Fate, behavior and effects of surfactants and their degradation products in the environment

Green analytical chemistry – the use of surfactants as a replacement of organic solvents in spectroscopy

This chapter gives an introduction to the many practical uses of surfactants in analytical chemistry in replacing organic solvents to achieve greener chemistry. Taking a holistic approach, it covers​ some background of surfactants as chemical solvents, their properties and as green chemicals, including their environmental effects. The achievements of green analytical chemistry with micellar systems are reviewed in all the major areas of analytical chemistry where these reagents have been found to be useful.

Characteristics and environmental fate of the anionic surfactant sodium lauryl ether sulphate (SLES) used as the main component in foaming agents for mechanized tunnelling

The anionic surfactant sodium lauryl ether sulphate (SLES) is the main component of most commercial products used for soil conditioning in the excavation industry, in particular as lubricants for mechanized tunnelling. Its use during the excavation processes can result in either the subsequent possible re-use of the huge amount of soil debris as by-products (e.g. land covering) or its discharge as waste. Currently, there are neither SLES soil threshold limits in European legislation, nor comprehensive studies on the environmental risk for soil ecosystems in these exposure scenarios. In this context, the present paper reviews the available data on the intrinsic characteristics of persistence and the ecotoxicological effects of the anionic surfactant SLES. Although SLES is generally reported to be biodegradable in standard tests, with degradation rates between 7 h and 30 days, depending on the initial conditions, data on its biodegradation in environmental studies are quite scarce. Consequently, assessing SLES biodegradation rates in field conditions is crucial for evaluating if in residual concentrations (typically in the range 40-500 mg/kg in excavated soils) it can or not be a potential hazard for terrestrial and water organisms. Laboratory ecotoxicological tests pointed out detrimental effects of SLES for aquatic organisms, while data on the terrestrial species are rather poor so far and further studies at the expected environmental concentrations are necessary. Finally, the review reports the main analytical methods available for detecting anionic surfactants in solid matrices and the future research needed to improve knowledge on the possible environmental risks posed by the use of SLES in foaming agents for mechanized tunnelling.

Mobilization of arsenic from contaminated sediment by anionic and nonionic surfactants

The increasing manufacture of surfactants and their wide application in industry, agriculture and household detergents have resulted in large amounts of surfactant residuals being discharged into water and distributed into sediment. Surfactants have the potential to enhance arsenic mobility, leading to risks to the environment and even human beings. In this study, batch and column experiments were conducted to investigate arsenic mobilization from contaminated sediment by the commercial anionic surfactants sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), sodium laureth sulfate (AES) and nonionic surfactants phenyl-polyethylene glycol (Triton X-100) and polyethylene glycol sorbitan monooleate (Tween-80). The ability of surfactants to mobilize arsenic followed the order AES>SDBS>SDS≈Triton X-100>Tween 80. Arsenic mobilization by AES and Triton X-100 increased greatly with the increase of surfactant concentration and pH, while arsenic release by SDBS, SDS and Tween-80 slightly increased. The divalent ion Ca²⁺ caused greater reduction of arsenic mobilization than Na⁺. Sequential extraction experiments showed that the main fraction of arsenic mobilized was the specifically adsorbed fraction. Solid phase extraction showed that arsenate (As(V)) was the main species mobilized by surfactants, accounting for 65.05%-77.68% of the total mobilized arsenic. The mobilization of arsenic was positively correlated with the mobilization of iron species. The main fraction of mobilized arsenic was the dissolved fraction, accounting for 70% of total mobilized arsenic.

Drivers and applications of integrated clean-up technologies for surfactant-enhanced remediation of environments contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Surfactant-enhanced remediation (SER) is considered as a promising and efficient remediation approach. This review summarizes and discusses main drivers on the application of SER in removing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from contaminated soil and water. The effect of PAH-PAH interactions on SER efficiency is, for the first time, illustrated in an SER review. Interactions between mixed PAHs could enhance, decrease, or have no impact on surfactants' solubilization power towards PAHs, thus affecting the optimal usage of surfactants for SER. Although SER can transfer PAHs from soil/non-aqueous phase liquids to the aqueous phase, the harmful impact of PAHs still exists. To decrease the level of PAHs in SER solutions, a series of SER-based integrated cleanup technologies have been developed including surfactant-enhanced bioremediation (SEBR), surfactant-enhanced phytoremediation (SEPR) and SER-advanced oxidation processes (SER-AOPs). In this review, the general considerations and corresponding applications of the integrated cleanup technologies are summarized and discussed. Compared with SER-AOPs, SEBR and SEPR need less operation cost, yet require more treatment time. To successfully achieve the field application of surfactant-based technologies, massive production of the cost-effective green surfactants (i.e. biosurfactants) and comprehensive evaluation of the drivers and the global cost of SER-based cleanup technologies need to be performed in the future.

Hepatic glucuronidation of 4-tert-octylphenol in humans: inter-individual variability and responsible UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoforms

4-tert-Octylphenol (4-tOP) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical. It is mainly metabolized into glucuronide by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes in humans. The purpose of this study was to assess inter-individual variability in and the possible roles of UGT isoforms in hepatic 4-tOP glucuronidation in the humans. 4-tOP glucuronidation activities in the liver microsomes and recombinant UGTs of humans were assessed at broad substrate concentrations, and kinetics were analyzed. Correlation analyses between 4-tOP and diclofenac or 4-hydroxybiphenyl activities in pooled and individual human liver microsomes were also performed. Typical CL_int values were 17.8 mL/min/mg protein for the low type, 25.2 mL/min/mg protein for the medium type, and 47.7 mL/min/mg protein for the high type. Among the recombinant UGTs (13 isoforms) examined, UGT2B7 and UGT2B15 were the most active of catalyzing 4-tOP glucuronidation. Although the K _m values of UGT2B7 and UGT2B15 were similar (0.36 and 0.42 µM, respectively), the CL_int value of UGT2B7 (6.83 mL/min/mg protein) >UGT2B15 (2.35 mL/min/mg protein). Strong correlations were observed between the glucuronidation activities of 4-tOP and diclofenac (a probe for UGT2B7) or 4-hydroxybiphenyl (a probe for UGT2B15) with 0.79-0.88 of Spearman correlation coefficient (r _s) values. These findings demonstrate that 4-tOP glucuronidation in humans is mainly catalyzed by hepatic UGT2B7 and UGT2B15, and suggest that these UGT isoforms play important and characteristic roles in the detoxification of 4-tOP.

Organic Pollutants in Shale Gas Flowback and Produced Waters: Identification, Potential Ecological Impact, and Implications for Treatment Strategies

Organic contaminants in shale gas flowback and produced water (FPW) are traditionally expressed as total organic carbon (TOC) or chemical oxygen demand (COD), though these parameters do not provide information on the toxicity and environmental fate of individual components. This review addresses identification of individual organic contaminants in FPW, and stresses the gaps in the knowledge on FPW composition that exist so far. Furthermore, the risk quotient approach was applied to predict the toxicity of the quantified organic compounds for fresh water organisms in recipient surface waters. This resulted in an identification of a number of FPW related organic compounds that are potentially harmful namely those compounds originating from shale formations (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phthalates), fracturing fluids (e.g., quaternary ammonium biocides, 2-butoxyethanol) and downhole transformations of organic compounds (e.g., carbon disulfide, halogenated organic compounds). Removal of these compounds by FPW treatment processes is reviewed and potential and efficient abatement strategies are defined.

Effects of anthropogenic surfactants on the conversion of marine dissolved organic carbon and microgels

The possible impact of three types of anthropogenic surfactants on the ability of marine dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to form self-assembled microgels was evaluated. The behavior of existing native microgels was also examined in the presence of surfactants. These results reveal that the release of surfactants even at low concentrations into the aquatic environment could effectively hinder the self-assembly of DOC polymers. The extent of the size reduction had the following order: anionic, cationic, and non-ionic. Furthermore, charged surfactants can disrupt existing native microgels, converting large assemblies into smaller particles. One possible mechanisms is that surfactants are able to enhance the stability of DOC polymers and disrupt aggregates due to their surface charges and protein-denaturing activities. These findings suggest that the ecological system is altered by anthropogenic surfactants, and provide useful information for ecological assessments of different types of surfactants and raise warnings about surfactant applications.

Dietary administration of EDC mixtures: A focus on fish lipid metabolism

Many man-made chemical compounds are recognized as endocrine disruptors and once released into the environment are likely to spread and bioaccumulate in wild species. Due to their lipophilic nature, these substances pass through the cell membrane or bind to specific receptors activating physiological responses that in the long run can cause reproductive impairment, physiological disorders, including the occurrence of metabolic syndromes. One significant source of contamination is represented by the consumption of polluted food. As a consequence, different environmental pollutants, with similar or different modes of action, can accumulate in organisms and biomagnify along the food web, finally targeting humans. The aim of this study was to analyze, under controlled conditions, the effects induced by the consumption of contaminated diets, focusing on the effects exerted at hepatic level. Juvenile seabream were fed for 21days a diet enriched with different combinations of pollutants, nonylphenol (NP), tert-octylphenol (t-OP) and bisphenol A (BPA). The different diets containing 5mg/kg bw of each contaminant, were formulated as follows: NP+tOP, BPA+NP, BPA+tOP and NP+BPA+tOP (NBO). EDCs, at the doses administered, showed low biomagnification factor (BMF), suggesting that these pollutants hardly accumulate in muscles. The results obtained at hepatic level pinpointed the steatotic effect of all the administered diets, associated to a modulation of the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism (ppars, fas, lpl, and hsl). Results were compared to those obtained in previous studies in which fish were fed single pollutants evidencing that the administration of mixture of contaminants exerts a milder lipogenic effect, highlighting the contrasting/antagonistic interaction establishing among chemicals. Noteworthy was the setup of a new chromatographic method to detect the presence of the selected chemical in fish muscle and the application of Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) analysis to evaluate pollutant-induced changes in the liver macromolecular building.

Sorption of Cationic Surfactants to Artificial Cell Membranes: Comparing Phospholipid Bilayers with Monolayer Coatings and Molecular Simulations

This study reports the distribution coefficient between phospholipid bilayer membranes and phosphate buffered saline (PBS) medium (D_MW,PBS) for 19 cationic surfactants. The method used a sorbent dilution series with solid supported lipid membranes (SSLMs). The existing SSLM protocol, applying a 96 well plate setup, was adapted to use 1.5 mL glass autosampler vials instead, which facilitated sampling and circumvented several confounding loss processes for some of the cationic surfactants. About 1% of the phospholipids were found to be detached from the SSLM beads, resulting in nonlinear sorption isotherms for compounds with log D_MW values above 4. Renewal of the medium resulted in linear sorption isotherms. D_MW values determined at pH 5.4 demonstrated that cationic surfactant species account for the observed D_MW,PBS. Log D_MW,PBS values above 5.5 are only experimentally feasible with lower LC-MS/MS detection limits and/or concentrated extracts of the aqueous samples. Based on the number of carbon atoms, dialkylamines showed a considerably lower sorption affinity than linear alkylamine analogues. These SSLM results closely overlapped with measurements on a chromatographic tool based on immobilized artificial membranes (IAM-HPLC) and with quantum-chemistry based calculations with COSMOmic. The SSLM data suggest that IAM-HPLC underestimates the D_MW of ionized primary and secondary alkylamines by 0.8 and 0.5 log units, respectively.

Simultaneous determination of anionic and nonionic surfactants in commercial laundry wastewater and anaerobic fluidized bed reactor effluent by online column-switching liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

This study presents a new method developed for the simultaneous determination of anionic surfactant (linear alkylbenzene sulfonate - LAS, 4 homologs) and nonionic surfactant (linear alcohol ethoxylate - LAE) in commercial laundry wastewater. The surfactants were identified and quantified using online column-switching solid-phase extraction (SPE) coupled with liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Ten and three transitions (m/z) were identified for LAS and LAE, respectively. The detection and quantification limits were 75 and 200μg/L for LAS, respectively, and 75μg/L for LAE. This method was applied to the determination of the surfactants in the influent and effluent of an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor that was used for the treatment of commercial laundry wastewater. After 480days of operation with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 18h, the removal of 45.9±5.6% LAS and 99.2±4.3% LAE from an influent with surfactant concentrations of 26.1±12.9mg/L and 23.8±6.8mg/L, respectively, was obtained. Under these conditions, the breakage of longer-chain LAS homologs with the release of carbon units was observed with an increase in the number of shorter homolog chains. This SPE online sample treatment method is simple, fast and effective for the analysis of both surfactants. This technique is pioneering in its simultaneous measurement of two surfactant categories in anaerobic fluidized bed reactors.

Detection of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from maternal blood plasma and amniotic fluid in Indian population

There is a widespread exposure of general population, including pregnant women and developing fetuses, to the endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). These chemicals have been reported to be present in urine, blood serum, breast milk and amniotic fluid. We aimed to investigate the association between the maternal exposure and in utero fetal exposure levels of these chemicals to study their transfer from maternal to fetal unit indicating prenatal exposure. Samples of maternal blood and amniotic fluid were collected as set from 53 pregnant women at full term. Nine phenolic EDCs, methyl paraben (MP; 20.92ng/mL and 18.92ng/mL), ethyl paraben (EP; 1.97ng/ mL and 1.89ng/mL), propyl paraben (PP; 19.22ng/mL and 18.82ng/mL), butyl paraben (BP; 1.11ng/mL and 1.37ng/mL), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA; 29.99ng/mL and 26.15ng/mL), bisphenol A (BPA; 7.43ng/mL and 7.75ng/mL), triclosan (TCS; 7.17ng/mL and 7.04ng/mL), octyl phenol (OP; 5.46ng/mL and 5.72ng/mL) and nonyl phenol (NP; 9.38ng/mL and 8.44ng/mL), were simultaneously detected in samples of maternal blood plasma and amniotic fluid respectively using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Highest positive correlation was found for total concentration of 4-nonyl phenol, NP (r=0.575, p<0.001), whereas the lowest positive correlation was found for free form of bisphenol A, BPA (r=0.343, p<0.05), when compared between the two matrices. Our results suggest that maternal exposure to several EDCs is positively associated with in utero exposure to the developing fetus. Future studies should focus on collection of amniotic fluid at different trimesters and the corresponding maternal samples to better characterize the pharmacokinetics and the associated disease etiologies of these EDCs during fetal development.

Adsorption of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates on carboxyl modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes

Understanding of the adsorption behavior of organic pollutants on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and its governing factors are crucial for the assessment of transport and fate of organic pollutants. This study explored adsorption characteristics of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) on carboxyl modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CMMWCNTs) and the effect of solution chemistry and temperature on LAS sorption. Results indicted LAS adsorption isotherms to display five distinct regions of sorption at 25°C and 60°C. Regardless of temperature, the adsorption isotherm of LAS on the CMMWCNTs was well described using the Freundlich equation. This result indicated heterogeneous distribution of adsorption sites on the CMMWCNT surface. At low initial LAS concentrations, below the critical micelle concentration, (2, 10 and 50mgL^-1) LAS adsorption on the CMMWCNTs followed pseudo second-order kinetics. The highest LAS adsorption was observed at ionic strengths of 1.0molL^-1 for NaCl; and 0.2molL^-1 for both CaCl₂ and MgCl₂. However, LAS sorption was greatest in the presence of sodium-divalent anion salts and at higher temperatures. These findings are of relevance to the fate and environmental risk of LAS in the presence of CMMWCNTs in high salinity wastewaters or effluents and brackish receiving surface water bodies (e.g., at estuaries).

Detection of domestic detergent residues on porcelain tableware using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

Domestic detergents are widely used and the detection of detergent residues on tableware is closely related to people's health. Using LIBS to detect detergent rapidly has a promising potential.

Identifying chemicals of concern in hydraulic fracturing fluids used for oil production

Chemical additives used for hydraulic fracturing and matrix acidizing of oil reservoirs were reviewed and priority chemicals of concern needing further environmental risk assessment, treatment demonstration, or evaluation of occupational hazards were identified. We evaluated chemical additives used for well stimulation in California, the third largest oil producing state in the USA, by the mass and frequency of use, as well as toxicity. The most frequently used chemical additives in oil development were gelling agents, cross-linkers, breakers, clay control agents, iron and scale control agents, corrosion inhibitors, biocides, and various impurities and product stabilizers used as part of commercial mixtures. Hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, used for matrix acidizing and other purposes, were reported infrequently. A large number and mass of solvents and surface active agents were used, including quaternary ammonia compounds (QACs) and nonionic surfactants. Acute toxicity was evaluated and many chemicals with low hazard to mammals were identified as potentially hazardous to aquatic environments. Based on an analysis of quantities used, toxicity, and lack of adequate hazard evaluation, QACs, biocides, and corrosion inhibitors were identified as priority chemicals of concern that deserve further investigation.

Thermodynamic selectivity of functional agents on zeolite for sodium dodecyl sulfate sequestration

This study proposes a thermodynamic approach to effectively select functional agents onto zeolite for sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sequestration in greywater reuse. We combine isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and quantum chemistry simulation (QCS) to identify the interactions between SDS and agents at the molecular level. Three potential agents, cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), N,N,N-trimethyltetradecan-1-aminium bromide (C14TAB), and 14-hydroxy-N,N,N-trimethyltetradecan-1-aminium bromide (C14HTAB), differ in carbon chain length and hydrophilic groups. The ITC titration of SDS with CTAB released the highest heat, followed by those with C14TAB and C14HTAB, as was the same trend for the amounts of SDS adsorbed by the respective functionalized-zeolites. Results suggest that the favorable SDS sorption occurred at the bilayer CTAB-zeolite is driven by enthalpy as similar as the SDS…CTAB interaction found, regardless of the contribution from electrostatic and/or hydrophobic behaviors, while the declined sorption is entropy-driven via the predominant hydrophobic interaction onto the monolayer CTAB-zeolite. The data presented here interpret the nature of molecularly thermodynamic quantities and enable the manipulation of sorption capacity optimization.

Nonylphenol diethoxylate inhibits apoptosis induced in PC12 cells

Nonylphenol and short-chain nonylphenol ethoxylates such as NP₂ EO are present in aquatic environment as wastewater contaminants, and their toxic effects on aquatic species have been reported. Apoptosis has been shown to be induced by serum deprivation or copper treatment. To understand the toxicity of nonylphenol diethoxylate, we investigated the effects of NP₂ EO on apoptosis induced by serum deprivation and copper by using PC12 cell system. Nonylphenol diethoxylate itself showed no toxicity and recovered cell viability from apoptosis. In addition, nonylphenol diethoxylate decreased DNA fragmentation caused by apoptosis in PC12 cells. This phenomenon was confirmed after treating apoptotic PC12 cells with nonylphenol diethoxylate, whereas the cytochrome c release into the cytosol decreased as compared to that in apoptotic cells not treated with nonylphenol diethoxylates. Furthermore, Bax contents in apoptotic cells were reduced after exposure to nonylphenol diethoxylate. Thus, nonylphenol diethoxylate has the opposite effect on apoptosis in PC12 cells compared to nonylphenol, which enhances apoptosis induced by serum deprivation. The difference in structure of the two compounds is hypothesized to be responsible for this phenomenon. These results indicated that nonylphenol diethoxylate has capability to affect cell differentiation and development and has potentially harmful effect on organisms because of its unexpected impact on apoptosis. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 1389-1398, 2016.

Alkyl polyglucoside compound influences freshwater plankton community structure in floating field mesocosms

Synthetic surfactants in cleaners and detergents commonly contaminate freshwater systems, therefore use of low-toxicity alternatives is becoming increasingly important. Alkyl polyglucosides (APGs) derived from natural products are less toxic than synthetic surfactants, and degrade rapidly reducing chemical exposure time. However, single species toxicity tests showed APGs have toxic effects on aquatic primary producers and zooplankton, and that species demonstrate different sensitivities to APGs. Furthermore, species unaffected by APGs directly may be indirectly affected by removal of a food source or changes in predator densities, thereby changing plankton community structure. To determine the effects of APGs on plankton communities under environmental conditions, floating mesocosms were deployed in a shallow pond in southeast Georgia, USA and dosed with 0, 0.01, 2.5, 5, or 10 mg L^-1 APG. Zooplankton community composition and abundance, phytoplankton abundance (as chlorophyll a), and water column dissolved oxygen concentration were determined weekly for 1 month. Zooplankton abundance decreased primarily due to loss of copepods, and community composition shifted toward small-bodied cladocerans (Bosmina sp.), and chlorophyll a concentrations declined by up to 81 % following exposure to APG concentrations of 2.5 mg L^-1 or greater. Concentrations of dissolved oxygen never dropped below 5.70 mg L^-1, but the observed declines of ~2 mg L^-1 could become stressful during periods of high water temperatures. Nevertheless, the APG-induced shift from copepod to cladoceran dominated communities and decrease in autochthonous carbon availability has important implications for food availability and quality to higher trophic levels such as planktivorous fishes.

Generation of Perfluoroalkyl Acids from Aerobic Biotransformation of Quaternary Ammonium Polyfluoroalkyl Surfactants

The aerobic biotransformation over 180 days of two cationic quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) with perfluoroalkyl chains was determined in soil microcosms, and biotransformation pathways were proposed. This is the first time that polyfluoroalkyl cationic surfactants used in aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) formulations were studied for their environmental fate. The biotransformation of perfluorooctaneamido quaternary ammonium salt (PFOAAmS) was characterized by a DT50 value (time necessary to consume half of the initial mass) of 142 days and significant generation of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (PFOA) at a yield of 30 mol % by day 180. The biotransformation of perfluorooctane sulfonamide quaternary ammonium salt (PFOSAmS) was very slow with unobservable change of the spiked mass; yet the generation of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) at a yield of 0.3 mol % confirmed the biotransformation of PFOSAmS. Three novel biotransformation intermediates were identified for PFOAAmS and three products including perfluorooctane sulfonamide (FOSA) for PFOSAmS through high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS) analysis and t-MS(2) fragmentation. The significantly slower PFOSAmS biotransformation is hypothesized to be due to its stronger sorption to soil owing to a longer perfluoroalkyl chain and a bulkier sulfonyl group, when compared to PFOAAmS. This study has demonstrated that despite overall high stability of QACs and their biocide nature, the ones with perfluoroalkyl chains can be substantially biotransformed into perfluoroalkyl acids in aerobic soil.

Critical micelle concentration values for different surfactants measured with solid-phase microextraction fibers

The amphiphilic nature of surfactants drives the formation of micelles at the critical micelle concentration (CMC). Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fibers were used in the present study to measure CMC values of 12 nonionic, anionic, cationic, and zwitterionic surfactants. The SPME-derived CMC values were compared to values determined using a traditional surface tension method. At the CMC of a surfactant, a break in the relationship between the concentration in SPME fibers and the concentration in water is observed. The CMC values determined with SPME fibers deviated by less than a factor of 3 from values determined with a surface tension method for 7 out of 12 compounds. In addition, the fiber-water sorption isotherms gave information about the sorption mechanism to polyacrylate-coated SPME fibers. A limitation of the SPME method is that CMCs for very hydrophobic cationic surfactants cannot be determined when the cation exchange capacity of the SPME fibers is lower than the CMC value. The advantage of the SPME method over other methods is that CMC values of individual compounds in a mixture can be determined with this method. However, CMC values may be affected by the presence of compounds with other chain lengths in the mixture because of possible mixed micelle formation. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:2173-2181. © 2016 SETAC.

Surfactant-Triggered Fluorescence Turn "on/off" Behavior of a Polythiophene-graft-Polyampholyte

Polythiophene-graft-polyampholyte (PTP) is synthesized using N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate and tert-butyl methacrylate monomers by grafting from polythiophene backbone, followed by hydrolysis. The resulting polymer exhibits aqueous solubility via formation of small-sized miceller aggregates with hydrophobic polythiophene at the center and radiating polyionic side chains (cationic or anionic depending on the pH of the medium) at the outer periphery. The critical micelle concentration of PTP in acidic solution (0.025 mg/mL, pH = 2.7) is determined from fluorescence spectroscopy. PTP exhibits reversible fluorescence on and off response in both acidic and basic medium with the sequential addition of differently charged ionic surfactants, repeatedly. The fluorescence intensity of PTP at pH 2.7 increases with the addition of an anionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl benzenesulfonate (SDBS), due to the self-aggregation forming compound micelles. The fluorescence intensity of these solutions again decreases on addition of a cationic surfactant, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), because of assembling of SDBS with CTAB, thus deassembling the PTP-SDBS aggregates. At pH 9.2, these turn on and turn off responses are also shown by PTP with the sequential addition of cationic surfactant (CTAB) and anionic surfactant (SDBS), respectively. This result shows that PTP has potential for surfactant-induced reversible fluorescence turn on and off using ionic surfactant (SDBS and CTAB) through self-assembling and deassembling of the ionic aggregates. The reversible aggregation and disaggregation process of PTP with the surfactants at both acidic and basic pH is supported from dynamic light scattering and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The morphology of the above systems studied by transmission and scanning electron microscopy also supports the above aggregation and disaggregation process.

Monsoonal variations in atmospheric surfactants at different coastal areas of the Malaysian Peninsula

This study determined the effect of monsoonal changes on the composition of atmospheric surfactants in coastal areas. The composition of anions (SO4(2-), NO3(-), Cl(-), F(-)) and the major elements (Ca, K, Mg, Na) in aerosols were used to determine the possible sources of surfactants. Surfactant compositions were determined using a colorimetric method as methylene blue active substances (MBAS) and disulphine blue active substances (DBAS). The anion and major element compositions of the aerosol samples were determined by ion chromatography (IC) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. The results indicated that the concentrations of surfactant in aerosols were dominated by MBAS (34-326pmolm(-3)). Monsoonal changes were found to significantly affect the concentration of surfactants. Using principal component analysis-multiple linear regressions (PCA-MLR), major possible sources for surfactants in the aerosols were motor vehicle emissions, secondary aerosol and the combustion of biomass along with marine aerosol.

Sorption of dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTAC) to agricultural soils

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) used as cationic surfactants are intensively released into environment to be pollutants receiving more and more concerns. Sorption of dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTAC), one of commonly used alkyl QACs, to five types of agricultural soils at low concentrations (1-50mg/L) was investigated using batch experiments. DTAC sorption followed pseudo-second-order kinetics and reached reaction equilibrium within 120min. Both Freundlich model and Langmuir model fitted well with DTAC isotherm data with the latter better. DTAC sorption was spontaneous and favorable, presenting a physical sorption dominated by ion exchanges. Sorption distribution coefficient and sorption affinity demonstrated that soil clay contents acted as a predominant phase of DTAC sorption. DTAC could display a higher mobility and potential accumulation in crops in the soils with lower clay contents and lower pH values. Sorption of DTAC was heavily affected by ions in solution with anion promotion and cation inhibition.

Effects of chronic exposure to benzalkonium chloride in Oncorhynchus mykiss: cholinergic neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, peroxidative damage and genotoxicity

Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is one of the most used conservatives in pharmaceutical preparations. However, its use is limited to a small set of external use formulations, due to its high toxicity. Benzalkonium chloride effects are related to the potential exertion of deleterious effects, mediated via oxidative stress and through interaction with membrane enzymes, leading to cellular damage. To address the ecotoxicity of this specific compound rainbow trouts were chronically exposed to BAC at environmental relevant concentrations (ranging from 0.100 to 1.050mg/L), and the biological response of cholinergic neurotoxicity, modulation of the antioxidant defense, phase II metabolism, lipid peroxidation and genotoxicity was studied. The obtained results showed a dual pattern of antioxidant response, with significant alterations in catalase activity (starting at 0.180mg/L), and lipid peroxidation, for intermediate (0.180 and 0.324mg/L) concentrations. No significant alterations occurred for glutathione-S-transferases activity. An unexpected increased of the acetylcholinesterase activity was also recorded for the individuals exposed to higher concentrations of BAC (starting at 0.180mg/L). Furthermore, exposure to BAC resulted in the establishment of genotoxic alterations, observable (for the specific case of the comet assay results) for all tested BAC concentrations. However, and considering that the oxidative response was not devisable, other mechanisms may be involved in the genotoxic effects reported here.

Sublethal effect of agronomical surfactants on the spider Pardosa agrestis

In addition to their active ingredients, pesticides contain also additives - surfactants. Use of surfactants has been increasing over the past decade, but their effects on non-target organisms, especially natural enemies of pests, have been studied only very rarely. The effect of three common agrochemical surfactants on the foraging behavior of the wolf spider Pardosa agrestis was studied in the laboratory. Differences in short-term, long-term, and overall cumulative predatory activities were investigated. We found that surfactant treatment significantly affected short-term predatory activity but had no effect on long-term predatory activity. The surfactants also significantly influenced the cumulative number of killed prey. We also found the sex-specific increase in cumulative kills after surfactants treatment. This is the first study showing that pesticide additives have a sublethal effect that can weaken the predatory activity of a potential biological control agent. More studies on the effects of surfactants are needed to understand how they affect beneficial organisms in agroecosystems.

Solubility enhancement of dioxins and PCBs by surfactant monomers and micelles quantified with polymer depletion techniques

Partitioning of super-hydrophobic organic contaminants (SHOCs) to dissolved or colloidal materials such as surfactants can alter their behaviour by enhancing apparent aqueous solubility. Relevant partition constants are, however, challenging to quantify with reasonable accuracy. Partition constants to colloidal surfactants can be measured by introducing a polymer (PDMS) as third phase with known PDMS-water partition constant in combination with the mass balance approach. We quantified partition constants of PCBs and PCDDs (log KOW 5.8-8.3) between water and sodium dodecyl sulphate monomers (KMO) and micelles (KMI). A refined, recently introduced swelling-based polymer loading technique allowed highly precise (4.5-10% RSD) and fast (<24 h) loading of SHOCs into PDMS, and due to the miniaturisation of batch systems equilibrium was reached in <5 days for KMI and <3 weeks for KMO. SHOC losses to experimental surfaces were substantial (8-26%) in monomer solutions, but had a low impact on KMO (0.10-0.16 log units). Log KMO for PCDDs (4.0-5.2) were approximately 2.6 log units lower than respective log KMI, which ranged from 5.2 to 7.0 for PCDDs and 6.6-7.5 for PCBs. The linear relationship between log KMI and log KOW was consistent with more polar and moderately hydrophobic compounds. Apparent solubility increased with increasing hydrophobicity and was highest in micelle solutions. However, this solubility enhancement was also considerable in monomer solutions, up to 200 times for OCDD. Given the pervasive presence of surfactant monomers in typical field scenarios, these data suggest that low surfactant concentrations may be effective long-term facilitators for subsurface transport of SHOCs.

Surfactant adsorption to soil components and soils

Soils are complex and widely varying mixtures of organic matter and inorganic materials; adsorption of surfactants to soils is therefore related to the soil composition. We first discuss the properties of surfactants, including the critical micelle concentration (CMC) and surfactant adsorption on water/air interfaces, the latter gives an impression of surfactant adsorption to a hydrophobic surface and illustrates the importance of the CMC for the adsorption process. Then attention is paid to the most important types of soil particles: humic and fulvic acids, silica, metal oxides and layered aluminosilicates. Information is provided on their structure, surface properties and primary (proton) charge characteristics, which are all important for surfactant binding. Subsequently, the adsorption of different types of surfactants on these individual soil components is discussed in detail, based on mainly experimental results and considering the specific (chemical) and electrostatic interactions, with hydrophobic attraction as an important component of the specific interactions. Adsorption models that can describe the features semi-quantitatively are briefly discussed. In the last part of the paper some trends of surfactant adsorption on soils are briefly discussed together with some complications that may occur and finally the consequences of surfactant adsorption for soil colloidal stability and permeability are considered. When we seek to understand the fate of surfactants in soil and aqueous environments, the hydrophobicity and charge density of the soil or soil particles, must be considered together with the structure, hydrophobicity and charge of the surfactants, because these factors affect the adsorption. The pH and ionic strength are important parameters with respect to the charge density of the particles. As surfactant adsorption influences soil structure and permeability, insight in surfactant adsorption to soil particles is useful for good soil management.

Comprehensive review of several surfactants in marine environments: Fate and ecotoxicity

Surfactants are a commercially important group of chemicals widely used on a global scale. Despite high removal efficiencies during wastewater treatment, their high consumption volumes mean that a certain fraction will always enter aquatic ecosystems, with marine environments being the ultimate sites of deposition. Consequently, surfactants have been detected within marine waters and sediments. However, aquatic environmental studies have mostly focused on the freshwater environment, and marine studies are considerably underrepresented by comparison. The present review aims to provide a summary of current marine environmental fate (monitoring, biodegradation, and bioconcentration) and effects data of 5 key surfactant groups: linear alkylbenzene sulfonates, alcohol ethoxysulfates, alkyl sulfates, alcohol ethoxylates, and ditallow dimethyl ammonium chloride. Monitoring data are currently limited, especially for alcohol ethoxysulfates and alkyl sulfates. Biodegradation was shown to be considerably slower under marine conditions, whereas ecotoxicity studies suggest that marine species are approximately equally as sensitive to these surfactants as freshwater species. Marine bioconcentration studies are almost nonexistent. Current gaps within the literature are presented, thereby highlighting research areas where additional marine studies should focus.

Kinetic study of the anaerobic biodegradation of alkyl polyglucosides and the influence of their structural parameters

This paper reports a study of the anaerobic biodegradation of non-ionic surfactants alkyl polyglucosides applying the method by measurement of the biogas production in digested sludge. Three alkyl polyglucosides with different length alkyl chain and degree of polymerization of the glucose units were tested. The influence of their structural parameters was evaluated, and the characteristics parameters of the anaerobic biodegradation were determined. Results show that alkyl polyglucosides, at the standard initial concentration of 100 mgC L(-1), are not completely biodegradable in anaerobic conditions because they inhibit the biogas production. The alkyl polyglucoside having the shortest alkyl chain showed the fastest biodegradability and reached the higher percentage of final mineralization. The anaerobic process was well adjusted to a pseudo first-order equation using the carbon produced as gas during the test; also, kinetics parameters and a global rate constant for all the involved metabolic process were determined. This modeling is helpful to evaluate the biodegradation or the persistence of alkyl polyglucosides under anaerobic conditions in the environment and in the wastewater treatment.

Aqueous stability and mobility of C₆₀ complexed by sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate surfactant

Surfactant complexation may have significant effects on the environmental behavior of nano-particles. In order to understand the ecological exposure of nano-materials, it is important to determine the stability and mobility of surfactant-complexed nano-materials in aqueous systems. In this study, the aggregation and transport of C60 complexed by the surfactant sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) were investigated. It was found that SDBS-complexed C60 had a ζ-potential of -49.5 mV under near-neutral pH conditions and remained stable during an aging period of 15 days. It had a critical coagulation concentration of 550 mmol/L for NaCl, which was higher than common natural colloids and many kinds of raw nano-materials, and was comparable to those of many kinds of surface-modified nano-materials. SDBS enhanced the stability of C60 colloid; however, at the same time, it also enhanced the colloidal particle aggregation rate. Much higher mobility was found for SDBS-complexed C60 than C60 colloid. Increase in ionic strength, Ca(2+) concentration or Al(3+) concentration decreased the mobility. In general, SDBS-complexed C60 had high stability and mobility.

Impact of organic nano-vesicles in soil: The case of sodium dodecyl sulphate/didodecyl dimethylammonium bromide

Aiming at contributing new insights into the effects of nanomaterials (NMs) in the terrestrial ecosystem, this study evaluated the impacts of organic nano-vesicles of sodium dodecyl sulphate/didodecyl dimethylammonium bromide (SDS/DDAB) on the emergence and growth of plant seeds, and on the avoidance and reproduction of soil invertebrates. For this purpose several ecotoxicological assays were performed with different test species (terrestrial plants: Zea mays, Avena sativa, Brassica oleracea and Lycopersicon esculentum; soil invertebrates: Eisenia andrei and Folsomia candida). A wide range of SDS/DDAB concentrations were tested, following standard protocols, and using the standard OECD soil as a test substrate (5% of organic matter). The aqueous suspensions of SDS/DDAB, used to spike the soils, were characterised by light scattering techniques for hydrodynamic size of the vesicles, aggregation index, polydispersity index, zeta potential and surface charge. The SDS/DDAB concentrations in the test soil were analysed by HPLC-UV at the end of the assays. Invertebrate species were revealed to be sensitive to nano-SDS/DDAB upon immediate exposure to freshly spiked soils. However, the degradation of SDS/DDAB nano-vesicles in the soil with time prevented the occurrence of significant reproduction effects on soil invertebrates. Plants were not particularly sensitive to SDS/DDAB, except B. oleracea (at concentrations above 375 mg kg(-1)dw). The results gathered in this study allowed a preliminary determination of a risk limit to nano-SDS/DDAB. The low toxicity of SDS/DDAB nano-vesicles could be explained by its high and fast degradation in the soil. The soil microbial community could have an important role in the fate of this NM, thus it is of remarkable importance to improve this risk limit by taking into account specific data addressing this community.

Acute toxicity of anionic and non-ionic surfactants to aquatic organisms

The environmental risk of surfactants requires toxicity measurements. As different test organisms have different sensitivity to the toxics, it is necessary to establish the most appropriate organism to classify the surfactant as very toxic, toxic, harmful or safe, in order to establish the maximum permissible concentrations in aquatic ecosystems. We have determined the toxicity values of various anionic surfactants ether carboxylic derivatives using four test organisms: the freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna, the luminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri, the microalgae Selenastrum capricornutum (freshwater algae) and Phaeodactylum tricornutum (seawater algae). In addition, in order to compare and classify the different families of surfactants, we have included a compilation of toxicity data of surfactants collected from literature. The results indicated that V. fischeri was more sensitive to the toxic effects of the surfactants than was D. magna or the microalgae, which was the least sensitive. This result shows that the most suitable toxicity assay for surfactants may be the one using V. fischeri. The toxicity data revealed considerable variation in toxicity responses with the structure of the surfactants regardless of the species tested. The toxicity data have been related to the structure of the surfactants, giving a mathematical relationship that helps to predict the toxic potential of a surfactant from its structure. Model-predicted toxicity agreed well with toxicity values reported in the literature for several surfactants previously studied. Predictive models of toxicity is a handy tool for providing a risk assessment that can be useful to establish the toxicity range for each surfactant and the different test organisms in order to select efficient surfactants with a lower impact on the aquatic environment.

Surfactants in aquatic and terrestrial environment: occurrence, behavior, and treatment processes

Surfactants belong to a group of chemicals that are well known for their cleaning properties. Their excessive use as ingredients in care products (e.g., shampoos, body wash) and in household cleaning products (e.g., dishwashing detergents, laundry detergents, hard-surface cleaners) has led to the discharge of highly contaminated wastewaters in aquatic and terrestrial environment. Once reached in the different environmental compartments (rivers, lakes, soils, and sediments), surfactants can undergo aerobic or anaerobic degradation. The most studied surfactants so far are linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), alkylphenol ethoxylate (APEOs), and alcohol ethoxylate (AEOs). Concentrations of surfactants in wastewaters can range between few micrograms to hundreds of milligrams in some cases, while it reaches several grams in sludge used for soil amendments in agricultural areas. Above the legislation standards, surfactants can be toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms which make treatment processes necessary before their discharge into the environment. Given this fact, biological and chemical processes should be considered for better surfactants removal. In this review, we investigate several issues with regard to: (1) the toxicity of surfactants in the environment, (2) their behavior in different ecological systems, (3) and the different treatment processes used in wastewater treatment plants in order to reduce the effects of surfactants on living organisms.

Zero-valent iron-activated persulfate oxidation of a commercial alkyl phenol polyethoxylate

Aqueous Triton X-45 (TX-45; 20 mg/L; original total organic carbon (TOC) = 14 mg/L), a representative, commercially important alkylphenol polyethoxylate, was subjected to persulfate (PS) oxidation activated with zero-valent iron (ZVI) nanoparticles. After optimization of the ZVI/PS treatment combination (1 g/L ZVI; 2.5 mM PS at pH5) in terms of pH (3-9), ZVI (0.5-5 g/L) and PS (0.5-5.0 mM) concentrations, TX-45 could be efficiently (>90%) degraded within short treatment periods (<60 min) accompanied with significant (>40%) TOC removals. The degree of PS consumption and Fe release was also followed during the experiments and a positive correlation existed between enhanced TX-45 removals and ZVI-activated PS consumption rates accompanied with a parallel Fe release. Acute toxicity tests were conducted using two different bioassays to examine the toxicological safety of the ZVI/PS oxidation system. Acute toxicity profiles significantly decreased from an original value of 66% relative inhibition to 21% and from 16% relative inhibition to non-toxic values according to Vibrio fischeri and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata bioassays, respectively. The photobacterium V. fischeri appeared to be more sensitive to TX-45 and its degradation products than the microalgae P. subcapitata.

Effects of short-term exposure to linear anionic surfactants (SDBS, SLS and SDS) on anammox biomass activity

This work demonstrates the feasibility of nitrogen removal from wastewater containing linear anionic surfactants, including sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium dodecyl sulfonate, by using the anammox process.