The effect of exercise-induced arousal on cognitive task performance: a meta-regression analysis

Impact of Physical Activity on an Individual’s Creativity: A Day-Level Analysis

Physical activity is fast emerging as a predictor of complex cognitive processes, yet its impact on creativity is not well researched. This study analyzes the immediate and retention effects of an enjoyable physical activity intervention at the end of the workday on the divergent and convergent thinking components of creativity via a randomized controlled trial of 68 MBA students. The treatment group participated in a 15-min enjoyable physical activity (dance), and the control group participated in an enjoyable nonphysical activity (socialization), and their impact on divergent and convergent thinking was measured via parallel forms of Guilford Alternate Uses Task and Remote Association Task, respectively. Dance significantly improved divergent and convergent thinking immediately after the intervention and also showed retention at the end of the work day compared with preintervention levels, whereas socialization showed such an effect only on flexibility immediately after the intervention and no retention. The results support executive function hypothesis and ego depletion theory.

Acute exercise and cognition: A review with testable questions for future research into cognitive enhancement with blood flow restriction

Blood flow restriction, in combination with low load/intensity exercise, has consistently been shown to increase both muscle size and strength. In contrast, the effects of blood flow restricted exercise on cognition have not been well studied. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is 1) to review the currently available literature investigating the impact of blood flow restricted exercise on cognition and 2) to provide some hypotheses for how blood flow restriction might provide an additive stimulus for augmenting specific cognitive domains above exercise alone. Given the lack of research in this area, the effects of blood flow restricted exercise on cognition are still unclear. We hypothesize that blood flow restricted exercise could potentially enhance several cognitive domains (such as attention, executive functioning, and memory) through increases in lactate production, catecholamine concentration, and PGC-1α expression. We review work that suggests that blood flow restriction is not only a beneficial strategy to improve musculoskeletal function but could also be a favorable method for enhancing multiple domains of cognition. Nonetheless, it must be emphasized this is a hypothesis that currently has only minimal experimental support, and further investigations in the future are necessary to test the hypothesis.

The Effect of Acute High-Intensity Interval Training on Executive Function: A Systematic Review

Acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a time-efficient strategy to improve physical health; however, the effect of acute HIIT on executive function (EF) is unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing evidence and quantify the effect of acute HIIT on overall EF and the factors affecting the relationship between acute HIIT and EF. Standard databases (i.e., the PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and CENTRAL databases) were searched for studies that examined the effect of acute HIIT on EF and were published up until January 2021. The overall EF and factors grouped by three categories, namely, EF assessment characteristics, exercise intervention characteristics, and sample and study characteristics, were analyzed by percentage of comparison for positive or null/negative effects. Overall, 35 of 57 outcomes (61%) across 24 studies revealed that acute HIIT has a positive effect on overall EF. In terms of factors, the results indicated that among EF assessment characteristics, groups, inhibition, updating, and the assessment occurring within 30 min may moderate the effect of acute HIIT on EF, while among exercise intervention characteristics, total time within 11 to 30 min may moderate the effect. Finally, among sample characteristics, age under 40 years may moderate the effect. Acute HIIT is generally considered a viable alternative for eliciting EF gains, with factors related to EF components, timing of the assessment, exercise total time, and age potentially moderating the effect of HIIT on EF.

Physical activity and its association with cognitive function in middle- and older-aged Chinese: Evidence from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, 2015

BACKGROUND

Despite the known benefits of physical activity (PA) on cognitive function, the specific dimensions of PA that are associated with cognitive function require further research in China. We aimed to explore the patterns of PA and elucidate the association between cognitive function and different levels of PA in middle aged and elderly Chinese individuals.

METHODS

A total of 8,023 participants aged ≥45 years were selected from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. The PA intensity was categorized as: vigorous (VPA), moderate (MPA), and light (LPA). The associations of frequency and duration of PA at different intensities with cognitive function were examined using the multivariable linear model, including all respondents and urban-rural subgroups.

RESULTS

Compared with those who had no VPA, those who spent 6-7 days/week (β = -0.59, 95% CI: -1.10, -0.09) or more than 240 min/each time on VPA had poorer cognitive function among rural respondents, whereas cognitive function was only associated with the duration in urban respondents. Compared with those who had no MPA, the rural respondents who spent 1-5 days/week (β = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.12, 1.20) or 6-7days/week, or spent < 2 hours each time had better cognitive function. For LPA, frequency and duration were both positively associated with cognitive function, and were observed in both rural and urban sub-groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The association between cognitive function and PA depended largely on the intensity and area. Cultural context and geographical differences should be considered when designing intervention policies.Highlights The prevalence of PA increased as the intensity decreased and was higher in rural respondents than in urban respondents.Cognitive function was related to the intensity, frequency, and duration of PA. However, the magnitude and direction of the association depended mainly on the intensity and geographical area.VPA was negatively correlated with cognitive function, and the association was significant only in rural respondents. However, MPA and LPA were positively correlated with cognitive function, while the association between LPA and cognitive function was significant in both rural and urban respondents.

Effects of Three Levels of Green Exercise, Physical and Social Environments, Personality Traits, Physical Activity, and Engagement with Nature on Emotions and Attention

The current study examined the effects of the three levels of green exercise on people’s psychological health using a randomized trial with a pretest and posttest design and further explored which variables of the physical environment (thermal comfort, noise, and air pollution), social environment (the number of companions and crowdedness), personality traits, physical activity (intensity and frequency), and engagement with nature may help explain experiences during the three levels of green exercise using a cross-sectional approach. Field studies were conducted to test the study’s hypotheses. The participants were 95 students from a technology university in Taiwan. The experiment comprised a 15-min green exercise in a park. No significant differences were found in emotions and attention between the three levels of green exercise. However, a 15-min green exercise of any level significantly improved emotions and attention. Furthermore, fatigue was significantly and negatively associated with daily transportation-related physical activity, agreeableness, and engagement with nature. Moreover, the total mood disturbance was significantly and negatively associated with engagement with nature and daily transportation-related physical activity. The degree of engagement with nature played a pivotal role in green exercise. This study provided the evidence that quantified engagement with nature is beneficial for quantified psychological health for the first time.

Physical Exercise Intensity During Submersion Selectively Affects Executive Functions

OBJECTIVE

The intact cognitive processing capacity in highly demanding and dynamically changing situations (e.g., in extreme environmental conditions) is of central relevance for personal safety. This study therefore investigated whether underwater physical exercise (PE) affected cognitive performance by comparing these effects during underwater fin-swimming as opposed to inactivity under normal environmental conditions.

BACKGROUND

Although acute bouts of PE can modulate cognitive performance under highly controlled and standardized laboratory conditions, no previous study has determined whether PE acutely modulates cognitive performance in non-laboratory testing conditions involving extreme environments (e.g., underwater).

METHOD

A total of 27 healthy volunteers (16 males and 11 females; 28.9 ± 7.4 years of age) participated in two experiments involving either moderate or high PE intensity. A PRE/POST crossover design was employed among participants while performing cognitive tests in a counterbalanced order (i.e., before and after 20 min of PE in submersion [WET] and once before and after inactivity [DRY] while in the laboratory). Cognitive performance was measured as a combination of executive functions through the Eriksen Flanker (inhibition) and Two-Back (working memory) Tasks using an underwater tablet computer.

RESULTS

ANOVAs revealed enhanced reaction times only in the Flanker test after moderate PE for the WET condition. No other effects were detected.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that cognitive performance is exercise-intensity-dependent with enhanced effects during moderate PE, even in extreme environments (i.e., underwater).

APPLICATION

These results should be relevant in recreational and occupational contexts involving underwater activity and may also apply to microgravity (e.g., during extra-vehicular activities).

DESCRIPTION

This study compared the acute effects of physical exercise (PE) on cognitive performance in an underwater environment while participants fin-swam with SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) gear. Findings revealed that 20 min of moderate PE positively affected cognitive performance (i.e., inhibitory control ability). However, no changes were observed after high-intensity exercise.

Natural Is Not Always Better: The Varied Effects of a Natural Environment and Exercise on Affect and Cognition

The Attention Restoration Theory (ART) has been widely cited to account for beneficial effects of natural environments on affect and attention. However, the effects of environment and exercise are not consistent. In a within-subjects design, participants completed affective and cognitive measures that varied in attentional demands (memory, working memory, and executive function) both before and after exercise in a natural and indoor environment. Contrary to the hypotheses, a natural environment resulted in lower positive affect and no difference in negative affect compared to an indoor environment. A natural environment resulted in the most improvement for cognitive tasks that required moderate attentional demand: Trail Making Test A and Digit Span Forwards. As predicted, exercise resulted in improved affect and improved executive function (Trail Making Test B). There were no interactions between environment and exercise. These results suggest that ART cannot fully explain the influence of environment on affect and cognition.

The Acute Effects of Different Exercise Intensities on Associative Novel Word Learning in Healthy Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Recent studies show positive effects of acute exercise on language learning in young adults with lower baseline learning abilities; however, this is yet to be investigated in older adults. This study investigated the acute effects of different exercise intensities on new word learning in healthy older adults with lower and higher baseline learning abilities. Sixty older adults (mean age = 66.4 (4.6); 43 females) performed either a single bout of stretching exercise, moderate-intensity continuous exercise, or high-intensity interval exercise followed by a word learning task. In lower baseline learners, between-group differences were observed on immediate new word recall success, with the moderate-intensity continuous exercise group performing better than the stretching group. These findings suggest immediate benefits of moderate-intensity continuous exercise that are limited to word learning performance of older adults with lower baseline learning abilities. Further investigation into underlying mechanisms could lead to a better understanding of individual differences in responding to acute exercise.

Effects of running exercises on reaction time and working memory in individuals with intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

This study explored the effect of running exercises at low [30% heart rate reserve (HRR)] and moderate (60%HRR) intensities on cognitive performances in individuals with intellectual disability (ID).

METHODS

Participants performed randomly reaction time (RT) tests: visual RT [simple RT (SRT) and choice RT (CRT)], auditory SRT (ASRT) and working memory (WM) (Corsi test) before and after the exercises.

RESULTS

The results showed that after both exercises, SRT decreased significantly (P < 0.001) in both groups with higher extent (P < 0.05) at 60%HRR compared with 30%HRR. CRT decreased (P < 0.01), similarly, after the both exercises in both groups with higher (P < 0.001) extent in the intellectual disability group (IDG). ASRT decreased significantly, at 30%HRR, in IDG (P < 0.001) and in control group (CG) (P < 0.01) with greater extent in IDG (P < 0.001). At 60%HRR, ASRT decreased significantly in both groups (P < 0.001) with greater extent in IDG (P < 0.001). The ΔASRT% was significantly (P < 0.05) higher at 30%HRR compared with 60%HRR in IDG. In CG, no significant (P = 0.21) difference was reported between intensities. The Corsi forward and the Corsi backward scores increased significantly (P < 0.01) in both groups after both intensities with higher extent in IDG (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that low and moderate running exercises improve similarly simple and choice visual RT as well as WM in individuals with ID. Furthermore, low-intensity exercise could be more appropriate to enhance ASRT compared the moderate one in these individuals. Therefore, low-intensity exercise seems to be an efficient strategy to improve cognitive performances in individuals with ID.

Use of Stroop Test for Sports Psychology Study: Cross-Over Design Research

Background: In sports psychology research, the Stroop test and its derivations are commonly used to investigate the benefits of exercise on cognitive function. The measures of the Stroop test and the computed interference often have different interclass correlation coefficients (ICC). However, the ICC is never reported in cross-over designs involving multiple variances associated with individual differences.

Objective: We investigated the ICC of the Stroop neutral and incongruent tests and interference (neutral test—incongruent test), and reverse Stroop task using the linear mixed model.

Methods: Forty-eight young adults participated in a cross-over design experiment composed of 2 factors: exercise mode (walking, resistance exercise, badminton, and seated rest as control) and time (pre- and post-tests). Before and after each intervention, participants completed the Stroop neutral and incongruent, and the reverse-Stroop neutral and incongruent tests. We analyzed for each test performance and interference and calculated ICC using the linear mixed model.

Results: The linear mixed model found a significant interaction of exercise mode and time for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop tasks, suggesting that exercise mode influences the effect of acute exercise on inhibitory function. On the other hand, there was no significant effect of exercise mode for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop interference. The results also revealed that calculating both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop interference resulted in smaller ICCs than the ICCs of the neutral and incongruent tests for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop tasks.

Conclusion: The Stroop and reverse-Stroop interferences are known as valid measures of the inhibitory function for cross-sectional research design. However, to understand the benefits of acute exercise on inhibitory function comprehensively by cross-over design, comparing the incongruent test with the neutral test also seems superior because these tests have high reliability and statistical power.

Wellness Survey Responses and Smartphone App Response Efficiency: Associations With Remote History of Sport-Related Concussion

Recent research findings have strongly suggested that sport-related concussion (SRC) increases risk for subsequent injury of any type, as well as a potential for long-term adverse effects on neurological and psychological well-being. The primary purpose of this study was to explore the reliability and discriminatory power of clinical testing procedures for detecting persisting effects of SRC. We used a cross-sectional study design to assess both self-reported symptoms commonly associated with post-concussion syndrome, and the effects of mental or physical activity on metrics derived from a smartphone app designed to test perceptual-motor responses. Among 30 physically active college students, 15 participants reported a SRC occurrence prior to testing (M time-since-injury = 4.0 years, SD = 3.1, range = 5 months to 11 years). We found good test-retest reliability for key metrics derived from the smartphone app (ICC ≥ .70); and the internal consistency for the Overall Wellness Index (OWI) for 10 categories of 82 post-concussion symptoms was ideal (Cronbach's α ≥ .80). Moderate intensity treadmill running demonstrated the strongest differential effect on perceptual-motor responses between participants with a history of SRC (HxSRC) and those with no such history (No SRC), which was best represented by the speed-accuracy trade-off quantified by the inverse efficiency index (IEI: group X trial interaction p = .055). Self-reported OWI symptoms ≥4 and post-physical activity IEI ≥ 568 ms provided the strongest discrimination between HxSRC and NoSRC participants (≥1 versus 0: OR = 9.75). Our findings suggest that persisting effects from a remote SRC occurrence can be detected by easily administered screening procedures that have the potential to identify individual athletes who might derive benefit from interventions to restore their optimal function and well-being.

Effects of Acute and Chronic Exercises on Executive Function in Children and Adolescents: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Physical exercises can affect executive function both acutely and chronically, with different mechanisms for each moment. Currently, only a few reviews have elaborated on the premise that different types of exercises have different mechanisms for improving executive function. Therefore, the primary purpose of our systematic review was to analyze the effects of acute and chronic exercises on executive function in children and adolescents. Objective: We identified acute and chronic exercise studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of executive function in children and adolescents that reported overall effect, heterogeneity, and publication bias of acute and chronic exercises on executive function. Methods: We searched for RCTs of exercise interventions in children and adolescents from databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, The Cochrane Library, CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), and Wanfang, from January 1 2009 to December 31 2019. We performed methodological quality evaluations on the included literature using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database Scale (PEDro) and graded evidence with a meta-analysis using Stata 12.0 software. Results: In total, 36 RCTs were included (14 acute exercises, 22 chronic exercises); the overall results of the meta-analysis (4,577 students) indicated that acute exercises significantly improved working memory (standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.72; 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.89 to -0.56; p < 0.001), inhibitory control (SMD = -0.25; 95% CI -0.40 to -0.09; p = 0.002), and cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.34; 95% CI -0.55 to -0.14; p < 0.005), whereas chronic exercises significantly improved working memory (SMD = -0.54; 95% CI -0.74 to -0.33; p < 0.001), inhibitory control (SMD = -0.30; 95% CI -0.38 to -0.22; p < 0.001), and cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.34, 95 % CI -0.48 to -0.20, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Acute and chronic exercises can effectively improve the executive function of children and adolescents. The effects on inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility are considered as small effect sizes, while the effects on working memory are considered as moderate effect size. Limited by the quantity and quality of the included studies, the above conclusions need to be verified with more high-quality studies.

Effects of Exercise on Explicit Memory Function: Incidental and Intentional Encoding May Depend on Exercise Timing

The present experiment evaluated the effects of self-reported exercise behavior and an acute bout of high-intensity exercise on explicit memory function. The memory tasks were encoded either incidentally or intentionally; for intentional encoding, participants were told to focus on memorizing the stimuli (words), whereas for incidental encoding, participants were unaware that they would be subsequently asked to complete an object recognition task. Among a sample of 150 adults (M_age = 20 years), randomly assigned experimental participants engaged in the following task sequence: (a) incidentally encoded a series of objects, (b) engaged in 20 minutes of high-intensity exercise, (c) intentionally encoded a word list, and (d) completed explicit memory retrieval tasks. Control group participants viewed a time matched video in lieu of high intensity exercise. We measured self-reported exercise behavior via an exercise questionnaire. We did not observe convincing evidence of an effect of high-intensity acute exercise, when occurring during the early consolidation period, on memory function, for either incidental or intentional encoding tasks. However, self-reported engagement in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was favorably associated with explicit memory performance.

Exercise and Executive Function during Follicular and Luteal Menstrual Cycle Phases

PURPOSE

A single bout of aerobic or resistance exercise improves executive function. We sought to determine whether menstrual cycle variations in ovarian hormone concentrations differentially influence the expression and/or magnitude of a postexercise executive benefit.

METHODS

Eumenorrheic female participants completed 20-min single bouts of aerobic exercise (via cycle ergometer) at a moderate intensity (i.e., 80% of estimated lactate threshold) during the early follicular and midluteal phases of their menstrual cycle. Pre- and postexercise executive function was examined via antisaccades-an executive task requiring a saccade mirror-symmetrical to a visual stimulus. Antisaccades are an ideal tool for examining postexercise executive changes because the task is mediated via the same frontoparietal networks as modified following single-bout and chronic exercise.

RESULTS

Antisaccade reaction times decreased from the pre- to postexercise assessments by an average of 22 ms (P = 0.003), and this benefit was independent of changes in directional errors or end point accuracy (P's > 0.26). In other words, participants did not decrease their postexercise reaction times at the cost of increased planning times or execution errors. Most notably, the postexercise antisaccade benefit did not vary in magnitude across follicular or luteal phases (P = 0.33) and a two one-sided test statistic (i.e., equivalence testing) provided support for the null hypothesis (P = 0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

A postexercise executive benefit is independent of hormonal variations in the menstrual cycle. Further, our results evince that the phase of a female participant's menstrual cycle should not be a limiting factor in determining their inclusion in exercise neuroscience research.

The Effects of Low-Intensity Multimodal Proprioceptive Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Physical activity provides a number of physical and psychological benefits. Multimodal proprioceptive exercise represents a useful balance-based exercise with the potential to reduce falls in older adults. Previous research has also indicated cognitive benefits following multimodal proprioceptive exercise in young and older adults. This study aimed to assess cognition and mood following 2 types of physical activity (multimodal proprioception vs yoga) compared with control (classroom-based) in healthy older adults.

METHOD

Nineteen older adults (Mage = 65, sex = 9 males) participated in this randomized controlled crossover trial. Participants completed a 20-minute multimodal proprioceptive exercise class, 20-minute yoga session, and 20-minute classroom-based control. Numeric working memory and mood were assessed before and immediately following each of the interventions.

RESULTS

The multimodal proprioceptive intervention significantly reduced numeric working memory reaction time versus the yoga (P = .043) and control (P = .023) group. There were no differences found for accuracy or mood.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that multimodal proprioceptive exercise is worthy of further investigation as an alternative mode of exercise alongside the more traditional aerobic and strength-based exercise for healthy older adults.

Does exercise have a protective effect on cognitive function under hypoxia? A systematic review with meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine (1) the independent effects of hypoxia on cognitive function and (2) the effects of exercise on cognition while under hypoxia.

METHODS

Design: Systematic review with meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, PsychInfo, and SPORTDiscus were searched. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: randomized controlled trials and nonrandomized controlled studies that investigated the effects of chronic or acute exercise on cognition under hypoxia were considered (Aim 2), as were studies investigating the effects of hypoxia on cognition (Aim 1).

RESULTS

In total, 18 studies met our inclusionary criteria for the systematic review, and 12 studies were meta-analyzed. Exposure to hypoxia impaired attentional ability (standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.4), executive function (SMD = -0.18), and memory function (SMD = -0.26), but not information processing (SMD = 0.27). Aggregated results indicated that performing exercise under a hypoxia setting had a significant effect on cognitive improvement (SMD = 0.3, 95% confidence interval: 0.14 - 0.45, I² = 54%, p < 0.001). Various characteristics (e.g., age, cognitive task type, exercise type, exercise intensity, training type, and hypoxia level) moderated the effects of hypoxia and exercise on cognitive function.

CONCLUSION

Exercise during exposure to hypoxia improves cognitive function. This association appears to be moderated by individual and exercise/hypoxia-related characteristics.

Methods for improving thermal tolerance in military personnel prior to deployment

Acute exposure to heat, such as that experienced by people arriving into a hotter or more humid environment, can compromise physical and cognitive performance as well as health. In military contexts heat stress is exacerbated by the combination of protective clothing, carried loads, and unique activity profiles, making them susceptible to heat illnesses. As the operational environment is dynamic and unpredictable, strategies to minimize the effects of heat should be planned and conducted prior to deployment. This review explores how heat acclimation (HA) prior to deployment may attenuate the effects of heat by initiating physiological and behavioural adaptations to more efficiently and effectively protect thermal homeostasis, thereby improving performance and reducing heat illness risk. HA usually requires access to heat chamber facilities and takes weeks to conduct, which can often make it impractical and infeasible, especially if there are other training requirements and expectations. Recent research in athletic populations has produced protocols that are more feasible and accessible by reducing the time taken to induce adaptations, as well as exploring new methods such as passive HA. These protocols use shorter HA periods or minimise additional training requirements respectively, while still invoking key physiological adaptations, such as lowered core temperature, reduced heart rate and increased sweat rate at a given intensity. For deployments of special units at short notice (< 1 day) it might be optimal to use heat re-acclimation to maintain an elevated baseline of heat tolerance for long periods in anticipation of such an event. Methods practical for military groups are yet to be fully understood, therefore further investigation into the effectiveness of HA methods is required to establish the most effective and feasible approach to implement them within military groups.

The Influence of an Acute Exercise Bout on Adolescents' Stress Reactivity, Interference Control, and Brain Oxygenation Under Stress

Background

High psychosocial stress can impair executive function in adolescents, whereas acute exercise has been reported to benefit this cognitive domain. The aim of this study was to investigate whether an acute bout of aerobic exercise improves the inhibitory aspect of executive function and the associated dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) oxygenation when under stress.

Methods

Sixty male high school students aged 16–20 years performed a Stroop task (baseline condition) and were randomly assigned to an exercise group (30 min on ergometer at 70% of maximum heart rate) and a control group (30 min of reading). Subsequently, all participants underwent a modified Trier Social Stress Test, which included a Stroop task under enhanced stress. The Stroop tasks in both conditions were combined with functional near-infrared spectroscopy to record changes in DLPFC oxygenation in response to the tasks. Stress reactivity was measured with saliva samples (cortisol, alpha-amylase), heart rate monitoring, and anxiety scores.

Results

All stress parameters indicated increases in response to the stressor (p < 0.001), with higher alpha-amylase [t(58) = −3.45, p = 0.001, d = 1.93] and anxiety [t(58) = −2.04, p = 0.046, d = 0.53] reactions in the control compared to the exercise group. Controlling for these two parameters, repeated measures analyses of covariance targeting changes in Stroop interference scores showed no main effect of stress [F(1,58) = 3.80, p = 0.056, ηp² = 0.063] and no stress × group interaction [F(1,58) = 0.43, p = 0.517, ηp² = 0.008]. Similarly, there was no main effect of stress [F(1,58) = 2.38, p = 0.128, ηp² = 0.040] and no stress × group interaction [F(1,58) = 2.80, p = 0.100, ηp² = 0.047] for DLPFC oxygenation.

Conclusion

Our study confirms potentially health-enhancing effects of acute exercise on some of the physiological and psychological stress reactivity indicators. However, our data do not support the notion of an effect on interference control and DLPFC activation under stress.

Acute exercise, memory, and neural activation in young adults

Acute exercise benefits memory, and the temporal placement of exercise relative to exposure can affect the magnitude of benefits observed. Although the temporal placement appears to be important, there is a limited understanding as to how cognitive benefits in response to acute exercise are achieved. Hence, we conducted a two-part study including a behavioral study and a follow-up functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study to advance our understanding of the potential role of the effects of exercise on memory and neural activation. For Study One, we assessed the effect of acute exercise on memory in young adults. Participants were randomized to exercise before exposure for 20 min (before only, BO), after exposure for 20 min (After Only, AO), before and after exposure for 10 min at each time (before and after, BA), or to receive no exercise (No-exercise Control, NC). Similar to previous findings, any exercise prior to exposure (BO, BA) benefited some aspects of memory performance. Interestingly, the more consistent and larger benefits were seen with a shorter duration of exercise both before and after exposure (BA). Study Two replicated the methods of Study One comparing the BA condition (which had the most robust benefits) to the NC condition while collecting fMRI data during the memory task. Analyses assessed condition differences of activation during encoding and recall. There were no condition differences during memory encoding, however there was a condition effect on activation in occipito-temporal regions during the memory recall trials. Consistent with previous research, exercise appears to benefit memory with some exercise prior to exposure being important for the benefits achieved. Further, exercise affects neural activation and the results appear complementary to the behavior findings. Future research should use a within-subjects design to control for heterogeneity in behavior and neural activation.

Shedding Light on the Effects of Moderate Acute Exercise on Working Memory Performance in Healthy Older Adults: An fNIRS Study

Numerous studies have reported the beneficial effects of acute exercise on executive functions. Less is known, however, about the effects of exercise on working memory as one subcomponent of executive functions and about its effects on older adults. We investigated the effects of acute moderate-intensity exercise on working memory performance, the respective cortical hemodynamic activation patterns, and the development and persistence of such effects in healthy older adults. Forty-four participants (M: 69.18 years ± 3.92; 21 females) performed a letter 2-back task before and at three time points after (post 15 min, post 30 min, and post 45 min) either listening to an audiobook or exercising (15 min; 50% VO2-peak). Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to assess cortical hemodynamic activation and brain-behavior correlations in the fronto-parietal working memory network. Overall, we found no group differences for working memory performance. However, only within the experimental group, 2-back performance was enhanced 15 min and 45 min post-exercise. Furthermore, 15 min post-exercise frontal activation predicted working memory performance, regardless of group. In sum, our results indicate slight beneficial effects of acute moderate-intensity exercise on working memory performance in healthy older adults. Findings are discussed in light of the cognitive aging process and moderators affecting the exercise-cognition relationship.

The effect of acute, moderate intensity indoor cycling on the temporal resolution of human vision system, measured by critical fusion frequency

Critical fusion frequency (CFF) reflects the basic temporal function of the visual system and therefore is a good measure of its performance. CFF has been implemented in psychological and pharmacological studies to evaluate cognitive functions. The influence of abnormal environmental conditions, such as physical exercise, has been recently explored. Previous studies have presented alterations of cognitive processes due to acute exercise. However, the duration of the effect after the end of exercise has not been investigated. This evaluation is important especially in reference to long-term conclusions on the effect of training on CFF as an improvement of cognition. The main goal of this study was to check whether a stimulatory effect of acute submaximal physical exercise on CFF among non-experienced cyclists persists over time. Moreover, we asked whether this effect differs between areas of visual field. CFF thresholds from 15 volunteers were measured by means of an automated medical perimeter PTS 910 (Bogdani) before, immediately after the end, and 30 min after the end of two sessions (training and rest). During rest, CFF did not change significantly, but we observed an increased CFF immediately after training. Interestingly, this increase was maintained 30 min after the end of exercise in fovea. A greater decrease of CFF during rest was observed for lower than for upper hemifield. Our results suggest that an acute, moderate-intensity cycling improved CFF in non-experienced cyclists, with the duration of the effect depending on eccentricity. The possible visual hemifield asymmetries of CFF changes over time will be further investigated.

Dual-Task Interference Between Swimming and Verbal Memory

OBJECTIVE

A dual-task study was performed to explore the performance effects for swimming, word recall, and the combination of the two tasks performed simultaneously.

BACKGROUND

Dual-task interference studies have been performed for a variety of tasks; however, there has not been much dual-task interference research where one of the tasks is a naturalistic physically strenuous task. Swimming is a unique physical task that requires spatial orientation on three dimensional axes, similar to that of flying, but has no risk of falling. Previous studies have been conducted in other activity combinations with word-free recall, such as running and climbing, but swimming has yet to be explored.

METHOD

A verbal memory recall task and swimming task were performed in isolated (single-task) and simultaneous conditions. A comparison of effects across these different activities was also explored.

RESULTS

Swimming and the word-recall task resulted in significant dual-task interference: almost as much as when word recall was paired with another verbal task, but more than running and less than climbing.

CONCLUSION

Consistent with other dual-task studies, this study observed dual-task interference between the physical swimming task and the cognitive verbal memory task.

APPLICATION

Future technologies and training for personnel who engage in water rescue or commercial diving, such as underwater welding and fiber optic cable, may be improved by these findings.

A single bout of physical exercise does not affect young adults’ executive functions

Study aim. The purpose of the current study is to determine the impact of single bouts of physical exercise of different duration and intensity on young adults’ executive functions.

Material and methods. The study employed 81 participants (37 females, 44 males) ranging between 19 and 39 years (mean age: 24.6 ± 4.08 years; mean height: 168 ± 9.67 cm; mean weight: 67.2 ± 13.0 kg). The executive functions were assessed through the Stroop task, the Tower of London test, and the Corsi block test. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental conditions (30-second Wingate test condition, an incremental intensity exercise test, and a submaximal constant-intensity test) or the control group.

Results. For all the conditions, repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant effect of time on executive function performances, meaning that participants improved their performance between pre-test and post-test, while the interaction time x activity was in the expected direction but nonsignificant.

Conclusions. Apparently, a single, brief, high-intensity bout of exercise has no effects on young adults’ cognitive functions, but the same experiment should be replicated with a bigger sample.

The Effects of Heat Exposure During Intermittent Exercise on Physical and Cognitive Performance Among Team Sport Athletes

This study investigated the effects of heat exposure on physical and cognitive performance during an intermittent exercise protocol so as to reflect the incremental fatigue experienced during team sports. Twelve well-trained male team sport players completed an 80-minute cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), alongside computerized vigilance and congruent (i.e., simple) and incongruent (i.e., complex) Stroop tasks of cognitive functioning, in two counterbalanced temperature conditions; hot (32°C[50%rh]) and control (18°C[50%rh]). Incongruent Stroop accuracy declined over time (p = .002), specifically in the second (M^diff = –3.75, SD = 0.90%, p = .009) and third (M^diff = –4.58, SD = 1.22%, p = .019) quarters compared to the first quarter of the CISP; but there were no differences between temperature conditions. Congruent Stroop reaction time (RT) was quicker in the second quarter of exercise in the hot condition (M = 561.99, SD = 112.93 ms) compared to the control condition (M=617.80, SD = 139.71 ms; p = .022), but no differences were found for congruent Stroop accuracy nor vigilance measures. Additionally, peak power output was lower during the third quarter of the CISP in the hot condition (M = 861.31, SD = 105.20 W) compared to the control condition (M = 900.68, SD = 114.84 W; p < .001). Plasma normetanephrine and metanephrine concentrations increased from pre- to post-CISP (M^diff = +616.90, SD = 306.99, p < .001; and M^diff = +151.23, SD = 130.32, p = .002, respectively), with a marginal interaction suggesting a higher normetanephrine increase from pre- to post-CISP in the hot versus the control condition (p = .070). Our findings suggest that accuracy for more complex decisions suffered during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise, perhaps due to exercise-induced catecholamine increases. Athletes may have also reduced physical effort under increased heat exposure, indicating how cognitive performance may be sustained in physically demanding environments.

Mid-Task Physical Exercise Keeps Your Mind Vigilant: Evidences From Behavioral Performance and EEG Functional Connectivity

Accumulating efforts have been made to discover effective solutions for fatigue recovery with the ultimate aim of reducing adverse consequences of mental fatigue in real life. The previously-reported behavioral benefits of physical exercise on mental fatigue recovery prompted us to investigate the restorative effect and reveal the underlying neural mechanisms. Specifically, we introduced an empirical method to investigate the beneficial effect of physical exercise on the reorganization of EEG functional connectivity (FC) in a two-session experiment where one session including a successive 30-min psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) (No-intervention session) compared to an insertion of a mid-task 15-min cycling exercise (Intervention session). EEG FC was obtained from 21 participants and quantitatively assessed via graph theoretical analysis and a classification framework. The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of exercise intervention on behavioral performance as shown in improved reaction time and response accuracy. Although we found significantly altered network alterations towards the end of experiment in both sessions, no significant differences between the two sessions and no interaction between session and time were found in EEG network topology. Further interrogation of functional connectivity through classification analysis showed decreased FC in distributed brain areas, which may lead to the significant reduction of network efficiency in both sessions. Moreover, we showed distinct patterns of FC alterations between the two sessions, indicating different information processing strategies adopted in the intervention session. In sum, these results provide some of the first quantitative insights into the complex neural mechanism of exercise intervention for fatigue recovery and lead a new direction for further application research in real-world situations.

The indispensable role of the cerebellum in visual divergent thinking

Recent research has shown that the cerebellum is involved not only in motor control but also in higher-level activities, which are closely related to creativity. This study aimed to explore the role of the cerebellum in visual divergent thinking based on its intrinsic activity. To this end, we selected the resting-state fMRI data of high- (n = 22) and low-level creativity groups (n = 22), and adopted the voxel-wise, seed-wise, and dynamic functional connectivity to identify the differences between the two groups. Furthermore, the topological properties of the cerebello-cerebral network and their relations with visual divergent thinking were calculated. The voxel-wise functional connectivity results indicated group differences across the cerebellar (e.g. lobules VI, VIIb, Crus I, and Crus II) and cerebral regions (e.g. superior frontal cortex, middle frontal cortex, and inferior parietal gyrus), as well as the cerebellar lobules (e.g. lobules VIIIa, IX, and X) and the cerebral brain regions (the cuneus and precentral gyrus). We found a significant correlation between visual divergent thinking and activities of the left lobules VI, VIIb, Crus I, and Crus II, which are associated with executive functions. Our overall results provide novel insight into the important role of the cerebellum in visual divergent thinking.

Free-Weight Resistance Exercise Is More Effective in Enhancing Inhibitory Control than Machine-Based Training: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

Resistance exercise has been demonstrated to improve brain function. However, the optimal workout characteristics are a matter of debate. This randomized, controlled trial aimed to elucidate differences between free-weight (RE_free) and machine-based (RE_mach) training with regard to their ability to acutely enhance cognitive performance (CP). A total of n = 46 healthy individuals (27 ± 4 years, 26 men) performed a 45-min bout of RE_free (military press, barbell squat, bench press) or RE_mach (shoulder press, leg press, chest press). Pre- and post-intervention, CP was examined using the Stroop test, Trail Making Test and Digit Span test. Mann-Whitney U tests did not reveal between-group differences for performance in the Digit Span test, Trail Making test and the color and word conditions of the Stroop test (p > 0.05). However, RE_free was superior to RE_mach in the Stroop color-word condition (+6.3%, p = 0.02, R = 0.35). Additionally, RE_free elicited pre-post changes in all parameters except for the Digit Span test and the word condition of the Stroop test while RE_mach only improved cognitive performance in part A of the Trail Making test. Using free weights seems to be the more effective RE method to acutely improve cognitive function (i.e., inhibitory control). The mechanisms of this finding merit further investigation.

A single bout of moderate intensity exercise improves cognitive flexibility: evidence from task-switching

Executive function entails the core components of response  inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility. An accumulating literature has shown that a single bout of exercise improves the response inhibition  and working memory components of executive function; however, limited work has examined a putative exercise-related improvement to cognitive flexibility. To address this limitation, Experiment 1 entailed a 20-min session of moderate intensity aerobic exercise (via cycle ergometer), and pre- and post-exercise cognitive flexibility was examined via a task-switching paradigm involving alternating pro- and antisaccades (AABB: A = prosaccade, B = antisaccade). In Experiment 2, participants sat on the cycle ergometer without exercising (i.e., rest break) and the same AABB paradigm was examined pre- and post-break. We used an AABB pro- and antisaccade paradigm because previous work has shown that a prosaccade preceded by an antisaccade exhibits a reliable-and large magnitude-increase in reaction time, whereas the converse switch does not (i.e., the unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost). Experiment 1 showed a unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost pre-exercise (p = .012)-but not post-exercise (p = .30), and a two one-sided t test indicated that the latter comparison was within an equivalence boundary (p < .01). In contrast, Experiment 2 revealed a unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost at pre- and post-break assessments (ps < .01). Accordingly, our results indicate that a single bout of exercise improves cognitive flexibility and provides convergent evidence that exercise improves global components of executive function.

Distinct Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Declarative Memory and Procedural Memory Formation

Objective: To investigate the different effects of acute aerobic exercise on the formation of long-term declarative memory (DM) and procedural memory (PM). Methods: Twenty-two young men completed DM and PM tasks under three experimental conditions: pre-acquisition exercise, post-acquisition exercise, and no exercise (control). The DM task encompassed word learning, free recall tests both immediately and 1 h later, and a recognition test conducted 24 h after word learning. A serial reaction time task (SRTT) was utilized to assess exercise effects on PM. The SRTT included a sequence learning phase followed by sequence tests 1 h and 24 h later. The exercise program consisted of 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. Results: In the DM task, compared to the control condition, pre-acquisition exercise, but not post-acquisition exercise, enhanced free recall performance significantly 1 h and 24 h later. The target word recognition rate and discriminative index (d') of the recognition test were significantly enhanced in both exercise conditions compared to the control condition. In the PM task, we observed significantly reduced (improved) reaction times at the 24-h test in the post-acquisition exercise condition compared to in the control condition. Conclusion: Acute aerobic exercise may enhance long-term DM and PM via effects on different processing periods. For DM, exercise had a pronounced effect during the encoding period, whereas for PM, exercise was found to have an enhancing effect during the consolidation period.

Acute high-intensity interval training improves motor skill acquisition

BACKGROUND

It is well established that acute exercise improves cognitive function. However, less is known about the effects of exercise on motor skill acquisition. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on motor skill acquisition.

METHODS

Sixty individuals (27 males, 33 females) between 18 and 40 years of age participated in two testing sessions separated by one week. During visit 1, participants performed one block of a continuous tracking, force control task to establish baseline ability. Participants were then randomized to either an aerobic-only HIIT group (HIIT-A), an aerobic/resistance HIIT group (HIIT-AR), or a resting control group. Both exercise groups performed a 20-minute, digital versatile disc (DVD)-delivered HIIT exercise protocol during visit 2. Following exercise or rest, all participants performed five blocks of the same force control task to assess skill acquisition.

RESULTS

On visit 2, the HIIT-A group had a significantly lower total performance error (E) compared to the control group (P<0.05). Both exercise groups (HIIT-A and HIIT-AR) had a significantly lower peak amplitude error (PE) following exercise compared to the control group (P<0.05). No significant group differences were observed for temporal error (TE). Additionally, no significant differences were observed between the exercise groups (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that acute HIIT-A improves motor skill acquisition compared to rest. Furthermore, improvements in acquisition appeared to be a result of improved spatial accuracy. Therefore, performing HIIT-A prior to practicing a motor task may help reduce total error during the motor skill acquisition phase.

Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Ocular Measures of Attention to Emotionally Expressive Faces

BACKGROUND

Mechanisms underlying exercise-induced mood enhancement are not well understood, but it is plausible that adaptive changes in attention to emotional stimuli underlie this effect. Thus, this study examined the effects of acute aerobic exercise on eye-tracking metrics while participants viewed emotionally expressive faces.

METHODS

Thirty-four adults (18 women) aged 21.1 ± 1.4 years completed two counterbalanced 30-min conditions: vigorous running or seated rest. Eye tracking occurred pre- and 20-min post-condition. Participants viewed positive (n = 15), negative (n = 15), and neutral (n = 15) emotional facial expressions from the NimStim repository. Fixation duration, longest fixation, number of fixations, and scan path length were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAs.

RESULTS

Exercise improved mood, but had no effect on the dependent measures (all 3-way interactions p > 0.66). However, a main effect of emotionally expressive content for fixation duration (p = 0.04, η = 0.10) and a marginally significant effect for longest fixation (p = 0.06, ηp2 = 0.09) were detected, such that fixation duration and longest fixation were greatest for faces expressing positive emotions.

CONCLUSION

These preliminary findings indicated that acute exercise did not alter the processing of expressive faces as indexed by eye-tracking metrics of attention. However, eye tracking effectively detected processing patterns indicative of a pleasure bias while viewing emotional facial expressions.

Increased cerebral blood flow supports a single-bout postexercise benefit to executive function: evidence from hypercapnia

A single bout of aerobic exercise improves executive function; however, the mechanism for the improvement remains unclear. One proposal asserts that an exercise-mediated increase in cerebral blood flow (CBF) enhances the efficiency of executive-related cortical structures. To examine this, participants completed separate 10-min sessions of moderate- to heavy-intensity aerobic exercise, a hypercapnic environment (i.e., 5% CO₂), and a nonexercise and nonhypercapnic control condition. The hypercapnic condition was included because it produces an increase in CBF independent of metabolic demands. An estimate of CBF was achieved via transcranial Doppler ultrasound and near-infrared spectroscopy that provided measures of middle cerebral artery blood velocity (BV) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (HHb), respectively. Exercise intensity was adjusted to match participant-specific changes in BV and HHb associated with the hypercapnic condition. Executive function was assessed before and after each session via antisaccades (i.e., saccade mirror-symmetrical to a target) because the task is mediated via the same executive networks that demonstrate task-dependent modulation following single and chronic bouts of aerobic exercise. Results showed that hypercapnic and exercise conditions were associated with comparable BV and HHb changes, whereas the control condition did not produce a change in either metric. In terms of antisaccade performance, the exercise and hypercapnic, but not control, conditions demonstrated improved postcondition reaction times (RT), and the magnitude of the hypercapnic and exercise-based increase in estimated CBF was reliably related to the postcondition improvement in RT. Accordingly, results evince that an increase in CBF represents a candidate mechanism for a postexercise improvement in executive function.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Single-bout aerobic exercise "boosts" executive function, and increased cerebral blood flow (CBF) has been proposed as a mechanism for the benefit. In this study, participants completed 10 min of aerobic exercise and 10 min of inhaling a hypercapnic gas, a manipulation known to increase CBF independently of metabolic demands. Both exercise and hypercapnic conditions improved executive function for at least 20 min. Accordingly, an increase in CBF is a candidate mechanism for the postexercise improvement in executive function.

The effects of an aerobic training intervention on cognition, grey matter volumes and white matter microstructure

While there is strong evidence from observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced risk of cognitive decline and dementia, the extent to which aerobic training interventions impact on cognitive health and brain structure remains subject to debate. In a pilot study of 46 healthy older adults (66.6 years ± 5.2 years, 63% female), we compared the effects of a twelve-week aerobic training programme to a waitlist control condition on cardiorespiratory fitness, cognition and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) outcomes. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed by VO2 max testing. Cognitive assessments spanned executive function, memory and processing speed. Structural MRI analysis included examination of hippocampal volume, and voxel-wise assessment of grey matter volumes using voxel-based morphometry. Diffusion tensor imaging analysis of fractional anisotropy, axial diffusivity and radial diffusivity was performed using tract-based spatial statistics. While the intervention successfully increased cardiorespiratory fitness, there was no evidence that the aerobic training programme led to changes in cognitive functioning or measures of brain structure in older adults. Interventions that are longer lasting, multi-factorial, or targeted at specific high-risk populations, may yield more encouraging results.

Cognitive effects of acute aerobic exercise: Exploring the influence of exercise duration, exhaustion, task complexity and expectancies in endurance-trained individuals

The cognitive effects of acute aerobic exercise were investigated in endurance-trained individuals. On two occasions, 21 cyclists; 11 male (VO_2max: 57 ± 9 mL·kg^-1·min^-1) and 10 female (VO_2max: 51 ± 9 mL·kg^-1·min^-1), completed 45 min of fixed, moderate-intensity (discontinuous) cycling followed by an incremental ride to exhaustion. Cognitive function was assessed at Baseline, after 15 and 45 min of exercise (15EX and 45EX) and at Exhaustion using a 4-Choice Reaction Time (CRT) test and the Stroop test (Incongruent and Congruent Reaction Time [RT]). A sham capsule was administered on one occasion to determine whether the cognitive response to exercise was robust to the influence of a placebo. CRT, Congruent RT and Incongruent RT decreased (improved) at 15EX, 45EX and Exhaustion compared to Baseline (p's<0.005). While CRT and Congruent RT were faster at 45EX than 15EX (p's<0.020), Incongruent RT was not (p= 1.000). The sham treatment did not affect cognition. When performed at a moderate-intensity, longer duration exercise (up to 45 min) may improve cognition to a greater extent than shorter duration exercise; however, the magnitude of improvement appears to decrease with increasing task complexity. HI/EE performed following a sustained bout of dehydrating activity may not impair cognition.

The Effects of Exercise on BDNF Levels in Adolescents: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

The aim of this study was to analyze the evidence available in the literature about the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in adolescents. The literature searches were conducted in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, SportDiscus, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) and CINAHL. Randomized controlled trials and non-randomized controlled trials performed with adolescents (10–19 years) who underwent different exercise programs and who evaluated BDNF levels before and after the intervention were included. We included six studies, four RCTs and two non-RCTs in the systematic review with a total of 407 adolescents. In two randomized trials and one non-RCT, the intervention groups showed significant improvements in BDNF levels compared with the control group. The results presented in the meta-analysis indicate that despite the positive effect in favor of the intervention, there were no significant differences (standardized mean difference 0.28 ng/mL, 95% confidence interval −0.28 to 0.85; p = 0.32, I² = 0%). The results presented in our review indicate that aerobic exercise programs practiced in moderate- or high-intensity are promising strategies to increase BDNF levels in adolescents. However, further studies are required to support this finding.

Chimpanzees' technical reasoning: Taking fieldwork and ontogeny seriously

Following the tradition of comparing humans with chimpanzees placed under unfavorable conditions, the authors suggest many uniquely human technological abilities. However, chimpanzees use spontaneously tools in nature to achieve many different goals demonstrating technological skills and reasoning contradicting the authors contrast. Chimpanzees and humans develop skills through the experiences faced during their upbringing and neglecting this leads to fake conclusions.

The Effects of Acute Moderate and High Intensity Exercise on Memory

Acute cardiovascular exercise can enhance correct remembering but its impact upon false remembering is less clear. In two experiments, we investigated the effect of acute bouts of exercise on correct and false remembering using the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) memory test. In Experiment 1, healthy adults completed quiet rest or moderate intensity cycling prior to the memory test. In Experiment 2, a similar sample completed moderate intensity running, high intensity sprints, or a period of quiet rest prior to the memory test. In Experiment 1, acute moderate intensity exercise increased short-term correct, but not false, recall. Experiment 2 replicated these findings but also found an acute bout of high intensity exercise had no impact upon either type of short-term recall. Acute moderate intensity exercise, but not acute high intensity exercise, can improve short-term correct recall without an accompanying increase in false recall potentially through processing of contextually specific information during encoding.

Testing the efficacy of a brief exercise intervention for enhancing exposure therapy outcomes

Recently, it has been hypothesized that a brief bout of exercise could cognitively enhance extinction learning processes theorized to underlie exposure therapy for pathological anxiety. The present study tested the exercise enhancement hypothesis in a sample of speech-anxious undergraduates (n = 84). During the first laboratory session, participants engaged in either 30 min of moderate-intensity exercise on a cycling ergometer (n = 37) or seated rest (n = 47) immediately following a brief speech exposure trial. They returned approximately one week later to give a follow-up speech. Contrary to expectation, there were no significant between-group differences in memory of a brief word list across four recall trials, which served as a manipulation check. Further, all main effects and interactions involving condition were nonsignificant. Post hoc tests revealed that participants who reported higher average perceived exertion during exercise demonstrated increases in an average anxiety composite across speeches relative to those who reported lower average perceived exertion, indicating that trying hard during the intervention predicted worse exposure trial outcomes. The implications of these findings, as well as future directions for this line of research, are explored.

Everyday bodily movement is associated with creativity independently from active positive affect: a Bayesian mediation analysis approach

Previous (predominantly) laboratory studies reported positive relations of physical activity (or everyday bodily movement) with executive functioning, some even showed effects on creative thinking. Furthermore, positive-activated affect was found to be positively associated with everyday bodily movements and creativity. The mechanisms, however, underlying these relationships are poorly understood. The aim of this study was twofold: Firstly, we investigated whether everyday bodily movement was associated with creative performance. Secondly, we examined if positive-activated affect may mediate the association between bodily movement and creative performance. In a sample of 79 participants everyday bodily movement was recorded during five consecutive days using accelerometers. Creativity in the figural and verbal domain was assessed with performance tests, along with self-reported positive-activated affect as a trait. Findings revealed that creativity, positive-activated affect, and everyday bodily movement were associated with each other. However, positive-activated affect did not mediate the association between everyday bodily movement and creative performance. The pattern of findings argues for shared variance between bodily movement and creativity (fluency and originality) that is largely independent from variations in positive-activated affect.

Neither Cathodal nor Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex alone or Applied During Moderate Aerobic Exercise Modulates Executive Function

There is converging evidence that both aerobic exercise (AE) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can acutely modulate executive functions (EF). In addition, recent studies have proposed the beneficial effects of applying tDCS during AE on physical performance. This study aimed to investigate whether tDCS applied during an AE session additionally or differently effects EF. Therefore, five experiments were conducted in a counterbalanced pre-post-retention crossover design to explore the acute effects of tDCS and AE on EF (inhibition and updating) once in isolation (i.e., either cathodal, anodal tDCS or AE alone as controls) and once in a combined application (i.e., anodal and cathodal tDCS during AE versus sham tDCS during AE). No differences were found in any experiment in the cognitive test parameters. However, in the case of anodal tDCS vs. sham during AE, heart rate was significantly affected. For cathodal tDCS vs. sham during AE, a significant Anova interaction indicated that cathodal tDCS during AE slightly reduced ratings of perceived exertion. The nonsignificant effects of tDCS on EFs are in contrast to previous studies, as no replication of existing observations could be achieved. Thus, the protocol applied in this study does not provide any strong evidence that a combination of AE and tDCS has any effects on EFs, but indicates effects on physiological parameters and subjective exhaustion ratings. Further research should consider changes in AE and tDCS parameters (e.g., intensity or exercise mode) and sequence of applications (online vs. offline).

Dose-Response Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise Duration on Cognitive Function in Patients With Breast Cancer: A Randomized Crossover Trial

OBJECTIVE

To examine the differential effects of acute exercise duration on domains of executive function and processing speed in patients with breast cancer.

METHODS

Participants (N = 48, M age = 56.02 ± 10.99) completed two sessions in counterbalanced order: moderate-intensity treadmill walking and sitting. Participants were also randomized to one of three duration conditions: 10 (n = 15), 20 (n = 16), or 30 (n = 17) min, reflecting the length of time spent walking and sitting. Immediately before and after each session, women completed a battery of cognitive tasks (e.g., inhibition, cognitive flexibility, spatial working memory, and processing speed).

RESULTS

Within- and between-subjects repeated-measures analyses of variance revealed time by condition interactions on both processing speed (p = 0.02) and spatial working memory (ps < 0.07), such that women demonstrated improved cognitive functioning regardless of the time spent walking. There were also several moderately sized three-way (e.g., time by condition by duration) interactions driven by declines in cognitive functioning after sitting on cognitive flexibility in the 10 (d = -0.96) and 30-min (d = -0.52) groups and inhibition in the 20-min group (d = 0.75). On the processing speed task, women performed significantly faster after walking compared with after sitting in the 20-min group (d = -0.24).

CONCLUSIONS

For select cognitive domains, walking anywhere from 10 to 30 min is associated with significant benefits. Our findings suggest the need for further research into the mechanisms and dose-response relationships between acute exercise and cognition as well as how such acute bouts may be accumulated for larger, lasting cognitive benefits after breast cancer.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT04255225.

Intense Cycling Exercise Improves Acute Cognitive Responses

Intense exercise promotes long-term gains in cognitive functions. On the other hand, intense exercise may result in acute effects not clearly determined for cognitive performance. A condition of stochastic intensity ranging from moderate to maximal efforts is part of sports like cycling, in which cognitive integrity is also important for fast decision making and information processing especially during high-speed performances. In this study we investigate the acute effect of cycling at intensities corresponding to 60%, 80% and 95% of the maximal power output (MP) on selective attention, reaction time and short-term memory in amateur trained cyclists. In this cross sectional study 20 male cyclists performed maximal and submaximal cycling tests under different exercise intensities. Cognitive measures were conducted before and after exercise. We found that short duration high intensity cycling (95%) improves selective attention but increases variability in simple reaction time responses, without significant effects on short-term memory. The high intensity exercise improves ability to manage more complex cognitive task especially when the variability in the task does not increase.

Effects of the characteristic temperament of cats on the emotions and hemodynamic responses of humans

Cats positive effects on their owners' physiological and psychological health, including improved mood and activation of the human prefrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus in the brain. However, the association between the health benefits provided by cat ownership and the characteristic behaviors and reactions of cats is unclear. We recruited 29 participants to measure human prefrontal cortex activity, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, during interactions with a cat. After the experiments, participants subjectively responded to a questionnaire regarding success rates for interactions with the cat, and completed the Self-assessment Manikin-a scale used to measure emotion. Interactions comprised eight types in four categories (touch, play, train, and feed). This study showed that interactions with a cat significantly activated the prefrontal cortex, regardless of interaction type. During training, the integral values of oxygenated hemoglobin in the left inferior frontal gyrus were the highest in all the interaction categories; however, success rates were lower than in the touch and feed interactions. Regarding the Self-assessment Manikin scores, all interaction categories showed a positive correlation between success rate and valence score, especially in the train and play interactions than in the touch and feed interactions. These results indicate that interactions with a cat activate the prefrontal cortex in humans, including the inferior frontal gyrus region. Moreover, cats' autonomous behaviors and reactions positively influenced the participants. The characteristic temperament of cats may be a key factor influencing the health benefits of owning cats.

Effects of an aerobic fitness test on short- and long-term memory in elementary-aged children

Meta-analytic evidence supports that exercise has benefits for short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). However, only three studies with children have tested the differential effects of exercise on STM and LTM. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an aerobic fitness test on STM and LTM and to consider the moderating effects of grade level. Children (7-13 years of age) were randomly assigned to either perform an aerobic fitness test before (exercise prior) or after (exercise post) performing the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) to assess memory. Memory was tested again after approximately 24 hours. There were significant differences in memory performance as a function of grade with 4^th and 6^th graders consistently outperforming 2^nd graders. For learning, Day 1 Retention, 24-hr recall, and Day 2 Retention, the exercise prior group performed better than the exercise post group. It is concluded that an aerobic fitness test performed prior to a declarative memory test benefits LTM as compared to when the aerobic fitness test is performed after the memory test.

A Single 30 Minutes Bout of Combination Physical Exercises Improved Inhibition and Vigor-Mood in Middle-Aged and Older Females: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Long-term combination of physical exercises has reported benefits for cognitive functions and mood states. However, it remains unclear whether a single bout of combination exercise training has acute positive effects on cognitive functions and mood states in middle-aged and older women. It is important to investigate acute effect of physical exercise because it would help to understand a mechanism of benefits of physical exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate 30 min of a single bout of combination exercise training on cognition and mood states in middle-aged and older females.

Methods

In this single-blinded randomized control trial (RCT), middle-aged and older females were assigned randomly to two groups: a combination exercise group and a no-exercise control group. The former group did the combination exercise training (aerobic, strength, and stretching exercises) for 30 min. Meanwhile, the latter group did not do any exercise and waited for 30 min. We measured cognitive functions and mood performance states before and after the exercise or control interventions.

Results

Our main results demonstrated that, compared to the control group, the combination exercise improved inhibition (reverse Stroop and Stroop) and increased vigor–activity mood scores in both middle-aged and older groups. We also found that the only combination exercise group showed the significant positive correlations between improved inhibition performance and improved vigor–activity mood.

Discussion

This randomized controlled trial revealed the acute benefits of combination exercise on inhibition in executive functions and vigor–activity in the healthy middle-aged and older females. Our results provided the scientific evidence related to acute effects of the single bout of the combination exercise training. It suggests that we would be better to do the 30 min physical exercise for our health.

Clinical Trial Registration

This trial was registered in the University Hospital Medical Information Network Clinical Trials Registry (UMIN000029681). Registered 24 October 2017, https://upload.umin.ac.jp/cgi-bin/ctr/ctr_view_reg.cgi?recptno=R000033922.

Effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on motor memory encoding and consolidation: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Emerging evidence indicates that acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise promote motor memory formation. In this preregistered meta-analysis (CRD42018106288) we synthesize data from 22 studies published until February 2020, including a total of 862 participants. We calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) to assess exercise effects on motor memory encoding and consolidation, respectively. The pooled data indicate that exercise mainly benefits the consolidation of memories, with exercise prior to motor practice improving early non-sleep consolidation (SMD, 0.58; 95 % CI, 0.30-0.86; p < 0.001), and post-practice exercise facilitating sleep-dependent consolidation (SMD, 0.62; 95 % CI, 0.34-0.90; p < 0.001). Strongest effects exist for high exercise intensities, and motor task nature appears to be another relevant modulator. We demonstrate that acute cardiovascular exercise particularly promotes the consolidation of acquired motor memories, and exercise timing, and intensity as well as motor task nature seem to critically modulate this relationship. These findings are discussed within currently proposed models of motor memory formation and considering molecular and systemic mechanisms of neural plasticity.