Physical activity social support and middle- and older-aged minority women: results from a US survey

Gender Differences in Physical Activity and Walking Among Older Adults

Older women are generally more sedentary and less active than older men, but little is known about the specific factors underlying the differences between the genders in physical activity (PA). The purpose of this study was to compare men and women regarding their household leisure time PA, walking activity, and personal and environmental factors related to physical activity. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 276 older adults recruited from senior centers. Findings revealed that women were less active overall but more involved in household activities. The women's personal and environmental factors represented poor conditions for PA, and as a result they engaged in lower levels of PA than men.

Socioeconomic, cultural, and personal influences on health outcomes in low income Mexican-origin individuals in Texas

Several studies have suggested that the health of Mexican-Americans is better than expected given their low socioeconomic status. The healthy migrant hypothesis and the acculturation hypothesis, stating that the foreign-born and the less acculturated enjoy better health, have been proposed as possible complementary explanations. However, it is not clear which are the socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics that favor good health and that differentiate foreign-born from US-born and unacculturated from acculturated Mexicans. In this paper, we compare, by nativity and acculturation level, the socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics in a sample of low income mostly female Mexican-origin individuals living in Texas and investigate their contribution to differences in self-reported physical health, mental health, and self-rated health (SRH) status. Using a multistage probability sample, we completed 1745 interviews with Mexican-origin individuals. The survey instrument included the SF-12, demographic and socioeconomic information, and questions on social support, religiosity, fear of victimization, trust, perceived racism, and perceived opportunity. Nativity and use of the Spanish language were combined into a nativity/acculturation variable. We estimated multivariate regressions and ordered logit regressions to investigate the association of health outcomes to nativity/acculturation and socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics. Overall, the distribution of strengths (more social support, trust, perceived personal opportunities and less perceived victimization) reflected a nativity-based income gradient and an education gradient reflecting language use. Health outcomes varied by nativity/acculturation after controlling for socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics. Physical health differed by nativity, supporting the healthy migrant hypothesis, while nativity-based differences in mental health were explained by socioeconomic and personal characteristics. SRH varied by language use, suggesting a culturally conditioned response. The socioeconomic, cultural, and personal factors affected health outcomes differently. These findings suggest a complicated interaction between nativity, acculturation, and economic factors in determining social and personal strengths and their influences on health.

Leisure-time physical activity among women in a neighbourhood in Bogotá, Colombia: prevalence and socio-demographic correlates

This study measured the prevalence of leisure-time physical activity in women from 18 to 69 years of age and identified correlated social factors in the neighborhood of Santafe, Bogotá, Colombia. Levels of physical activity were calculated through a population survey (n = 1,045). Logistic regression modeling identified factors associated with inactivity. Some 79.1% of respondents reported being inactive; 15.7% practiced physical exercise irregularly; and 5.2% regularly practiced physical exercise. After adjustment of covariates, physical inactivity was associated with not participating in recreational weekend activities on Sundays and not planning to lose weight. The results of this study show the high proportion of physically inactive women in a community in Bogotá Intervention strategies should be developed to reinforce recreational weekend activities on promoted by the municipality.

Physical activity and exercise in women's health

Regular physical activity provides health benefits, including the reduction in risks of coronary heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, colon cancer, and premature mortality. Despite this information, most women are physically inactive. Research findings shed light on the gender differences in physiological responses to physical activity. Patterns and predictors of physical activity vary significantly by gender. Further study is needed of the benefits, barriers, and personally meaningful outcomes of physical activity for women, specifically including the frequently unspoken correlates of urinary incontinence, depression and mood disorders, and obesity.

Behavior-specific social support for healthy behaviors among african american church members: applying optimal matching theory

This study used data from 850 African Americans to test optimal matching theory (OMT). OMT predicts that 1) the most important dimensions of social support depend on the controllability of the behavior and 2) different network members often provide support across health behaviors. Data were gathered on social support source for physical activity, healthy diet, and colorectal cancer (CRC) screening; perceived levels of informational, instrumental, and emotional support specific to these behaviors; self-efficacy around the behaviors; and engagement in the behaviors. Within individuals, the primary support source varied considerably across the behaviors under consideration. Multivariate models regressing behaviors on dimension-specific support indicated partial support for OMT: Informational support was associated with a healthy diet and CRC screening; instrumental support was associated with a healthy diet and CRC screening; and emotional support was associated with CRC screening and, among women, physical activity. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of developing more effective interventions.

Physical activity behavior in older women with rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To identify physical activity behaviors of older (>/=60 years) women with rheumatoid arthritis, and to determine if physical activity behavior differed by demographic characteristics or disease duration.

METHODS

Cognitively intact, ambulatory women with rheumatoid arthritis seen at an urban university arthritis center (n = 185) responded to a survey that included demographics, number of years since RA diagnosis, and physical activity assessed with the Yale Physical Activity Survey.

RESULTS

Participants had a mean age of 70 years and a mean disease duration of 17.6 years. Mean total of physical activity, including low-, moderate-, and high-intensity activity, was 23 hours/week, with 47 different physical activities identified. Housework comprised 67% of total physical activity time, whereas leisure activities and planned exercise comprised only 15% and 10%, respectively. Sixty percent of the women reported participation in some type of vigorous activity, and 88% reported they had done leisure walking in the past month. Age was negatively associated with scores on the activity summary index (r = -0.195, P < 0.01), and there was a significant difference on the activity summary index by employment status, with women in the work force (n = 47) and those involved in housekeeping (n = 105) scoring significantly higher (P = 0.003) than the women (n = 33) who described themselves as retired (F = 7.81, 2 degrees of freedom, P = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Older women with rheumatoid arthritis may participate in a broader array of physical activities than previously assumed, and could benefit from increasing the proportion of moderate or vigorous activity incorporated into their daily routines.

Psychosocial correlates to high school girls' leisure-time physical activity: a test of the theory of planned behavior

This study was designed to test the efficacy of the theory of planned behavior in predicting intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity and leisure-time physical activity behavior of high school girls. Rating scales were used for assessing attitude to leisure-time physical activity, subjective norm, perceived control, and intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity among 129 ninth through twelfth graders. Leisure-time physical activity was obtained from 3-wk. diaries. The first hierarchical multiple regression indicated that perceived control added (R2 change = .033) to the contributions of attitude to leisure-time physical activity and subjective norm in accounting for 50.7% of the total variance of intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity. The second regression analysis indicated that almost 10% of the variance of leisure-time physical activity was explicated by intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity and perceived control, with perceived control contributing 6.4%. From both academic and theoretical standpoints, our findings support the theory of planned behavior, although quantitatively the variance of leisure-time physical activity was not well-accounted for. In addition, considering the small percentage increase in variance explained by the addition of perceived control explaining variance of intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity, the pragmatism of implementing the measure of perceived control is questionable for this population.

Measuring the environment for friendliness toward physical activity: a comparison of the reliability of 3 questionnaires

OBJECTIVES

We tested the reliability of 3 instruments that assessed social and physical environments.

METHODS

We conducted a test-retest study among US adults (n = 289). We used telephone survey methods to measure suitableness of the perceived (vs objective) environment for recreational physical activity and nonmotorized transportation.

RESULTS

Most questions in our surveys that attempted to measure specific characteristics of the built environment showed moderate to high reliability. Questions about the social environment showed lower reliability than those that assessed the physical environment. Certain blocks of questions appeared to be selectively more reliable for urban or rural respondents.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite differences in content and in response formats, all 3 surveys showed evidence of reliability, and most items are now ready for use in research and in public health surveillance.

Maintaining regular physical activity in women: evidence to date

Physical activity is well established as a primary health promotion and cardiovascular disease prevention behavior, yet over 60% of the population does not participate in regular physical activity. Maintenance of regular physical activity is a complex behavior influenced by variables from several domains. This review includes studies of the relationship between physical activity in women and psychological, social environmental, demographic, physiologic, health status, and physical activity variables. A key issue in physical activity research is development of interventions for maintaining a physically active lifestyle. Interventions for maintenance of regular physical activity that have a strong theoretical basis will be beneficial to women in primary care settings, occupational settings, wellness centers as well as public health departments and other organizations that address the needs of women.

The epidemiology of walking for physical activity in the United States

PURPOSE

The purpose of this paper was to describe the epidemiology of walking for physical activity among respondents to the U.S. Physical Activity Study. Correlates of walking among people who never walk for physical activity, those who walk regularly, and people who walk occasionally were compared.

METHODS

Data on walking, personal and environmental correlates, and sociodemographics were collected via telephone using a modified random-digit-dialing technique on a national sample. Three categories were analyzed: Regular walkers were those who met public health recommendations by walking (5x wk-1 and 30 min at a time), occasional walkers were those who walked for physical activity but did not meet this recommendation, and never walkers were those who never walked for physical activity. Multiple logistic regression resulting in odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated.

RESULTS

Thirty-four percent of this population were regular walkers, 45.6% occasional walkers, and 20.7% never walkers. Walkers reported using neighborhood streets, shopping malls, and parks for walking. Regular walkers had more self-confidence and more social support than occasional or never walkers. Occasional and never walkers reported time as a barrier more than regular walkers (OR 1.91 and 2.36). Never walkers were more likely (OR 3.25) to report feeling unhealthy and more likely (OR 4.43) to report lacking energy to exercise.

CONCLUSION

Our results identify important information that can be used to help guide future interventions that promote walking as a form of physical activity. An ecological approach that combines individual (e.g., self-confidence), interpersonal (e.g., social support), and community aspects (e.g., improve streets for walking) may be the most beneficial.

Physical activity beliefs, behaviors, and cardiovascular fitness of Mexican immigrant women

This descriptive study examined physical activity beliefs, behaviors, and cardiovascular fitness of a convenience sample of 51 married Mexican immigrant women (MIW) with children in Northern California. Standardized tools/procedures were used to measure the variables of interest and to determine cardiovascular fitness levels. The majority (78%) was not involved in regular physical activity and had below average or poor cardiovascular fitness (76%). However, 93% had a positive attitude, were well-informed of the benefits, and perceived physical activity to be a health-promoting behavior. Cultural values and beliefs about physical activity, gender roles, and social and physiological factors were described as barriers to women's intention to engage in physical activity.

Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity in sedentary American Indian women

Focus group interviews were conducted to explore sociocultural, environmental, and policy-related determinants of physical activity among sedentary American Indian women. Thirty women aged 20 to 50 years (mean = 37.4 +/- 10.6 years) participated. Three sessions were conducted with women aged 20 to 34 years and three with women aged 35 to 50 to evaluate response differences by age. Because no obvious age differences were observed, data were pooled. Barriers to physical activity included inadequate support for household and child care responsibilities and difficulties balancing home-related and societal expectations with physical activity. In addition, women reported little support from their communities and work sites to be physically active. Environmental barriers included lack of safe outdoor areas and accessible walking trails. Weather and stray dogs were also commonly mentioned. Sociocultural barriers included giving family obligations priority above all other things, being expected to eat large portions of high-fat foods, and failing to follow a traditionally active lifestyle. Enablers of physical activity included support from family and coworkers and participation in traditional community events. Suggested intervention approaches included accessible and affordable programs and facilities, community emphasis on physical activity, and programs that incorporated the needs of larger women and of families. Participants emphasized a preference for programs that were compatible with the role expectations of their families and communities, and they expressed the desire for acceptance and encouragement to be physically active from the family, the community, the worksite, and their tribal leaders.

Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity among rural, African American women

Sixty-one African American women (ages 20-50 years) from a rural community in Alabama participated in six focus groups. Barriers to and enablers of physical activity were identified and grouped into personal, environmental (social and physical), policy, and cultural themes for qualitative analyses. Personal factors included motivation, perceived health, feeling tired, and lack of time; social environmental factors included support from friends, family, and issues related to child care; physical environmental factors included weather, access to facilities, availability of sidewalks or other places to walk; policy factors included personal safety concerns (loose dogs, traffic, etc.) and inflexible work environments. Some, but not all, women perceived cultural differences as a factor affecting physical activity levels. Differences in socioeconomic levels and time demands among women of different cultures were identified as factors that may influence physical activity. Participants provided suggestions for community-based physical activity interventions using an environmental approach.

Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity in a diverse sample of women: the Women's Cardiovascular Health Network Project--introduction and methodology

Ethnic minority and low-income populations have some of the highest rates of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and the highest rates of physical inactivity, an independent risk factor for CVD. Ethnic minority and low-income women are especially at risk. Because programs designed to increase physical activity have the potential to reduce CVD rates in specific populations, research in this area is expanding. As part of the Women's Cardiovascular Health Network funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the goal of this multi-site project is to identify factors, particularly environmental, policy, and cultural factors, that may influence physical activity among ethnic minority and low-income women ages 20-50 years. To achieve this goal, 42 focus groups were conducted in various locations throughout the United States with African American, American Indian, Latina and White women. Groups represented both urban and rural living environments. This article explains the basis for this project and the methodology used. Other articles in this series explain the results from the focus groups in detail.

Factors influencing physical activity levels among Canadian youth

OBJECTIVES

To describe the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors influencing the levels of physical activity among Canadian youth (ages 12-24).

METHODS

Analyses of the 1996-97 National Population Health Survey (NPHS) were conducted using data collected from female (n=6195) and male (n=5925) Canadians aged 12-24 years. The data were analyzed using correlational, ANOVA and regression procedures with post hoc analyses (Bonferroni) employed where applicable.

RESULTS

Compared to males, Canadian female youth were found to be less physically active, more concerned about being overweight, more depressed, and to consult mental health professionals more frequently. On the other hand, females were more likely to report greater social support than males and to be more socially involved. Those adolescents who smoke tend to be less physically active and, along with those who consume alcohol, have poorer health.

DISCUSSION

The significant predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors influencing youths' physical activity levels more profoundly affect females. The results are discussed in terms of strategies for enabling physical activity available in the literature. In addition to individual determinants influencing physical activity, a move toward understanding policy and environmental factors is recommended for further research.

Southern women's response to a walking intervention

The need to change the sedentary habits of many American adults is well recognized. Middle-aged women are an important target group for increased physical activity because of certain health risks such as osteoporosis. In the current study, 31 women between the ages of 30 and 60 from high- and low-income groups (high-income >$50,000; low-income <$50,000 per year) took part in a physical activity intervention. The goal was to increase walking activity to a minimum of 90 min per week. Each woman received 16 telephone calls over a 6-month period in which she was asked to reflect upon the benefits of walking, goal setting, restructuring plans, social support, exercise efficacy, relapse prevention, and maintenance. Content analysis revealed a number of themes emerging from intervention conversations. There were differences between races in walking location and walking partners. Furthermore, there were differences between income groups in beliefs about the benefits of walking and social support. Overall, the intervention appeared to provide a basis for women to develop a walking routine. The women were able to reflect upon their walking routine and attempts to begin a walking routine and to identify how each component of the intervention affected their individual daily routine.

Correlates of adults' participation in physical activity: review and update

PURPOSE

To review and update the evidence relating to the personal, social, and environmental factors associated with physical activity (PA) in adults.

METHODS

Systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature to identify papers published between 1998 and 2000 with PA (and including exercise and exercise adherence). Qualitative reports or case studies were not included.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight new studies were located. Most confirmed the existence of factors already known to be correlates of PA. Changes in status were noted in relation to the influence of marital status, obesity, smoking, lack of time, past exercise behavior, and eight environmental variables. New studies were located which focused on previously understudied population groups such as minorities, middle and older aged adults, and the disabled.

CONCLUSION

The newly reported studies tend to take a broader "ecological" approach to understanding the correlates of PA and are more focused on environmental factors. There remains a need to better understand environmental influences and the factors that influence different types of PA. As most of the work in this field still relies on cross-sectional studies, longitudinal and intervention studies will be required if causal relationships are to be inferred.

Key elements for church-based health promotion programs: outcome-based literature review

Although not a new concept, church-based health promotion programs have yet to be widely researched. Few of the initial studies used randomized and controlled designs. Dissemination of study results has been sporadic, with findings often reported in church periodicals. A renewed interest in church-based health promotion programs (CBHPP) is emerging. The purpose of this article is to propose seven key elements found in a literature review to be beneficial in establishing church-based community health promotion programs that demonstrated desired health promotion outcomes. Based on the outcomes of successful CBHPP, the following key elements have been identified: partnerships, positive health values, availability of services, access to church facilities, community-focused interventions, health behavior change, and supportive social relationships. An example of one program that embodies these elements is presented. The Heart and Soul Program, designed to increase physical activity in midlife women to reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease with advancing age, is discussed within the context of the elements for successful church-based programs. CBHPP have effectively promoted health behaviors within certain communities. To promote health and wellness in light of our diverse society and health needs, health promotion professionals and churches can be dynamic partners.

Perspectives of pregnant and postpartum latino women on diabetes, physical activity, and health

Impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes are prevalent among Latino women of childbearing age. Physical activity during and after pregnancy may contribute to weight control and improved metabolic status, but recommended activities may not be perceived as appropriate or feasible. To plan realistic and acceptable interventions, pregnant and postpartum Latino women in Detroit met in a focus group series to discuss their beliefs about diabetes and factors influencing their participation in regular physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum. Women believed that diabetes was primarily related to heredity and diet but not to physical activity. Exercise was believed to reduce stress and improve general health. Women suggested an organized group intervention, in a respected location, that offered safe physical activities within the context of a variety of activities for women and children. This strategy reduced concerns about safety and social acceptability while addressing their primary interest in social support.

Ethnic differences in exercise among adults with diabetes

The purposes of this secondary analysis of data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III Household Adult Data File (1988-1994) were to describe and compare exercise practices and preferences of adult Caucasians, African Americans, and Hispanics with diabetes and to relate that information to diabetes treatment modalities. The research questions were: (a) What proportion of ethnically diverse adults with diabetes do and do not exercise? (b) What are the preferred types of exercise by ethnicity, gender, and age? and (c) What are the relationships among exercise participation, exercise preference, and treatment of diabetes by ethnic group? More than one third of the total sample reported no exercise within the last month. There were no significant differences in amount of exercise by ethnic group. Gardening and walking were the preferred forms of exercise across age, gender, ethnicity, and treatment.

Sociodemographic diversity and behavioral medicine

The broad array of economic and cultural diversity in the U.S. population correlates with and impacts on the study of behavioral aspects of health. The purpose of this article was to provide a selective overview of behavioral medicine research on sociodemographically diverse populations, with a focus on ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. Suggestions are provided with regard to methodological refinement of research and insights into possible future directions in behavioral medicine research on ethnically and economically diverse populations.

Factors affecting levels of physical activity in adults

A large proportion of adults in Western cultures are physically inactive, despite several decades of warnings about the potentially negative health consequences of a sedentary lifestyle. Efforts to promote physical activity have focused on identifying its determinants and designing interventions that might effectively promote regular physical activity. The multitude of factors that induce adults to initiate and maintain programmes of physical activity have been divided into those that are invariable (age, gender, race, ethnicity) and those that are presumed to be modifiable (behavioural and personality characteristics, environmental circumstances and community settings). The lack of consistency in the design, analysis and reporting of interventions in the lives of inactive or sedentary individuals has produced equivocal results. However, several social and environmental factors have systematically emerged as determinants of physical activity in adults. In ethnic minorities, the removal of barriers such as unaffordable facilities and unavailable childcare, high crime rates, fear for personal safety and culturally inappropriate activities are of primary importance. Social support from family, peers, communities and healthcare providers has resulted in modest improvements across cultures, ages and genders in selected settings, but the definition of specific interventions and their outcomes deserve additional attention. Longitudinal studies indicate that components of physical fitness are relatively transitory, with low to modest correlations between physical activity and measures of physical fitness in childhood and adolescence and in adulthood. Attempts to explain the activity behaviour of adults by applying various theories in programmes of intervention have also produced mixed results. Successful interventions tailor programmes to individual needs, account for personal levels of fitness, allow for personal control of the activity and its outcomes, and provide for social support by family, peers and communities. The initiation and maintenance of regular physical activity in adults depends on a multitude of biological and sociocultural variables that demand attention across the lifespan.

Correlates of physical activity among women from diverse racial/ethnic groups

OBJECTIVE

Women have lower rates of participation in leisure time physical activity than men and have been studied to a lesser extent than men. Because physical activity plays a vital role in overall health, it is important to identify factors than can help increase physical activity rates for women.

METHODS

Defining and understanding correlates of physical activity is critical for at-risk populations and for planning effective interventions. This paper reviews research conducted in the past two decades on correlates of physical activity in women. An ecological model with an added physical environment component was used to organize the correlates. Studies conducted among adult white, black, American Indian, Asian, and Hispanic women are included. A total of 91 studies were reviewed. Many studies included white women, fewer studies included black and Hispanic women, and even fewer included American Indian women, and only 3 studies included Asian women.

RESULTS

The correlates most studied are sociodemographic variables, with nonwhite race, lower educational levels, and older age most consistently associated with lower levels of physical activity. Few studies focused on environmental and policy correlates. Social support was an overwhelmingly positive determinant of physical activity for all groups of women.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these findings, we recommend that future research include more diverse groups of women and evaluate modifiable factors, such as psychological, interpersonal, and environmental correlates. Future research also should include more intervention and longitudinal studies.

The effect of social support on exercise behavior in older adults

The purpose of this study was to test the relationship among social supports related to exercise (family, friends, and expert support), self-efficacy expectations, outcome expectations, and exercise behavior in a sample of older adults living in a continuing care retirement community. The sample included 74 older adults with a mean age of 85.6 +/- 5.5. Path analysis using Amos 4.0 was done. The model fit the data (chi-square = 4.6, df = 3, p = .21, normed fit index of .99, relative fit index of .98, and root mean square error of approximation of .08) and explained 53% of the variance in exercise behavior. Five of the seven hypothesized paths in the model were statistically significant. Friend support indirectly influenced exercise through self-efficacy and outcome expectations. This suggests interventions to improve exercise behavior in older adults should incorporate social supports to strengthen self-efficacy and outcome expectations related to exercise.

Environmental and policy determinants of physical activity in the United States

OBJECTIVES

This study examined (1) descriptive patterns in perceived environmental and policy determinants of physical activity and (2) associations between these factors and behavior.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted from 1999 to 2000 among US adults; individuals at lower income levels were oversampled.

RESULTS

Availability of areas for physical activity was generally higher among men than among women. The 4 most commonly reported personal barriers were lack of time, feeling too tired, obtaining enough exercise at one's job, and no motivation to exercise. Neighborhood characteristics, including the presence of sidewalks, enjoyable scenery, heavy traffic, and hills, were positively associated with physical activity. There was a high level of support for health policy-related measures. Up to one third of individuals who had used environmental supports reported an increase in physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

An array of environmental and policy determinants, particularly those related to the physical environment, are associated with physical activity and should be taken into account in the design of interventions.

Demographic and psychosocial correlates of physical activity in late life

INTRODUCTION

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization, increasing physical activity may help prolong health and preserve the quality of life in late adulthood. Physical activity has taken center stage as the behavior most likely to alter health. However, there is little recent population-wide information about the demographic and psychosocial correlates of physical activity in the elderly population. The purpose of the study was to identify the factors associated with older adults' frequency of physical activity. The study may have implications for preventive interventions.

METHODS

Data for 12,611 community-dwelling people aged > or = 65 from the 1996-1997 Canadian National Population Health Survey were examined. Predictors of frequent versus infrequent self-reported physical activity lasting > 15 minutes were examined using logistic regression analyses. The predictor variables included geographic location, psychological distress (Generalized Distress Scale), demographic factors (age, gender, educational level, and marital status), perceived social support, chronic medical conditions, physical limitations due to injury, functional limitations, smoking behavior, and body mass index (BMI).

RESULTS

Gender (male); younger age; higher levels of education; being unmarried; absence of chronic conditions, injuries, and functional limitations; lower BMI; social support (females); nonsmoking; region; and lower levels of psychological distress were associated with frequent physical activity in late life. Older adults in western Canadian provinces were more active than those in eastern provinces.

CONCLUSIONS

The results will be useful for the design of interventions aimed at improving older adults' health behavior and other health and functional outcomes, especially for subgroups in particular need. Recommendations for further longitudinal research are presented.

Race differences in weight concerns among women smokers: results from two independent samples

To investigate attitudes about weight as they interact with smoking in African American women, we analyzed data from two independent samples of white and African American women smokers--one assembled via a national random-digit-dialing survey, the other consisting of candidates for enrollment in local studies. Findings for the two samples were remarkably consistent. African American women were significantly heavier and significantly more likely to have a self-reported BMI > or = 27. Although the preferred weight for African American women was significantly higher than for white women, the percentage by which they exceeded their preferred body weight did not differ significantly between groups, and the difference between actual and preferred weights was actually greater for African American women. African American women were more likely to be satisfied with their body shape and were significantly less likely to exercise to control weight. They did not differ significantly on binge-eating or dieting. African American women were more likely than white women to be unwilling to gain any weight upon quitting smoking but did not differ significantly on any other smoking-related weight concerns. Our results suggest that weight concerns, though differently conceptualized, may motivate African American women as powerfully as white women. They strongly suggest that race differences need to be considered in designing optimal smoking cessation interventions for weight-concerned women smokers. To accomplish this goal, efforts to identify a vocabulary for the expression of weight concerns in African American women will be needed, as will attention to ways to avoid exacerbating obesity and to encourage exercise.

Nursing research on physical activity: a feminist critique

Studies on physical activity have rarely included women as research participants, and have been mainly conducted among Western populations. In this paper, nursing research on women's physical activity is analyzed and critiqued using a feminist perspective that respects and values women's own experiences and their diversities. An extensive literature search was conducted using computerized data retrieval systems and 47 empirical studies published in nursing literature were selected and analyzed. The critique is presented with three main themes emerged from the analysis: (a) "without considering women's own experiences"; (b) "implicit androcentric and ethnocentric assumptions"; (c) "without meaningful interactions". Based on the analysis, future directions for nursing research on physical activity are proposed.

Be physically active each day. How can we know?

For the first time in its five versions, Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans contains an apparently nondietary guideline recommending physical activity. Although new as a separate guideline, physical activity has been included in the weight guideline of previous versions. The current version recognizes the importance of physical activity to health beyond its effect on weight maintenance. The purpose of this paper is to examine what data are available or required to evaluate the level of physical activity in the population, particularly in light of current recommendations. The physical activity sections of several national surveys that assess individual behavior or activity-related policies are described. Surveillance of physical activity as a risk factor for chronic disease is critical because physical inactivity is highly prevalent, strongly associated with increased morbidity and mortality, costly and preventable. Determinants of physical activity behavior are also considered. These determinants are potentially important factors for surveillance and are critical components for planning successful interventions.