201
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Kernstock S, Koch-Nolte F, Mueller-Dieckmann J, Weiss MS, Mueller-Dieckmann C. Cloning, expression, purification and crystallization as well as X-ray fluorescence and preliminary X-ray diffraction analyses of human ADP-ribosylhydrolase 1. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2009; 65:529-32. [PMID: 19407395 PMCID: PMC2675603 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309109014067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2009] [Accepted: 04/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Human ADP-ribosylhydrolase 1 (hARH1, ADPRH) cleaves the glycosidic bond of ADP-ribose attached to an Arg residue of a protein. hARH1 has been cloned, expressed heterologously in Escherichia coli, purified and crystallized in complex with K(+) and ADP. The orthorhombic crystals contained one monomer per asymmetric unit, exhibited a solvent content of 43% and diffracted X-rays to a resolution of 1.9 A. A prerequisite for obtaining well diffracting crystals was the performance of X-ray fluorescence analysis on poorly diffracting apo hARH1 crystals, which revealed the presence of trace amounts of K(+) in the crystal. Adding K-ADP to the crystallization cocktail then resulted in a crystal of different morphology and with dramatically improved diffraction properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Kernstock
- Institut für Immunologie, Universitätsklinikum Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Koch-Nolte
- Institut für Immunologie, Universitätsklinikum Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Manfred S. Weiss
- EMBL Hamburg Outstation, c/o DESY, Notkestrasse 85, D-22603 Hamburg, Germany
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202
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A specific isoform of poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase is targeted to the mitochondrial matrix by a N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence. Exp Cell Res 2009; 315:3477-85. [PMID: 19389396 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) convert NAD to polymers of ADP-ribose that are converted to free ADP-ribose by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG). The activation of the nuclear enzyme PARP-1 following genotoxic stress has been linked to release of apoptosis inducing factor from the mitochondria, but the mechanisms by which signals are transmitted between nuclear and mitochondrial compartments are not well understood. The study reported here has examined the relationship between PARG and mitochondria in HeLa cells. Endogenous PARG associated with the mitochondrial fraction migrated in the range of 60 kDa. Transient transfection of cells with PARG expression constructs with amino acids encoded by exon 4 at the N-terminus was targeted to the mitochondria as demonstrated by subcellular fractionation and immunofluorescence microscopy of whole cells. Deletion and missense mutants allowed identification of a canonical N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence consisting of the first 16 amino acids encoded by PARG exon 4. Sub-mitochondrial localization experiments indicate that this mitochondrial PARG isoform is targeted to the mitochondrial matrix. The identification of a PARG isoform as a component of the mitochondrial matrix raises several interesting possibilities concerning mechanisms of nuclear-mitochondrial cross talk involved in regulation of cell death pathways.
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203
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Burns DM, Ying W, Kauppinen TM, Zhu K, Swanson RA. Selective down-regulation of nuclear poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase. PLoS One 2009; 4:e4896. [PMID: 19319190 PMCID: PMC2655720 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2008] [Accepted: 02/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The formation of ADP-ribose polymers on target proteins by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases serves a variety of cell signaling functions. In addition, extensive activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is a dominant cause of cell death in ischemia-reperfusion, trauma, and other conditions. Poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) degrades the ADP-ribose polymers formed on acceptor proteins by PARP-1 and other PARP family members. PARG exists as multiple isoforms with differing subcellular localizations, but the functional significance of these isoforms is uncertain. Methods / Principal Findings Primary mouse astrocytes were treated with an antisense phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide (PMO) targeted to exon 1 of full-length PARG to suppress expression of this nuclear-specific PARG isoform. The antisense-treated cells showed down-regulation of both nuclear PARG immunoreactivity and nuclear PARG enzymatic activity, without significant alteration in cytoplasmic PARG activity. When treated with the genotoxic agent MNNG to induced PARP-1 activation, the antisense-treated cells showed a delayed rate of nuclear PAR degradation, reduced nuclear condensation, and reduced cell death. Conclusions/Significance These results support a preferentially nuclear localization for full-length PARG, and suggest a key role for this isoform in the PARP-1 cell death pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Burns
- Department of Neurology, University of California at San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Weihai Ying
- Department of Neurology, University of California at San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Tiina M. Kauppinen
- Department of Neurology, University of California at San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Keqing Zhu
- Department of Neurology, University of California at San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Raymond A. Swanson
- Department of Neurology, University of California at San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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204
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Andrabi SA, Dawson TM, Dawson VL. Mitochondrial and nuclear cross talk in cell death: parthanatos. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1147:233-41. [PMID: 19076445 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1427.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is an abundant nuclear protein best known to facilitate DNA base excision repair. Recent work has expanded the physiologic functions of PARP-1, and it is clear that the full range of biologic actions of this important protein are not yet fully understood. Regulation of the product of PARP-1, poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR), is a dynamic process with PAR glycohydrolase playing the major role in the degradation of the polymer. Under pathophysiologic situations overactivation of PARP-1 results in unregulated PAR synthesis and widespread neuronal cell death. Once thought to be necrotic cell death resulting from energy failure, we have found that PARP-1-dependent cell death is dependent on the generation of PAR, which triggers the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor resulting in caspase-independent cell death. This form of cell death is distinct from apoptosis, necrosis, or autophagy and is termed parthanatos. PARP-1-dependent cell death has been implicated in tissues throughout the body and in diseases afflicting hundreds of millions worldwide, including stroke, Parkinson's disease, heart attack, diabetes, and ischemia reperfusion injury in numerous tissues. The breadth of indications for PARP-1 injury make parthanatos a clinically important form of cell death to understand and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaida A Andrabi
- Institute for Cell Engineering, John Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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205
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David KK, Andrabi SA, Dawson TM, Dawson VL. Parthanatos, a messenger of death. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2009; 14:1116-28. [PMID: 19273119 DOI: 10.2741/3297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Poly-ADP-ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1)'s roles in the cell span from maintaining life to inducing death. The processes PARP-1 is involved in include DNA repair, DNA transcription, mitosis, and cell death. Of PARP-1's different cellular functions, its role in cell death is of particular interest to designing therapies for diseases. Genetic deletion of PARP-1 revealed that PARP-1 overactivation underlies cell death in models of stroke, diabetes, inflammation and neurodegeneration. Since interfering with PARP-1 mediated cell death will be clinically beneficial, great effort has been invested into understanding mechanisms downstream of PARP-1 overactivation. Recent evidence shows that poly-ADP ribose (PAR) polymer itself can act as a cell death effector downstream of PARP-1. We coined the term parthanatos after Thanatos, the personification of death in Greek mythology, to refer to PAR-mediated cell death. In this review, we will present evidence and questions raised by these recent findings, and summarize the proposed mechanisms by which PARP-1 overactivation kills. It is evident that further understanding of parthanatos opens up new avenues for therapy in ameliorating diseases related to PARP-1 overactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Kate David
- Institute for Cell Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 733 North Broadway St., Suite 711, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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206
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Kleine H, Poreba E, Lesniewicz K, Hassa PO, Hottiger MO, Litchfield DW, Shilton BH, Lüscher B. Substrate-assisted catalysis by PARP10 limits its activity to mono-ADP-ribosylation. Mol Cell 2008; 32:57-69. [PMID: 18851833 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2008.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2008] [Revised: 05/23/2008] [Accepted: 08/01/2008] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation controls many processes, including transcription, DNA repair, and bacterial toxicity. ADP-ribosyltransferases and poly-ADP-ribose polymerases (PARPs) catalyze mono- and poly-ADP-ribosylation, respectively, and depend on a highly conserved glutamate residue in the active center for catalysis. However, there is an apparent absence of this glutamate for the recently described PARP6-PARP16, raising questions about how these enzymes function. We find that PARP10, in contrast to PARP1, lacks the catalytic glutamate and has transferase rather than polymerase activity. Despite this fundamental difference, PARP10 also modifies acidic residues. Consequently, we propose an alternative catalytic mechanism for PARP10 compared to PARP1 in which the acidic target residue of the substrate functionally substitutes for the catalytic glutamate by using substrate-assisted catalysis to transfer ADP-ribose. This mechanism explains why the novel PARPs are unable to function as polymerases. This discovery will help to illuminate the different biological functions of mono- versus poly-ADP-ribosylation in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Kleine
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, Klinikum, RWTH Aachen University, 52057 Aachen, Germany
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207
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Hakmé A, Wong HK, Dantzer F, Schreiber V. The expanding field of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation reactions. 'Protein Modifications: Beyond the Usual Suspects' Review Series. EMBO Rep 2008; 9:1094-100. [PMID: 18927583 PMCID: PMC2581850 DOI: 10.1038/embor.2008.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a post-translational modification of proteins that is mediated by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). Although the existence and nature of the nucleic acid-like molecule poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) has been known for 40 years, understanding its biological functions—originally thought to be only the regulation of chromatin superstructure when DNA is broken—is still the subject of intense research. Here, we review the mechanisms controlling the biosynthesis of this complex macromolecule and some of its main biological functions, with an emphasis on the most recent advances and hypotheses that have developed in this rapidly growing field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoinette Hakmé
- Université Strasbourg 1, Institut Gilbert Laustriat, CNRS-UMR 7175, ESBS, Boulevard Sébastien Brant, BP 10413, F-67412 Illkirch Cedex, France
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208
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Mono-galloyl glucose derivatives are potent poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) inhibitors and partially reduce PARP-1-dependent cell death. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 155:1235-49. [PMID: 18806807 DOI: 10.1038/bjp.2008.370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Maintenance of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) polymers at homoeostatic levels by PAR glycohydrolase (PARG) is central in cell functioning and survival. Yet the pharmacological relevance of PARG inhibitors is still debated. Gallotannin, a complex mixture of hydrolysable tannins from oak gall, inhibits PARG but which of its constituents is responsible for the inhibition and whether the pharmacodynamic properties are due to its antioxidant properties, has not yet been established. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH A structure-activity relationship study was conducted on different natural and synthetic tannins/galloyl derivatives as potential PARG inhibitors, using a novel in vitro enzymic assay. Cytotoxicity was assayed in cultured HeLa cells. KEY RESULTS Mono-galloyl glucose compounds were potent inhibitors of PARG, with activities similar to that of ADP-(hydroxymethyl) pyrrolidinediol, the most potent PARG inhibitor yet identified. When tested on HeLa cells exposed to the PAR polymerase (PARP)-1-activating compound 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), 3-galloyl glucose weakly inhibited PAR degradation. Conversely, the more lipophilic, 3-galloyl-1,2-O-isopropylidene glucose, despite being inactive on the pure enzyme, efficiently prolonged the half-life of the polymers in intact HeLa cells. Also, PARG inhibitors, but not radical scavengers, reduced, in part, cell death caused by MNNG. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Taken together, our findings identify mono-galloyl glucose derivatives as potent PARG inhibitors, and emphasize the active function of this enzyme in cell death.
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209
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Woodhouse BC, Dianov GL. Poly ADP-ribose polymerase-1: an international molecule of mystery. DNA Repair (Amst) 2008; 7:1077-86. [PMID: 18468963 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2008.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is one of the most abundant proteins within mammalian cells. First described more than 45 years ago, PARP-1 has been the subject of many studies and was shown to be involved in multiple aspects of cellular metabolism. Despite many interesting studies that implicate PARP-1 in transcription, chromatin remodelling, apoptosis, DNA repair and several neurological disorders, its precise role is still unclear. This review will discuss the role of PARP-1 in DNA repair and propose a model whereby PARP-1 operates as a modulator of base excision repair capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany C Woodhouse
- Medical Research Council Radiation Oncology & Biology Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
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210
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Mueller-Dieckmann C, Kernstock S, Mueller-Dieckmann J, Weiss MS, Koch-Nolte F. Structure of mouse ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (mARH3). Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2008; 64:156-62. [PMID: 18323597 PMCID: PMC2374154 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309108001413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 01/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation is a reversible and covalent post-translational modification in which the attachment of ADP-ribose is catalyzed by ADP-ribosyltransferases and the removal of ADP-ribose is catalyzed by ADP-ribosylhydrolases. ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 from mouse, consisting of 347 amino-acid residues, has been cloned, purified and crystallized. The three-dimensional structure has been resolved at a resolution of 1.8 A. The structure constitutes a compact all-alpha-helical protein with two Mg(2+) ions located in the active-site crevice. A structural comparison of mouse ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 with its human orthologue shows a high degree of structural similarity. Furthermore, four prokaryotic proteins deposited in the PDB could be identified as being structurally related.
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211
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Lafon-Hughes L, Di Tomaso MV, Méndez-Acuña L, Martínez-López W. Chromatin-remodelling mechanisms in cancer. Mutat Res 2008; 658:191-214. [PMID: 18403253 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2008.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2007] [Revised: 01/29/2008] [Accepted: 01/29/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chromatin-remodelling mechanisms include DNA methylation, histone-tail acetylation, poly-ADP-ribosylation, and ATP-dependent chromatin-remodelling processes. Some epigenetic modifications among others have been observed in cancer cells, namely (1) local DNA hypermethylation and global hypomethylation, (2) alteration in histone acetylation/deacetylation balance, (3) increased or decreased poly-ADP-ribosylation, and (4) failures in ATP-dependent chromatin-remodelling mechanisms. Moreover, these alterations can influence the response to classical anti-tumour treatments. Drugs targeting epigenetic alterations are under development. Currently, DNA methylation and histone deacetylase inhibitors are in use in cancer therapy, and poly-ADP-ribosylation inhibitors are undergoing clinical trials. Epigenetic therapy is gaining in importance in pharmacology as a new tool to improve anti-cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lafon-Hughes
- Genetic Toxicology Department, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
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212
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Functional localization of two poly(ADP-ribose)-degrading enzymes to the mitochondrial matrix. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 28:814-24. [PMID: 17991898 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01766-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent discoveries of NAD-mediated regulatory processes in mitochondria have documented important roles of this compartmentalized nucleotide pool in addition to energy transduction. Moreover, mitochondria respond to excessive nuclear NAD consumption arising from DNA damage-induced poly-ADP-ribosylation because poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) can trigger the release of apoptosis-inducing factor from the organelles. To functionally assess mitochondrial NAD metabolism, we overexpressed the catalytic domain of nuclear PAR polymerase 1 (PARP1) and targeted it to the matrix, which resulted in the constitutive presence of PAR within the organelles. As a result, stably transfected HEK293 cells exhibited a decrease in NAD content and typical features of respiratory deficiency. Remarkably, inhibiting PARP activity revealed PAR degradation within mitochondria. Two enzymes, PAR glycohydrolase (PARG) and ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3), are known to cleave PAR. Both full-length ARH3 and a PARG isoform, which arises from alternative splicing, localized to the mitochondrial matrix. This conclusion was based on the direct demonstration of their PAR-degrading activity within mitochondria of living cells. The visualization of catalytic activity establishes a new approach to identify submitochondrial localization of proteins involved in the metabolism of NAD derivatives. In addition, targeted PARP expression may serve as a compartment-specific "knock-down" of the NAD content which is readily detectable by PAR formation.
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213
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Poitras MF, Koh DW, Yu SW, Andrabi SA, Mandir AS, Poirier GG, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Spatial and functional relationship between poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 and poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase in the brain. Neuroscience 2007; 148:198-211. [PMID: 17640816 PMCID: PMC2000859 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are members of a family of enzymes that utilize nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) as substrate to form large ADP-ribose polymers (PAR) in the nucleus. PAR has a very short half-life due to its rapid degradation by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG). PARP-1 mediates acute neuronal cell death induced by a variety of insults including cerebral ischemia, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced Parkinsonism, and CNS trauma. While PARP-1 is localized to the nucleus, PARG resides in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. Surprisingly, there appears to be only one gene encoding PARG activity, which has been characterized in vitro to generate different splice variants, in contrast to the growing family of PARPs. Little is known regarding the spatial and functional relationships of PARG and PARP-1. Here we evaluate PARG expression in the brain and its cellular and subcellular distribution in relation to PARP-1. Anti-PARG (alpha-PARG) antibodies raised in rabbits using a purified 30 kDa C-terminal fragment of murine PARG recognize a single band at 111 kDa in the brain. Western blot analysis also shows that PARG and PARP-1 are evenly distributed throughout the brain. Immunohistochemical studies using alpha-PARG antibodies reveal punctate cytosolic staining, whereas anti-PARP-1 (alpha-PARP-1) antibodies demonstrate nuclear staining. PARG is enriched in the mitochondrial fraction together with manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and cytochrome C (Cyt C) following whole brain subcellular fractionation and Western blot analysis. Confocal microscopy confirms the co-localization of PARG and Cyt C. Finally, PARG translocation to the nucleus is triggered by NMDA-induced PARP-1 activation. Therefore, the subcellular segregation of PARG in the mitochondria and PARP-1 in the nucleus suggests that PARG translocation is necessary for their functional interaction. This translocation is PARP-1 dependent, further demonstrating a functional interaction of PARP-1 and PARG in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- M F Poitras
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Broadway Research Building, 733 North Broadway, Suite 731, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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214
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Meyer RG, Meyer-Ficca ML, Whatcott CJ, Jacobson EL, Jacobson MK. Two small enzyme isoforms mediate mammalian mitochondrial poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) activity. Exp Cell Res 2007; 313:2920-36. [PMID: 17509564 PMCID: PMC2040269 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2007.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2007] [Revised: 03/25/2007] [Accepted: 03/26/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ADP-ribose)glycohydrolase (PARG) is the major enzyme capable of rapidly hydrolyzing poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) formed by the diverse members of the PARP enzyme family. This study presents an alternative splice mechanism by which two novel PARG protein isoforms of 60 kDa and 55 kDa are expressed from the human PARG gene, termed hPARG60 and hPARG55, respectively. Homologous forms were found in the mouse (mPARG63 and mPARG58) supporting the hypothesis that expression of small PARG isoforms is conserved among mammals. A PARG protein of approximately 60 kDa has been described for decades but with its genetic basis unknown, it was hypothesized to be a product of posttranslational cleavage of larger PARG isoforms. While this is not excluded entirely, isolation and expression of cDNA clones from different sources of RNA indicate that alternative splicing leads to expression of a catalytically active hPARG60 in multiple cell compartments. A second enzyme, hPARG55, that can be expressed through alternative translation initiation from hPARG60 transcripts is strictly targeted to the mitochondria. Functional studies of a mitochondrial targeting signal (MTS) in PARG exon IV suggest that hPARG60 may be capable of shuttling between nucleus and mitochondria, which would be in line with a proposed function of PAR in genotoxic stress-dependent, nuclear-mitochondrial crosstalk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph G Meyer
- Department of Animal Biology and Mari Lowe Center for Comparative Oncology, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA 19348, USA.
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215
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Ono T, Kasamatsu A, Oka S, Moss J. The 39-kDa poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase ARH3 hydrolyzes O-acetyl-ADP-ribose, a product of the Sir2 family of acetyl-histone deacetylases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:16687-91. [PMID: 17075046 PMCID: PMC1636516 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0607911103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The silent information regulator 2 (Sir2) family of NAD-dependent N-acetyl-protein deacetylases participates in the regulation of gene silencing, chromatin structure, and longevity. In the Sir2-catalyzed reaction, the acetyl moiety of N-acetyl-histone is transferred to the ADP-ribose of NAD, yielding O-acetyl-ADP-ribose and nicotinamide. We hypothesized that, if O-acetyl-ADP-ribose were an important signaling molecule, a specific hydrolase would cleave the (O-acetyl)-(ADP-ribose) linkage. We report here that the poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase ARH3 hydrolyzed O-acetyl-ADP-ribose to produce ADP-ribose in a time- and Mg(2+)-dependent reaction and thus could participate in two signaling pathways. This O-acetyl-ADP-ribose hydrolase belongs to a family of three structurally related 39-kDa ADP-ribose-binding proteins (ARH1-ARH3). ARH1 was reported to hydrolyze ADP-ribosylarginine, whereas ARH3 degraded poly(ADP-ribose). ARH3-catalyzed generation of ADP-ribose from O-acetyl-ADP-ribose was significantly faster than from poly(ADP-ribose). Like the degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) by ARH3, hydrolysis of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose was abolished by replacement of the vicinal aspartates at positions 77 and 78 of ARH3 with asparagine. The rate of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose hydrolysis by recombinant ARH3 was 250-fold that observed with ARH1; ARH2 and poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase were inactive. All data support the conclusion that the Sir2 reaction product O-acetyl-ADP-ribose is degraded by ARH3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohru Ono
- Pulmonary–Critical Care Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1590
| | - Atsushi Kasamatsu
- Pulmonary–Critical Care Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1590
| | - Shunya Oka
- Pulmonary–Critical Care Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1590
| | - Joel Moss
- Pulmonary–Critical Care Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1590
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
National Institutes of Health, Room 6D05, Building 10, MSC 1590, Bethesda, MD 20892-1590. E-mail:
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216
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Mueller-Dieckmann C, Kernstock S, Lisurek M, von Kries JP, Haag F, Weiss MS, Koch-Nolte F. The structure of human ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3) provides insights into the reversibility of protein ADP-ribosylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:15026-31. [PMID: 17015823 PMCID: PMC1622773 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0606762103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttranslational modifications are used by cells from all kingdoms of life to control enzymatic activity and to regulate protein function. For many cellular processes, including DNA repair, spindle function, and apoptosis, reversible mono- and polyADP-ribosylation constitutes a very important regulatory mechanism. Moreover, many pathogenic bacteria secrete toxins which ADP-ribosylate human proteins, causing diseases such as whooping cough, cholera, and diphtheria. Whereas the 3D structures of numerous ADP-ribosylating toxins and related mammalian enzymes have been elucidated, virtually nothing is known about the structure of protein de-ADP-ribosylating enzymes. Here, we report the 3Dstructure of human ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (hARH3). The molecular architecture of hARH3 constitutes the archetype of an all-alpha-helical protein fold and provides insights into the reversibility of protein ADP-ribosylation. Two magnesium ions flanked by highly conserved amino acids pinpoint the active-site crevice. Recombinant hARH3 binds free ADP-ribose with micromolar affinity and efficiently de-ADP-ribosylates poly- but not monoADP-ribosylated proteins. Docking experiments indicate a possible binding mode for ADP-ribose polymers and suggest a reaction mechanism. Our results underscore the importance of endogenous ADP-ribosylation cycles and provide a basis for structure-based design of ADP-ribosylhydrolase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Mueller-Dieckmann
- *European Molecular Biology Laboratory Hamburg Outstation, c/o Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, Notkestrasse 85, D-22603 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Kernstock
- Institute of Immunology, University Hospital, Martinistrasse 52, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany; and
| | - Michael Lisurek
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie, FMP, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 10, Campus Berlin–Buch, D-13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Peter von Kries
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie, FMP, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 10, Campus Berlin–Buch, D-13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Friedrich Haag
- Institute of Immunology, University Hospital, Martinistrasse 52, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany; and
| | - Manfred S. Weiss
- *European Molecular Biology Laboratory Hamburg Outstation, c/o Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, Notkestrasse 85, D-22603 Hamburg, Germany
- To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail:
or
| | - Friedrich Koch-Nolte
- Institute of Immunology, University Hospital, Martinistrasse 52, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail:
or
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217
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Keil C, Gröbe T, Oei SL. MNNG-induced cell death is controlled by interactions between PARP-1, poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase, and XRCC1. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:34394-405. [PMID: 16963444 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m606470200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
PARP-1 (poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases) modifies proteins with poly(ADP-ribose), which is an important signal for genomic stability. ADP-ribose polymers also mediate cell death and are degraded by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG). Here we show that the catalytic domain of PARG interacts with the automodification domain of PARP-1. Furthermore, PARG can directly down-regulate PARP-1 activity. PARG also interacts with XRCC1, a DNA repair factor that is recruited by DNA damage-activated PARP-1. We investigated the role of XRCC1 in cell death after treatment with supralethal doses of the alkylating agent MNNG. Only in XRCC1-proficient cells MNNG induced a considerable accumulation of poly(ADP-ribose). Similarly, extracts of XRCC1-deficient cells produced large ADP-ribose polymers if supplemented with XRCC1. Consequently, MNNG triggered in XRCC1-proficient cells the translocation of the apoptosis inducing factor from mitochondria to the nucleus followed by caspase-independent cell death. In XRCC1-deficient cells, the same MNNG treatment caused non-apoptotic cell death without accumulation of poly(ADP-ribose). Thus, XRCC1 seems to be involved in regulating a poly(ADP-ribose)-mediated apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Keil
- Institut für Biochemie, Freie Universität Berlin, Thielallee 63, 14195 Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany
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218
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Hassa PO, Haenni SS, Elser M, Hottiger MO. Nuclear ADP-ribosylation reactions in mammalian cells: where are we today and where are we going? Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2006; 70:789-829. [PMID: 16959969 PMCID: PMC1594587 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00040-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 508] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Since poly-ADP ribose was discovered over 40 years ago, there has been significant progress in research into the biology of mono- and poly-ADP-ribosylation reactions. During the last decade, it became clear that ADP-ribosylation reactions play important roles in a wide range of physiological and pathophysiological processes, including inter- and intracellular signaling, transcriptional regulation, DNA repair pathways and maintenance of genomic stability, telomere dynamics, cell differentiation and proliferation, and necrosis and apoptosis. ADP-ribosylation reactions are phylogenetically ancient and can be classified into four major groups: mono-ADP-ribosylation, poly-ADP-ribosylation, ADP-ribose cyclization, and formation of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. In the human genome, more than 30 different genes coding for enzymes associated with distinct ADP-ribosylation activities have been identified. This review highlights the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of nuclear mono-ADP-ribosylation and poly-ADP-ribosylation reactions and the distinct ADP-ribosylating enzyme families involved in these processes, including the proposed family of novel poly-ADP-ribose polymerase-like mono-ADP-ribose transferases and the potential mono-ADP-ribosylation activities of the sirtuin family of NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylases. A special focus is placed on the known roles of distinct mono- and poly-ADP-ribosylation reactions in physiological processes, such as mitosis, cellular differentiation and proliferation, telomere dynamics, and aging, as well as "programmed necrosis" (i.e., high-mobility-group protein B1 release) and apoptosis (i.e., apoptosis-inducing factor shuttling). The proposed molecular mechanisms involved in these processes, such as signaling, chromatin modification (i.e., "histone code"), and remodeling of chromatin structure (i.e., DNA damage response, transcriptional regulation, and insulator function), are described. A potential cross talk between nuclear ADP-ribosylation processes and other NAD(+)-dependent pathways is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul O Hassa
- Institute of Veterinary Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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219
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Schreiber V, Dantzer F, Ame JC, de Murcia G. Poly(ADP-ribose): novel functions for an old molecule. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2006; 7:517-28. [PMID: 16829982 DOI: 10.1038/nrm1963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1475] [Impact Index Per Article: 81.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The addition to proteins of the negatively charged polymer of ADP-ribose (PAR), which is synthesized by PAR polymerases (PARPs) from NAD(+), is a unique post-translational modification. It regulates not only cell survival and cell-death programmes, but also an increasing number of other biological functions with which novel members of the PARP family have been associated. These functions include transcriptional regulation, telomere cohesion and mitotic spindle formation during cell division, intracellular trafficking and energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Schreiber
- Département Intégrité du Génome de l'UMR 7175, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Ecole Supérieure de Biotechnologie de Strasbourg, Boulevard S. Brant, BP 10413, F-67412 Illkirch Cedex, France.
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220
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Blenn C, Althaus F, Malanga M. Poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase silencing protects against H2O2-induced cell death. Biochem J 2006; 396:419-29. [PMID: 16526943 PMCID: PMC1482814 DOI: 10.1042/bj20051696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2005] [Revised: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PAR [poly(ADP-ribose)] is a structural and regulatory component of multiprotein complexes in eukaryotic cells. PAR catabolism is accelerated under genotoxic stress conditions and this is largely attributable to the activity of a PARG (PAR glycohydrolase). To overcome the early embryonic lethality of parg-knockout mice and gain more insights into the biological functions of PARG, we used an RNA interference approach. We found that as little as 10% of PARG protein is sufficient to ensure basic cellular functions: PARG-silenced murine and human cells proliferated normally through several subculturing rounds and they were able to repair DNA damage induced by sublethal doses of H2O2. However, cell survival following treatment with higher concentrations of H2O2 (0.05-1 mM) was increased. In fact, PARG-silenced cells were more resistant than their wild-type counterparts to oxidant-induced apoptosis while exhibiting delayed PAR degradation and transient accumulation of ADP-ribose polymers longer than 15-mers at early stages of drug treatment. No difference was observed in response to the DNA alkylating agent N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, suggesting a specific involvement of PARG in the cellular response to oxidative DNA damage.
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Key Words
- dna damage response
- h2o2
- n-methyl-n′-nitro-n-nitrosoguanidine (mnng)
- poly(adp-ribose) glycohydrolase (parg)
- silencing
- rna interference
- 3-ab, 3-aminobenzamide
- adp-hpd, adp (hydroxymethyl)pyrrolidinediol
- arh3, adp-ribosyl-(arginine)-hydrolase 3
- dtnb, 5,5′-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid)
- dtt, dithiothreitol
- dmem, dulbecco's modified eagle's medium
- fbs, fetal bovine serum
- gapdh, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- mef, mouse embryonic fibroblast
- mnng, n-methyl-n′-nitro-n-nitrosoguanidine
- nls, nuclear localization signal
- par, poly(adp-ribose)
- parg, par glycohydrolase
- parp, par polymerase
- pcna, proliferating-cell nuclear antigen
- pi3k, phosphoinositide 3-kinase
- rnai, rna interference
- sirna, small interfering rna
- svpde, snake venom phosphodiesterase
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Blenn
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Tierspital, Winterthurerstrasse 260, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Felix R. Althaus
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Tierspital, Winterthurerstrasse 260, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maria Malanga
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Tierspital, Winterthurerstrasse 260, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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221
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Gagné JP, Hendzel MJ, Droit A, Poirier GG. The expanding role of poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism: current challenges and new perspectives. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2006; 18:145-51. [PMID: 16516457 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2006.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2005] [Accepted: 02/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent discoveries have resulted in significant breakthroughs in the understanding of PARPs and PARG functions within a broad range of cellular processes. The novel and sometimes unexpected pathways that are regulated by poly(ADP-ribosylation) bring new questions and hypotheses, some of them being contentious. In this review, we highlight current areas of investigation such as the clinical potential of PARP and PARG inhibitors and the important mitotic regulatory functions of poly(ADP-ribose) in cell-cycle progression, a recent discovery that has broadened our knowledge regarding poly(ADP-ribose) functions. A special emphasis is placed on recent advances in relation to PARG that are stimulating new directions in future research. Noticeably, the existence of various PARG isoforms characterized by distinct cellular localizations and nucleocytoplasmic shuttling properties challenges our current comprehension of pADPr metabolism. Observations and suppositions towards functionally important regulatory elements in the N-terminal portion of PARG are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Philippe Gagné
- Health and Environment Unit, Laval University Medical Research Center, CHUQ, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Boulevard Laurier, Ste-Foy, Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
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222
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Koch-Nolte F, Adriouch S, Bannas P, Krebs C, Scheuplein F, Seman M, Haag F. ADP-ribosylation of membrane proteins: unveiling the secrets of a crucial regulatory mechanism in mammalian cells. Ann Med 2006; 38:188-99. [PMID: 16720433 DOI: 10.1080/07853890600655499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Many bacterial toxins kill animal cells by adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribosylating intracellular target proteins. Mammalian cells express toxin-related cell surface ADP-ribosyltransferases (ARTs) that transfer ADP-ribose from nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) onto arginine residues of other membrane proteins. The association of these glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored ectoenzymes with glycolipid rafts focuses them onto components of the signal transduction machinery. Exposing murine T cells to NAD, the ART substrate, induces a cascade of reactions that culminates in cell death by apoptosis. This mechanism, dubbed 'NAD-induced cell death' or NICD, is initiated when ART2 ADP-ribosylates the cytolytic P2X7 purinergic receptor, inducing formation of a cation channel, opening of a nonselective pore, shedding of CD62L from the cell surface, exposure of phosphatidylserine on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, breakdown of the mitochondrial membrane potential, and DNA-fragmentation. The ART substrate NAD is produced in large amounts inside the cell and can be released from damaged cells during inflammation and tissue injury. In the extracellular environment, the signaling function of NAD is terminated by NAD-degrading ectoenzymes such as CD38. We propose that ART2-catalyzed ADP-ribosylation of P2X7 represents the paradigm of a regulatory mechanism by which ART-expressing cells can sense and respond to the release of NAD from damaged cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Koch-Nolte
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital, Hamburg, Germany.
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