Protein kinase A regulates calcium permeability of NMDA receptors

Native and recombinant ASIC1a receptors conduct negligible Ca2+ entry

Acid Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) are a family of proton-gated cation channels that play a role in the sensation of noxious stimuli. Of these, ASIC1a is the only family member that is reported to be permeable to Ca(2+), although the absolute magnitude of the Ca(2+) current is unclear. Here, we used patch-clamp photometry to determine the contribution of Ca(2+) to total current through native and recombinant ASIC1a receptors. We found that acidification of the extracellular medium evoked amiloride and psalmotoxin 1-sensitive currents in isolated chick dorsal root ganglion neurons and human embryonic kidney cells, but did not alter fura-2 fluorescence when the bath concentration of Ca(2+) was close to that found in normal physiological conditions. Further, activation of recombinant ASIC1a receptors also failed to produce measurable changes in fluorescence despite of the fact that the total cation current through the over-expressed receptor was ten-fold larger than that of the native channels. Finally, we imaged a field of intact DRG neurons loaded with the Ca(2+)-sensing dye Fluo-4, and found that acidification increased [Ca(2+)](i) in a small population of cells. Thus, although our whole-field imaging data agree with previous studies that activation of ASIC1a receptors can potentially cause elevations in intracellular free Ca(2+), our single cell data strongly challenges the view that Ca(2+) entry through the ASIC1a receptor itself contributes to this response.

Galpha13 regulates MEF2-dependent gene transcription in endothelial cells: role in angiogenesis

The alpha subunit of heterotrimeric G13 protein is required for the embryonic angiogenesis (Offermanns et al., Science 275:533-536, 1997). However, the molecular mechanism of Galpha13-dependent angiogenesis is not understood. Here, we show that myocyte-specific enhancer factor-2 (MEF2) mediates Galpha13-dependent angiogenesis. Our data showed that constitutively activated Galpha13Q226L stimulated MEF2-dependent gene transcription. In addition, downregulation of endogenous Galpha13 inhibited thrombin-stimulated MEF2-dependent gene transcription in endothelial cells. Both Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase IV (CaMKIV) and histone deacetylase 5 (HDAC5) were involved in Galpha13-mediated MEF2-dependent gene transcription. Galpha13Q226L also increased Ca(2+)/calmodulin-independent CaMKIV activity, while dominant negative mutant of CaMKIV inhibited MEF2-dependent gene transcription induced by Galpha13Q226L. Furthermore, Galpha13Q226L was able to derepress HDAC5-mediated repression of gene transcription and induce the translocation of HDAC5 from nucleus to cytoplasm. Finally, downregulation of endogenous Galpha13 and MEF2 proteins in endothelial cells reduced cell proliferation and capillary tube formation. Decrease of endothelial cell proliferation that was caused by the Galpha13 downregulation was partially restored by the constitutively active MEF2-VP16. Our studies suggest that MEF2 proteins are an important component in Galpha13-mediated angiogenesis.

Modulation of SK channel trafficking by beta adrenoceptors enhances excitatory synaptic transmission and plasticity in the amygdala

Emotionally arousing events are particularly well remembered. This effect is known to result from the release of stress hormones and activation of beta adrenoceptors in the amygdala. However, the underlying cellular mechanisms are not understood. Small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels are present at glutamatergic synapses where they limit synaptic transmission and plasticity. Here, we show that beta adrenoceptor activation regulates synaptic SK channels in lateral amygdala pyramidal neurons, through activation of protein kinase A. We show that SK channels are constitutively recycled from the postsynaptic membrane and that activation of beta adrenoceptors removes SK channels from excitatory synapses. This results in enhanced synaptic transmission and plasticity. Our findings demonstrate a novel mechanism by which beta adrenoceptors control synaptic transmission and plasticity, through regulation of SK channel trafficking, and suggest that modulation of synaptic SK channels may contribute to beta adrenoceptor-mediated potentiation of emotional memories.

Kinase-dependent modification of dendritic excitability after long-term potentiation

Patterns of presynaptic activity properly timed with postsynaptic action potential output can not only increase the strength of synaptic inputs but can also increase the excitability of dendritic branches of adult CA1 pyramidal neurons. Here, we examined the role of protein kinase A (PKA) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in the enhancement of dendritic excitability that occurs during theta-burst pairing of presynaptic and postsynaptic firing activity. Using dendritic and somatic whole-cell recordings in rat hippocampal slices, we measured the increase in the amplitude of back-propagating action potentials in the apical dendrite that occurs in parallel with long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic inputs. We found that inhibition of the MAPK pathway prevents this enhancement of dendritic excitability using either a weak or strong LTP induction protocol, while synaptic LTP can still be induced by the strong protocol. Both forms of plasticity are blocked by inhibition of PKA and occluded by interfering with cAMP degradation, consistent with a PKA-mediated increase in MAPK activity following induction of LTP. This provides a signalling mechanism for plasticity of dendritic excitability that occurs during neuronal activity and demonstrates the necessity of MAPK activation. Furthermore, this study uncovers an additional contribution of kinase activation to plasticity that may occur during learning.

The effects of NR2 subunit-dependent NMDA receptor kinetics on synaptic transmission and CaMKII activation

N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors are widely expressed in the brain and are critical for many forms of synaptic plasticity. Subtypes of the NMDA receptor NR2 subunit are differentially expressed during development; in the forebrain, the NR2B receptor is dominant early in development, and later both NR2A and NR2B are expressed. In heterologous expression systems, NR2A-containing receptors open more reliably and show much faster opening and closing kinetics than do NR2B-containing receptors. However, conflicting data, showing similar open probabilities, exist for receptors expressed in neurons. Similarly, studies of synaptic plasticity have produced divergent results, with some showing that only NR2A-containing receptors can drive long-term potentiation and others showing that either subtype is capable of driving potentiation. In order to address these conflicting results as well as open questions about the number and location of functional receptors in the synapse, we constructed a Monte Carlo model of glutamate release, diffusion, and binding to NMDA receptors and of receptor opening and closing as well as a model of the activation of calcium-calmodulin kinase II, an enzyme critical for induction of synaptic plasticity, by NMDA receptor-mediated calcium influx. Our results suggest that the conflicting data concerning receptor open probabilities can be resolved, with NR2A- and NR2B-containing receptors having very different opening probabilities. They also support the conclusion that receptors containing either subtype can drive long-term potentiation. We also are able to estimate the number of functional receptors at a synapse from experimental data. Finally, in our models, the opening of NR2B-containing receptors is highly dependent on the location of the receptor relative to the site of glutamate release whereas the opening of NR2A-containing receptors is not. These results help to clarify the previous findings and suggest future experiments to address open questions concerning NMDA receptor function.

Alteration of CREB phosphorylation and spatial memory deficits in aged 129T2/Sv mice

Phosphorylation of cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) is required for hippocampus-dependent long-term memory formation. The present study was designed to determine whether spatial memory deficits in aged mice were associated with alteration of hippocampal CREB phosphorylation. We examined the temporal pattern of CREB activation in 5-6 and 23-24-month-old 129T2/Sv mice trained on a spatial reference memory task in the water maze. Phosphorylated CREB (pCREB), total CREB (t-CREB) and c-Fos immunoreactivity (ir) were measured at four time points after the end of training. In young mice, pCREB-ir was significantly increased 15 and 60 min after training in the CA1 region and dentate gyrus. In aged mice sacrificed 15 min after training, pCREB-ir in these structures was reduced whereas t-CREB-ir remained unchanged compared to respective young-adults. An age-related reduction of c-Fos-ir also occurred selectively in hippocampal CA1 region. Since reduced pCREB-ir in CA1 from the 15 min-aged group strongly correlated with individual learning performance, we suggest that altered CREB phosphorylation in CA1 may account for spatial memory impairments during normal aging.

Tunable calcium current through TRPV1 receptor channels

TRPV1 receptors are polymodal cation channels that open in response to diverse stimuli including noxious heat, capsaicin, and protons. Because Ca2+ is vital for TRPV1 signaling, we sought to precisely measure its contribution to TRPV1 responses and discovered that the Ca2+ current was tuned by the mode of activation. Using patch clamp photometry, we found that the fraction of the total current carried by Ca2+ (called the Pf%) was significantly smaller for TRPV1 currents evoked by protons than for those evoked by capsaicin. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we discovered that the smaller Pf% was due to protonation of three acidic amino acids (Asp646, Glu648, and Glu651) that are located in the mouth of the pore. Thus, in keeping with recent reports of time-dependent changes in the ionic permeability of some ligand-gated ion channels, we now show for the first time that the physiologically important Ca2+ current of the TRPV1 receptor is also dynamic and depends on the mode of activation. This current is significantly smaller when the receptor is activated by a change in pH, owing to atomic scale interactions of H+ and Ca2+ with the fixed negative charge of side chains in the pore.

Protein kinase a mediates activity-dependent Kv4.2 channel trafficking

The A-type potassium channel subunit Kv4.2 influences hippocampal function through regulation of dendritic excitability, and changes in Kv4.2 surface expression alter synaptic plasticity. Recent data from our laboratory demonstrate that EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein)-tagged Kv4.2 channels located in dendritic spines are internalized in an activity-dependent manner after synaptic stimulation and during chemically induced long-term potentiation. However, the molecular trigger for Kv4.2 internalization remains unknown. Here we examined the role of protein kinase A (PKA) in Kv4.2 activity-dependent trafficking. In hippocampal neurons, PKA activation with forskolin or 8-Br-cAMP induced Kv4.2 internalization from dendritic spines, whereas PKA inhibition with H89 prevented AMPA-induced internalization. Furthermore, introduction of a point mutation at the C-terminal PKA phosphorylation site of Kv4.2 (S552A) prevented the AMPA-induced internalization of Kv4.2. Together, these data demonstrate that Kv4.2 activity-dependent internalization requires PKA phosphorylation of Kv4.2 at serine 522.

The promnesic effect of G-protein-coupled 5-HT4 receptors activation is mediated by a potentiation of learning-induced spine growth in the mouse hippocampus

Pharmacological modulation of synaptic efficacy is a prominent target in the identification of promnesic compounds. Here, we report that pretraining administration of the serotonin 5-HT(4) receptors (5-HT(4)Rs) partial agonist SL65.0155 enhances simultaneous olfactory discrimination performance and potentiates learning-induced dendritic spine growth in the mouse hippocampus. SL65.0155 does not affect spine density in the pseudo-trained mice and, by itself, does not promote spine growth. Injecting the 5-HT(4) antagonist RS39604 prior to SL65.0155 prevents both the increase in performance and the additional formation of spines, thus confirming the 5-HT(4)Rs specificity of the observed effects. These findings provide evidence that 5-HT(4)Rs stimulation selectively increases experience-dependent structural plasticity in learning-activated hippocampal circuits.

Developmental switch in requirement for PKA RIIbeta in NMDA-receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity at Schaffer collateral to CA1 pyramidal cell synapses

The cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signaling cascade is crucial for synaptic plasticity in a wide variety of species. PKA regulates Ca2+ permeation through NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and induction of NMDAR-dependent synaptic plasticity at the Schaffer collateral to CA1 pyramidal cell synapse. Whereas the role of PKA in induction of NMDAR-dependent LTP at CA1 synapses is established, the identity of PKA isoforms involved in this phenomenon is less clear. Here we report that protein synthesis-independent NMDAR-dependent LTP at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapse in the hippocampus is deficient, but NMDAR-dependent LTD is normal, in young (postnatal day 10 (P10)-P14) mice lacking PKA RIIbeta, the PKA regulatory protein that links PKA to NMDARs at synaptic sites. In contrast, in young adult (P21-P28) mice lacking PKA RIIbeta, LTP is normal and LTD is abolished. These findings indicate that distinct PKA isoforms may subserve distinct forms of synaptic plasticity and are consistent with a developmental switch in the signaling cascades required for LTP induction.

Spinal activation of the cAMP-PKA pathway induces respiratory motor recovery following high cervical spinal cord injury

The present study investigated the involvement of the adenosine 3'5'-cyclic monophosphate-dependent protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA) pathway in the activation of the crossed-phrenic pathways after left C2 spinal cord hemisection. Experiments were conducted on left C2 spinal cord hemisected, anesthetized, vagotomized, pancuronium paralyzed, and artificially ventilated male Sprague-Dawley rats. One week post-injury, the ipsilateral phrenic nerve exhibited no respiratory-related activity indicating a functionally complete hemisection. Intrathecal spinal cord administration of the cAMP analog, 8-Br-cAMP at the level of the phrenic nucleus resulted in an enhancement of contralateral phrenic nerve output and a restoration of respiratory-related activity in the phrenic nerve ipsilateral to the hemisection. Furthermore, pre-treatment with Rp-8-Br-cAMP, a PKA inhibitor, abolished the effects of 8-Br-cAMP. These results suggest that PKA activation is necessary for the cAMP-mediated respiratory recovery following high cervical spinal cord injury and that activation of intracellular signaling cascades may represent an important strategy for improving respiratory function after spinal cord injury.

Ca2+ microdomains near plasma membrane Ca2+ channels: impact on cell function

In eukaryotic cells, a rise in cytoplasmic Ca(2+) can activate a plethora of responses that operate on time scales ranging from milliseconds to days. Inherent to the use of a promiscuous signal like Ca(2+) is the problem of specificity: how can Ca(2+) activate some responses but not others? We now know that the spatial profile of the Ca(2+) signal is important Ca(2+) does not simply rise uniformly throughout the cytoplasm upon stimulation but can reach very high levels locally, creating spatial gradients. The most fundamental local Ca(2+) signal is the Ca(2+) microdomain that develops rapidly near open plasmalemmal Ca(2+) channels like voltage-gated L-type (Cav1.2) and store-operated CRAC channels. Recent work has revealed that Ca(2+) microdomains arising from these channels are remarkably versatile in triggering a range of responses that differ enormously in both temporal and spatial profile. Here, I delineate basic features of Ca(2+) microdomains and then describe how these highly local signals are used by Ca(2+)-permeable channels to drive cellular responses.

Complete recovery of olfactory associative learning by activation of 5-HT4 receptors after dentate granule cell damage in rats

Bilateral intradentate injections of 3.0microg of colchicine induced a substantial loss of granule cells and damage to the overlying pyramidal cell layer in region CA1 in adult male Long-Evans rats. All rats with such lesions showed a significant associative learning deficit in an olfactory discrimination task, while being unimpaired in the procedural component of this task. Injection of a partial selective 5-HT(4) agonist (SL65.0155; 0.01mg/kg, i.p., vs. saline) before the third of six training sessions enabled complete recovery of associative learning performance in the lesioned rats. Activation of 5-HT(4) receptors by a selective agonist such as SL65.0155 might therefore provide an opportunity to reduce learning and memory deficits associated with temporal lobe damage, and could be useful for the symptomatic treatment of memory dysfunctions related to pathological aging such as Alzheimer's disease.

Acute and chronic dopamine receptor stimulation modulates AMPA receptor trafficking in nucleus accumbens neurons cocultured with prefrontal cortex neurons

Postsynaptic interactions between dopamine (DA) and glutamate receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) are critical for addiction. To determine the effect of acute and repeated DA receptor stimulation on AMPA receptor (AMPAR) synaptic targeting in medium spiny NAc neurons, we developed a model system consisting of rat NAc neurons cocultured with prefrontal cortex neurons from enhanced green fluorescent protein-expressing mice. Cortical neurons restore excitatory input onto NAc neurons but are distinguishable based on fluorescence. First, we showed that brief D1-like agonist exposure increased AMPAR insertion onto extrasynaptic regions of NAc neuronal processes through a mechanism requiring protein kinase A. This facilitated the Ca2+/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)-dependent synaptic incorporation of AMPARs in response to subsequent NMDA receptor (NMDAR) stimulation. Through this mechanism, DA may promote reward- and drug-related plasticity in the NAc. Then, to model effects of repeated in vivo cocaine exposure, we treated cocultures with DA (1 microm, 30 min) on days 7, 9, and 11 in culture. On day 15, NAc neurons exhibited increased synaptic AMPAR levels. This was associated with CaMKII activation and was blocked by the CaMKII inhibitor KN-93 (N-[2-[N-(4-chlorocinnamyl)-N-methylaminomethyl]phenyl]-N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide phosphate salt). Furthermore, D1-like agonist exposure on day 15 no longer increased AMPAR surface expression. This refractoriness was associated with decreased D1 receptor surface expression. NMDAR surface expression was not altered by acute or repeated DA receptor stimulation. These results suggest that (1) after repeated DA treatment, NAc neurons are more responsive to glutamate inputs but D(1)-like receptor regulation of plasticity is impaired, and (2) NAc/prefrontal cortex cocultures are useful for studying dopamine-induced neuroadaptations.

Colocalisation of serotonin2A receptors with the glutamate receptor subunits NR1 and GluR2 in the dentate gyrus: an ultrastructural study of a modulatory role

The serotonin(2A) receptor (5-HT(2A)R) is implicated in many neurological disorders and has a role in cognitive processes, reliant upon hippocampal glutamate receptors. Recent studies show that 5-HT(2A)R agonists and/or antagonists can influence cognitive function, suggesting a critical hippocampal role for these receptors, yet their cellular and subcellular distribution within this region has not been comprehensively analysed. Here, we have conducted an electron microscopic examination of 5-HT(2A)R distribution with the glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazoleproprionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunits NR1 and GluR2 in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) in order to investigate whether 5-HT(2A)R location is compatible with a modulatory role over NMDA and/or AMPA receptor mediated neurotransmission. Of 5-HT(2A)R positive profiles, 56% were dendrites and 16% were dendritic spines. Labelling was both cytoplasmic and membranous. Spinous labelling was more frequently membranous at peri- and extra-synaptic sites, though was also associated with synaptic specialisations. Profiles displaying colocalisation of immunoreactivity for 5-HT(2A)Rs with NR1 or GluR2 were predominantly dendrites, representing 11% and 8% of 5-HT(2A)R positive profiles, respectively. Additionally, 12% of 5-HT(2A)R labelled profiles also displayed immunoreactivity for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). These data indicate most 5-HT(2A)Rs are expressed on granule cell projections, with a smaller subpopulation expressed on GABAergic interneurons.

Forskolin induces NMDA receptor-dependent potentiation at a central synapse in the leech

In vertebrate hippocampal neurons, application of forskolin (an adenylyl cyclase activator) and rolipram (a phosphodiesterase inhibitor) is an effective technique for inducing chemical long-term potentiation (cLTP) that is N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (NMDAR)-dependent. However, it is not known whether forskolin induces a similar potentiation in invertebrate synapses. Therefore, we examined whether forskolin plus rolipram treatment could induce potentiation at a known glutamatergic synapse in the leech (Hirudo sp.), specifically between the pressure (P) mechanosensory and anterior pagoda (AP) neurons. Perfusion of isolated ganglia with forskolin (50 muM) in conjunction with rolipram (0.1 muM) in Mg(2+)-free saline significantly potentiated the P-to-AP excitatory postsynaptic potential. Application of 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV, 100 muM), a competitive NMDAR antagonist, blocked the potentiation, indicating P-to-AP potentiation is NMDAR-dependent. Potentiation was blocked by injection of bis-(o-aminophenoxy)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA, 1 mM) into the postsynaptic cell, but not by BAPTA injection into the presynaptic neuron, indicating a requirement for postsynaptic elevation of intracellular Ca(2+). Application of db-cAMP mimicked the potentiating effects of forskolin, and Rp-cAMP, an inhibitor of protein kinase A, blocked forskolin-induced potentiation. Potentiation was also blocked by autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide (AIP), indicating a requirement for activation of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII). Finally, potentiation was blocked by botulinum toxin, suggesting that trafficking of glutamate receptors also plays a role in this form of synaptic plasticity. These experiments demonstrate that techniques used to induce cLTP in vertebrate synapses also induce NMDAR-dependent potentiation in the leech CNS and that many of the cellular processes that mediate LTP are conserved between vertebrate and invertebrate phyla.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) depresses n-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated current in cultured rat hippocampal neurons via CRH receptor type 1

CRH, the primary regulator of the neuroendocrine responses to stress, has been shown to modulate synaptic efficacy and the process of learning and memory in hippocampus. However, effects of CRH on N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, the key receptor for synaptic plasticity, remain unclear. In primary cultured hippocampal neurons, using the technique of whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we found that CRH (1 pmol/liter to 10 nmol/liter) inhibited NMDA-induced currents in a dose-dependent manner. This effect was reversed by the CRH receptor type 1 (CRHR1) antagonist antalarmin but not by the CRHR2 antagonist astressin-2B, suggesting that CRHR1 mediated the inhibitory effect of CRH. Investigations on the signaling pathways of CRH showed that CRH dose-dependently induced phosphorylated phospholipase C (PLC)-beta3 expression and increased intracellular cAMP content in these cells. Blocking PLC activity with U73122 prevented CRH-induced depression of NMDA current, whereas blocking protein kinase A (H89) and adenylate cyclase (SQ22536) failed to affect the CRH-induced depression of NMDA current. Application of inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate receptor (IP(3)R) antagonist, Ca(2+) chelators or protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors also mainly blocked CRH-induced depression of NMDA currents, suggesting involvement of PLC/IP(3)R/Ca(2+)and PLC/PKC signaling pathways in CRH down-regulation of NMDA receptors. Our results suggest that CRH may exert neuromodulatory actions on hippocampus through regulating NMDA receptor function.

Noradrenergic signaling in infralimbic cortex increases cell excitability and strengthens memory for fear extinction

Emotional arousal strengthens memory. This is most apparent in aversive conditioning, in which the stress-related neurotransmitter norepinephrine (NE) enhances associations between sensory stimuli and fear-inducing events. In contrast to conditioning, extinction decreases fear responses, and is thought to form a new memory. It is not known, however, whether NE is necessary for extinction learning. Previous work has shown that the infralimbic prefrontal cortex (IL) is a site of extinction consolidation. Here, we show that blocking noradrenergic beta-receptors in IL before extinction training impaired retrieval of extinction the following day, consistent with a weakened extinction memory. We further found that the sequelae of beta-receptor activation, including protein kinase A (PKA), gene transcription and translation in IL, are necessary for extinction. To determine whether activation of this cascade modulates IL excitability, we measured the response of IL pyramidal neurons to injected current. NE increased the excitability of IL neurons in a beta-receptor- and PKA-dependent manner. We suggest that NE released in IL during fear extinction activates a PKA-mediated molecular cascade that strengthens extinction memory. Thus, emotional arousal evoked by conditioned fear paradoxically promotes the subsequent extinction of that fear, thereby ensuring behavioral flexibility.

Regulation of hippocampus-dependent memory by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase

The hippocampus is crucial for the consolidation of new declarative long-term memories. Genetic and behavioral experimentation have revealed that several protein kinases are critical for the formation of hippocampus-dependent long-term memories. Cyclic-AMP dependent protein kinase (PKA) is a serine-threonine kinase that has been strongly implicated in the expression of specific forms of hippocampus-dependent memory. We review evidence that PKA is required for hippocampus-dependent memory in mammals, and we highlight some of the proteins that have been implicated as targets of PKA. Future directions and open questions regarding the role of PKA in memory storage are also described.

Modulation of NMDA receptor properties and synaptic transmission by the NR3A subunit in mouse hippocampal and cerebrocortical neurons

Expression of the NR3A subunit with NR1/NR2 in Xenopus oocytes or mammalian cell lines leads to a reduction in N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced currents and decreased Mg(2+) sensitivity and Ca(2+) permeability compared with NR1/NR2 receptors. Consistent with these findings, neurons from NR3A knockout (KO) mice exhibit enhanced NMDA-induced currents. Recombinant NR3A can also form excitatory glycine receptors with NR1 in the absence of NR2. However, the effects of NR3A on channel properties in neurons and synaptic transmission have not been fully elucidated. To study physiological roles of NR3A subunits, we generated NR3A transgenic (Tg) mice. Cultured NR3A Tg neurons exhibited two populations of NMDA receptor (NMDAR) channels, reduced Mg(2+) sensitivity, and decreased Ca(2+) permeability in response to NMDA/glycine, but glycine alone did not elicit excitatory currents. In addition, NMDAR-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in NR3A Tg hippocampal slices showed reduced Mg(2+) sensitivity, consistent with the notion that NR3A subunits incorporated into synaptic NMDARs. To study the function of endogenous NR3A subunits, we compared NMDAR-mediated EPSCs in NR3A KO and WT control mice. In NR3A KO mice, the ratio of the amplitudes of the NMDAR-mediated component to alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor-mediated component of the EPSC was significantly larger than that seen in WT littermates. This result suggests that NR3A subunits contributed to the NMDAR-mediated component of the EPSC in WT mice. Taken together, these results show that NR3A subunits contribute to NMDAR responses from both synaptic and extrasynaptic receptors, likely composed of NR1, NR2, and NR3 subunits.

Rapid direct excitation and long-lasting enhancement of NMDA response by group I metabotropic glutamate receptor activation of hypothalamic melanin-concentrating hormone neurons

The effect of group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1 and mGluR5) activation on identified melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) neurons was studied using patch-clamp recording in hypothalamic slices from green fluorescent protein-expressing transgenic mice. S-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG), a selective group I mGluR agonist, depolarized MCH cells and increased spike frequency. The mGluR-mediated depolarization was not blocked with tetrodotoxin but was significantly reduced by replacement of extracellular Na+ with Tris, by Ni2+ or the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger blocker KB-R7943, or with BAPTA in the pipette, consistent with a mechanism based on activation of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. DHPG also decreased potassium currents. DHPG-induced depolarization was reduced by either mGluR1 or mGluR5 antagonists, suggesting involvement of both receptor subtypes. DHPG-induced depolarization desensitized; blockade of mGluR1 prevented the desensitization. Group I mGluR activation enhanced NMDA-evoked currents; this enhancement was remarkably long lasting and could be blocked by protein kinase A or C blockers. DHPG potentiated electrically evoked NMDA receptor-mediated postsynaptic currents, and mGluR5 antagonists blocked this action. Group I mGluRs increased spontaneous EPSCs in MCH neurons, possibly by stimulation of nearby mGluR-expressing hypocretin neurons. We found no tonic activation of mGluRs. However, electrical stimulation produced a slow inward current, which could be blocked by group I mGluR antagonists, suggesting high, but not low, levels of synaptically released glutamate activated mGluRs. Together, group I mGluRs increase MCH neuron activity by multiple presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms, suggesting mGluRs may therefore play a role in hypothalamic signaling relating to MCH neuron modulation of food intake and energy metabolism.

Slow presynaptic and fast postsynaptic components of compound long-term potentiation

Long-term potentiation (LTP) mediates learning and memory in the mammalian hippocampus. Whether a presynaptic or postsynaptic neuron principally enhances synaptic transmission during LTP remains controversial. Acute hippocampal slices were made from transgenic mouse strains that express synaptopHluorin in neurons. SynaptopHluorin is an indicator of synaptic vesicle recycling; thus, we monitored functional changes in presynaptic boutons of CA3 pyramidal cells by measuring changes in synaptopHluorin fluorescence. Simultaneously, we recorded field excitatory postsynaptic potentials to monitor changes in the strength of excitatory synapses between CA3 and CA1 pyramidal neurons. We found that LTP consists of two components, a slow presynaptic component and a fast postsynaptic component. The presynaptic mechanisms contribute mostly to the late phase of compound LTP, whereas the postsynaptic mechanisms are crucial during the early phase of LTP. We also found that protein kinase A (PKA) and L-type voltage-gated calcium channels are crucial for the expression of the presynaptic component of compound LTP, and NMDA channels are essential for that of the postsynaptic component of LTP. These data are the first direct evidence that presynaptic and postsynaptic components of LTP are temporally and mechanistically distinct.

Age-dependent requirement of AKAP150-anchored PKA and GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors in LTP

Association of PKA with the AMPA receptor GluR1 subunit via the A kinase anchor protein AKAP150 is crucial for GluR1 phosphorylation. Mutating the AKAP150 gene to specifically prevent PKA binding reduced PKA within postsynaptic densities (>70%). It abolished hippocampal LTP in 7-12 but not 4-week-old mice. Inhibitors of PKA and of GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors blocked single tetanus LTP in hippocampal slices of 8 but not 4-week-old WT mice. Inhibitors of GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors also prevented LTP in 2 but not 3-week-old mice. Other studies demonstrate that GluR1 homomeric AMPA receptors are the main GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors in adult hippocampus and require PKA for their functional postsynaptic expression during potentiation. AKAP150-anchored PKA might thus critically contribute to LTP in adult hippocampus in part by phosphorylating GluR1 to foster postsynaptic accumulation of homomeric GluR1 AMPA receptors during initial LTP in 8-week-old mice.

Genetic disruption of protein kinase A anchoring reveals a role for compartmentalized kinase signaling in theta-burst long-term potentiation and spatial memory

Studies of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), a cellular model of memory storage, implicate cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) in presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of LTP. The anchoring of PKA to AKAPs (A kinase-anchoring proteins) creates compartmentalized pools of PKA, but the roles of presynaptically and postsynaptically anchored forms of PKA in late-phase LTP are unclear. In this study, we have created genetically modified mice that conditionally express Ht31, an inhibitor of PKA anchoring, to probe the roles of anchored PKA in hippocampal LTP and spatial memory. Our findings show that at hippocampal Schaffer collateral CA3-CA1 synapses, theta-burst LTP requires presynaptically anchored PKA. In addition, a pool of anchored PKA in hippocampal area CA3 is required for spatial memory. These findings reveal a novel and significant role for anchored PKA signaling in cellular mechanisms underlying memory storage.

Rapid NMDA receptor phosphorylation and oxidative stress precede striatal neurodegeneration after hypoxic ischemia in newborn piglets and are attenuated with hypothermia

The basal ganglia of newborns are extremely vulnerable to hypoxic ischemia (HI). Striatal neurons undergo prominent necrosis after HI. The mechanisms for this degeneration are not well understood. Postasphyxic hypothermia ameliorates the striatal necrosis, but the mechanisms of hypothermia-induced neuroprotection are not known. We used a newborn piglet model of hypoxic-asphyxic cardiac arrest to test the hypotheses that N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor activation and free radical damage coexist, prior to neurodegeneration, early after resuscitation, and that these changes are attenuated with hypothermia. Piglets were subjected to 30min of hypoxia followed by 7min of airway occlusion, causing asphyxic cardiac arrest, and then were resuscitated and survived normothermically for 5min, 3h, or 6h, or hypothermically for 3h. By 6h of normothermic recovery, 50% of neurons in putamen showed ischemic cytopathology. Striatal tissue was fractionated into membrane or soluble proteins and was assayed by immunoblotting for carbonyl modification, phosphorylation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit NR1, and neuronal nitric oxide synthase. Significant accumulation of soluble protein carbonyls was present at 3h (196% of control) and 6h (142% of control). Phosphorylation of serine-897 of NR1 was increased significantly at 5min (161% of control) and 3h (226% of control) after HI. Phosphorylation of serine-890 of NR1 was also increased after HI. Membrane-associated neuronal nitric oxide synthase was increased by 35% at 5min. Hypothermia attenuated the oxidative damage and the NR1 phosphorylation in striatum. We conclude that neuronal death signaling in newborn striatum after HI is engaged rapidly through N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor activation, neuronal nitric oxide synthase recruitment, and oxidative stress. Postasphyxic, mild whole body hypothermia provides neuroprotection by suppressing N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor phosphorylation and protein oxidation.

Glutamate antagonists are neurotoxins for the developing brain

Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are essential for normal nervous system development. Disturbances in the expression timetable or intensity of neurotransmitter signalling during critical periods of brain development can lead to permanent damage. Neuroactive drugs and environmental toxins interfere with neurotransmitter signalling and may thereby provide one mechanism underlying neurological abnormalities. Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system and mediates neurotransmission across most excitatory synapses. In this article we review the timely expression of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate and its receptors during brain development, briefly review glutamate receptor antagonists and present clinical and experimental evidence describing their adverse effects in the developing brain.

Neurite degeneration induced by heme deficiency mediated via inhibition of NMDA receptor-dependent extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 activation

The early stages of many neurodegenerative diseases and age-related degeneration are characterized by neurite damage and compromised synaptic function that precede neuronal cell death. We investigated the signaling mechanisms underlying neurite degeneration using cortical neuron cultures. Inhibition of heme synthesis caused neurite damage, without neuronal death, and was mediated by reduced NMDA receptor (NMDAR) expression and phosphorylation. The signaling toward the degenerative phenotype involved suppression of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway, and electrophysiological recording showed that the neurodegeneration is accompanied by reduced NMDAR current and Ca2+ influx, as well as reduced voltage-gated sodium currents, consistent with compromised neurite integrity. Rescue from the degenerative phenotype by heme replacement was dependent on restoration of NR2B subunit phosphorylation and expression of NMDAR currents with higher Ca2+ permeability, consistent with triggering prosurvival ERK1/2 signaling to maintain and extend neurites. This study demonstrated a new mechanism of neurodegeneration in which impaired heme synthesis led to NMDAR signaling dysfunction, suppression of the prosurvival ERK1/2 pathway, and progressive fragmentation of neuronal projections.

Molecular activity underlying working memory

The prefrontal cortex is necessary for directing thought and planning action. Working memory, the active, transient maintenance of information in mind for subsequent monitoring and manipulation, lies at the core of many simple, as well as high-level, cognitive functions. Working memory has been shown to be compromised in a number of neurological and psychiatric conditions and may contribute to the behavioral and cognitive deficits associated with these disorders. It has been theorized that working memory depends upon reverberating circuits within the prefrontal cortex and other cortical areas. However, recent work indicates that intracellular signals and protein dephosphorylation are critical for working memory. The present article will review recent research into the involvement of the modulatory neurotransmitters and their receptors in working memory. The intracellular signaling pathways activated by these receptors and evidence that indicates a role for G(q)-initiated PI-PLC and calcium-dependent protein phosphatase calcineurin activity in working memory will be discussed. Additionally, the negative influence of calcium- and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (i.e., calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), calcium/diacylglycerol-activated protein kinase C (PKC), and cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA)) activities on working memory will be reviewed. The implications of these experimental findings on the observed inverted-U relationship between D(1) receptor stimulation and working memory, as well as age-associated working memory dysfunction, will be presented. Finally, we will discuss considerations for the development of clinical treatments for working memory disorders.

Dopamine receptor modulation of hypoxic-ischemic neuronal injury in striatum of newborn piglets

Dopamine receptors regulate glutamatergic neurotransmission and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase via protein kinase A (PKA) and dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP-32)-dependent signaling. Consequently, dopamine receptor activation may modulate neonatal hypoxic-ischemic (H-I) neuronal damage in the selectively vulnerable putamen enriched with dopaminergic receptors. Piglets subjected to two durations of hypoxia followed by asphyxic cardiac arrest were treated with a D1-like (SCH23390) or D2-like (sulpiride) receptor antagonist. At 4 days of recovery from less severe H-I, the remaining viable neurons in putamen were 60% of control, but nearly completely salvaged by pretreatment with SCH23390 or sulpiride. After more severe H-I in which only 18% of neurons were viable, partial neuroprotection was seen with SCH23390 pretreatment (50%) and posttreatment (39%) and with sulpiride pretreatment (35%), but not with sulpiride posttreatment (24%). Dopamine was significantly elevated in microdialysis samples from putamen during asphyxia and the first 15 mins of reoxygenation. Pretreatment with SCH23390 or sulpiride largely attenuated the increased nitrotyrosine and the decreased Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activity that occurred at 3 h after severe H-I. Pretreatment with SCH23390, but not sulpiride, also attenuated H-I-induced increases in PKA-dependent phosphorylation of Thr34 on DARPP-32, Ser943 on the alpha subunit of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase, and Ser897 of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor NR1 subunit. These findings indicate that D1 and D2 dopamine receptor activation contribute to neuronal death in newborn putamen after H-I in association with increased protein nitration and decreased Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activity. Furthermore, mechanisms of D1 receptor toxicity may involve DARPP-32-dependent phosphorylation of NMDA receptor NR1 and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase.

Multiple modes of synaptic excitation of olfactory bulb granule cells

Inhibition generated by granule cells, the most common GABAergic cell type in the olfactory bulb, plays a critical role in shaping the output of the olfactory bulb. However, relatively little is known about the synaptic mechanisms responsible for activating these interneurons in addition to the specialized dendrodendritic synapses located on distal dendrites. Using two-photon guided minimal stimulation in acute rat brain slices, we found that distal and proximal excitatory synapses onto granule cells are functionally distinct. Proximal synapses arise from piriform cortical neurons and facilitate with paired-pulse stimulation, whereas distal dendrodendritic synapses generate EPSCs with slower kinetics that depress with paired stimulation. Proximal cortical feedback inputs can relieve the tonic Mg block of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) at distal synapses and gate dendrodendritic inhibition onto mitral cells. Most excitatory synapses we examined onto granule cells activated both NMDARs and AMPA receptors, whereas a subpopulation appeared to be NMDAR silent. The convergence of two types of excitatory inputs onto GABAergic granule cells provides a novel mechanism for regulating the degree of interglomerular processing of sensory input in the olfactory bulb through piriform cortex/olfactory bulb synaptic interactions.

Regulation of NMDA receptors by phosphorylation

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are critical for neuronal development and synaptic plasticity. The molecular mechanisms underlying the synaptic localization and functional regulation of NMDA receptors have been the subject of extensive studies. In particular, phosphorylation has emerged as a fundamental mechanism that regulates NMDA receptor trafficking and can alter the channel properties of NMDA receptors. Here we summarize recent advances in the characterization of NMDA receptor phosphorylation, emphasizing subunit-specific phosphorylation, which differentially controls the trafficking and surface expression of NMDA receptors.

Requirement of PSD-95 for dopamine D1 receptor modulating glutamate NR1a/NR2B receptor function

AIM

To elucidate the role of scaffold protein postsynaptic density (PSD)-95 in the dopamine D1 receptor (D1R)-modulated NR1a/NR2B receptor response.

METHODS

The human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing D1R (tagged with the enhanced yellow fluorescent protein) and NR1a/NR2B with or without co-expression of PSD-95 were used in the experiments. The Ca2+ influx measured by imaging technique was employed to monitor N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (NMDAR) function.

RESULTS

The application of dopamine (DA, 100 micromol/L) did not alter glutamate/glycine (Glu/Gly)-induced NMDAR-mediated Ca2+ influx in cells only expressing the D1R/NR1a/NR2B receptor. However, DA increased Glu/Gly-induced Ca2+ influx in a concentration-dependent manner while the cells were co-expressed with PSD-95. D1R-stimulated Ca2+ influx was inhibited by a selective D1R antagonist SCH23390. Moreover, pre-incubation with either the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H89, or the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor chelerythrine attenuated D1R-enhanced Ca2+ influx induced by the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) agonist. The results clearly indicate that D1R-modulated NR1a/NR2B receptor function depends on PSD-95 and is subjected to the regulation of PKA and PKC.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides the first evidence that PSD-95 is essential in D1R-regulated NR1a/NR2B receptor function.

A rapid inhibition of NMDA receptor current by corticosterone in cultured hippocampal neurons

The stress level of corticosterone (CORT) may enhance the vulnerability of neurons to insult by increasing N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activity. In this study, we present data showing that CORT could exert an inhibitory effect on NMDA currents in cultured neonatal hippocampal neurons. Extracellular application of 0.1,1,10 and 100 microM CORT significantly reduced the inward current evoked by co-application of NMDA (100 microM). Extracellular application of a membrane-impermeable CORT-BSA (10 microM) maintained the CORT effect. RU38486 (10 microM) failed to block the CORT (1 microM) inhibitory effect. Additionally, intracellular application of CORT (10 microM) showing the lack of effectiveness indicated that a non-genomic mechanism mediated the CORT suppression on NMDA receptors in hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, to elevate the activity of protein kinase A by intracellular 8-Br-cAMP maintained the suppressive effect of CORT on NMDA current. Intracellular blockade of protein kinase A by Rp-cAMP (10 microM) or staurosporine (50 nM) reduced NMDA currents and abolished CORT depression of NMDA currents. These data indicated that NMDA current itself is dependent on protein kinase A (PKA) activity and CORT depression of the current could be PKA-dependent at the same time. The rapid inhibitory effect of the stress level CORT on NMDA current might suggest a protective mechanism for neurons exposed to a transient increase in glucocorticoids.

Ca(2+) signaling in dendritic spines

Recent studies have revealed that Ca(2+) signals evoked by action potentials or by synaptic activity within individual dendritic spines are regulated at multiple levels. Ca(2+) influx through glutamate receptors and voltage-sensitive Ca(2+) channels located on spines depends on the channel subunit composition, the activity of kinases and phosphatases, the local membrane potential and past patterns of activity. Furthermore, sources of spine Ca(2+) interact nonlinearly such that activation of one Ca(2+) channel can enhance or depress the activity of others. These studies have revealed that each spine is a complex and partitioned Ca(2+) signaling domain capable of autonomously regulating the electrical and biochemical consequences of synaptic activity.

G protein-coupled receptors control NMDARs and metaplasticity in the hippocampus

Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) are the major forms of functional synaptic plasticity observed at CA1 synapses of the hippocampus. The balance between LTP and LTD or "metaplasticity" is controlled by G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) whose signal pathways target the N-methyl-D-asparate (NMDA) subtype of excitatory glutamate receptor. We discuss the protein kinase signal cascades stimulated by Galphaq and Galphas coupled GPCRs and describe how control of NMDAR activity shifts the threshold for the induction of LTP.

Activity-Dependent Plasticity of the NMDA-Receptor Fractional Ca2+ Current

Ca(2+) influx through NMDA receptors (NMDA-Rs) triggers synaptic plasticity, gene transcription, and cytotoxicity, but little is known about the regulation of NMDA-Rs themselves. We used two-photon glutamate uncaging to activate NMDA-Rs on individual dendritic spines in rat CA1 neurons while we measured NMDA-R currents at the soma and [Ca(2+)] changes in spines. Low-frequency uncaging trains induced Ca(2+)-dependent long-term depression of NMDA-R-mediated synaptic currents. Additionally, uncaging trains caused a reduction in the Ca(2+) accumulation per unit of NMDA-R current in spines due to a reduction in the fraction of the NMDA-R current carried by Ca(2+). Induction of depression of NMDA-R-mediated Ca(2+) influx required activation of NR2B-containing receptors. Receptors in single spines depressed rapidly in an all-or-none manner. These adaptive changes in NMDA-R function likely play a critical role in metaplasticity and in stabilizing activity levels in neuronal networks with Hebbian synapses.

Abnormal Ca2+ dynamics in transgenic mice with neuron-specific mitochondrial DNA defects

Maintenance of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) depends on nuclear-encoded proteins such as mtDNA polymerase (POLG), whose mutations are involved in the diseases caused by mtDNA defects including mutation and deletion. The defects in mtDNA and in intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) homeostasis have been reported in bipolar disorder (BD). To understand the relevance of the mtDNA defects to BD, we studied transgenic (Tg) mice in which mutant POLG (mutPOLG) was expressed specifically in neurons. mtDNA defects were accumulated in the brains of mutPOLG Tg mice in an age-dependent manner and the mutant mice showed BD-like behavior. However, the molecular and cellular basis for the abnormalities has not been clarified. In this study, we investigated Ca2+ regulation by isolated mitochondria and [Ca2+]i dynamics in the neurons of mutPOLG Tg mice. Mitochondria from the mutant mice sequestered Ca2+ more rapidly, whereas Ca2+ retention capacity and membrane potential, a driving force of Ca2+ uptake, of mitochondria were unaffected. To elucidate the molecular mechanism of the altered Ca2+ uptake, we performed DNA microarray analysis and found that the expression of cyclophilin D (CyP-D), a component of the permeability transition pore, was downregulated in the brains of mutPOLG Tg mice. Cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of CyP-D, mimicked the enhanced Ca2+ uptake in mutant mice. Furthermore, G-protein-coupled receptor-mediated [Ca2+]i increase was attenuated in hippocampal neurons of the mutant mice. These findings suggest that mtDNA defects lead to enhancement of Ca2+ uptake rate via CyP-D downregulation and alter [Ca2+]i dynamics, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of BD.

Possible Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration in Schizophrenia

Brain morphological alterations in schizophrenic patients have led to the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. On the other hand, a progressive neurodegenerative process has also been suggested and some follow-up studies have shown progressive morphological changes in schizophrenic patients. Several neurotransmitter systems have been suggested to be involved in this disorder and some of them could lead to neuronal death under certain conditions. This review discusses some of the biochemical pathways that could lead to neurodegeneration in schizophrenia showing that neuronal death may have a role in the etiology or natural course of this disorder.

Synaptic plasticity and phosphorylation

A number of neuronal functions, including synaptic plasticity, depend on proper regulation of synaptic proteins, many of which can be rapidly regulated by phosphorylation. Neuronal activity controls the function of these synaptic proteins by exquisitely regulating the balance of various protein kinase and protein phosphatase activity. Recent understanding of synaptic plasticity mechanisms underscores important roles that these synaptic phosphoproteins play in regulating both pre- and post-synaptic functions. This review will focus on key postsynaptic phosphoproteins that have been implicated to play a role in synaptic plasticity.