and 90% sensitivity and specificity, respectively. The preliminary approach demonstrated the high potential of NIR spectroscopy, coupled with Chemometrics, to be used as a real-time automated routine monitorization of dry-cured ham surfaces.

Essential oils and their nanoformulations as green preservatives to boost food safety against mycotoxin contamination of food commodities: a review

Postharvest food spoilage due to fungal and mycotoxin contamination is a major challenge in tropical countries, leading to severe adverse effects on human health. Because of the negative effects of synthetic preservatives on both human health and the environment, it has been recommended that chemicals that have a botanical origin, with an eco-friendly nature and a favorable safety profile, should be used as green preservatives. Recently, the food industry and consumers have been shifting drastically towards green consumerism because of their increased concerns about health and the environment. Among different plant-based products, essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive components are strongly preferred as antimicrobial food preservatives. Despite having potent antimicrobial efficacy and preservation potential against fungal and mycotoxin contamination, essential oils and their bioactive components have limited practical applicability caused by their high volatility and their instability, implying the development of techniques to overcome the challenges associated with EO application. Essential oils and their bioactive components are promising alternatives to synthetic preservatives. To overcome challenges associated with EOs, nanotechnology has emerged as a novel technology in the food industries. Nanoencapsulation may boost the preservative potential of different essential oils by improving their solubility, stability, and targeted sustainable release. Nanoencapsulation of EOs is therefore currently being practiced to improve the stability and bioactivity of natural products. The present review has dealt extensively with the application of EOs and their nanoformulated products encapsulated in suitable polymeric matrices, so as to recommend them as novel green preservatives against foodborne molds and mycotoxin-induced deterioration of stored food commodities. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Quantification of aflatoxin and ochratoxin contamination in animal milk using UHPLC-MS/SRM method: a small-scale study

Mycotoxin contamination in animal milk is an emerging concern around the globe. Here we developed and validated an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry-selected reaction monitoring (UHPLC/MS-SRM) method to quantify low concentrations of aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxins (OTs) in routinely consumed animal milk samples collected from southern India. Stable isotope dilution methodology was applied to quantify AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, AFM1, AFM2 and OTA, OTB in n = 38 different milk samples, using 1 mL of milk. Bioanalytical parameters including method accuracy, precision, recovery, regression analysis and stability were assessed. Dynamic ranges for quantification were between 15.6-1000 pg/mL for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and OTA; 7.8-500 pg/mL for AFM1, AFM2 and OTB; 78.6-5000 pg/mL for AFG2. Method accuracy ranged between 80-120%, with ± 15% precision. Recoveries for spiked standards were > 88% in water and 75% in milk, with limits of quantification (LOQ) ranging between 31.3 pg/mL for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and OTA, 15.6 pg/mL for AFM1, AFM2 and OTB and 156 pg/mL for AFG2. R2 values for regression analyses ranged between 0.9991-0.9999. AFB2 [mean: 38 pg/mL (0.038 µg/kg)] was quantified in goat milk, AFM1 was quantified in cow, goat, pasteurized milk [mean: 331 pg/mL (0.331 µg/kg), 406 pg/mL (0.406 µg/kg), 164 pg/mL (0.164 µg/kg)]. Additionally, 90% of cow, goat and pasteurized milk samples were above European Union (EU) limits of 50 pg/mL (0.05 µg/kg) and 40% of cow and goat milk samples were above the Food Safety Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) limit of 500 pg/mL (0.5 µg/kg). AFM2 was also quantified in cow, goat, and pasteurized milk samples [mean: 249 pg/mL (0.249 µg/kg), 375 pg/mL (0.375 µg/kg), 81 pg/mL (0.081 µg/kg)]. Our dynamic ranges for quantification are lower than other published methods, with need for a smaller volume of milk. This validated method can be applied for routine quantification of mycotoxins in milk.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1007/s13197-021-04986-w).

Prevalence, level and health risk assessment of mycotoxins in the fried poultry eggs from Jordan

In the current study, level and prevalence of deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA) in fried poultry eggs in Jordan was investigated. Poultry egg samples (n = 250) were collected from March to September 2017. The level of DON, AFB1, ZEN and OTA in the white and yolk of poultry eggs was measured using LC-MS-MS. The health risk assessment was calculated using Margin of Exposures (MOEs) for AFB1 and OTA and hazard index (HI) for ZEN and DON. The highest prevalence in yolk and white of eggs was related to ZEN (96.56 %) and OTA (97.44 %), respectively. Also, the highest level in white and yolk was related to DON (1.07 μg/kg) and DON (1.65 μg/kg), respectively. Level of DON in the yolk of eggs was significantly higher than white of eggs (P-value < 0.05). Risk assessment indicated that exposed population are at high risk of AFB1 (MOEs < 10,000) in fried poultry eggs.

Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Pigs-Current State of Knowledge and Analytics

Farm animals are frequently exposed to mycotoxins, which have many adverse effects on their health and become a significant food safety issue. Pigs are highly exposed and particularly susceptible to mycotoxins, which can cause many adverse effects. For the above reasons, an appropriate diagnostic tool is needed to monitor pig' exposure to mycotoxins. The most popular tool is feed analysis, which has some disadvantages, e.g., it does not include individual exposure. In recent years, the determination of biomarkers as a method to assess the exposure to mycotoxins by using concentrations of the parent compounds and/or metabolites in biological matrices is becoming more and more popular. This review provides a comprehensive overview of reported in vivo mycotoxin absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) and toxicokinetic studies on pigs. Biomarkers of exposure for aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, T-2 toxin and zearalenone are described to select the most promising compound for analysis of porcine plasma, urine and faeces. Biomarkers occur in biological matrices at trace levels, so a very sensitive technique-tandem mass spectrometry-is commonly used for multiple biomarkers quantification. However, the sample preparation for multi-mycotoxin methods remains a challenge. Therefore, a summary of different biological samples preparation strategies is included in that paper.