201
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Richardson K, Jatrana S, Tobias M, Blakely T. Migration and Pacific mortality: estimating migration effects on Pacific mortality rates using Bayesian models. Demography 2014; 50:2053-73. [PMID: 23904393 DOI: 10.1007/s13524-013-0234-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pacific people living in New Zealand have higher mortality rates than New Zealand residents of European/Other ethnicity. The aim of this paper is to see whether Pacific mortality rates vary by natality and duration of residence. We used linked census-mortality information for 25- to 74-year-olds in the 2001 census followed for up to three years. Hierarchical Bayesian modeling provided a means of handling sparse data. Posterior mortality rates were directly age-standardized. We found little evidence of mortality differences between the overseas-born and the New Zealand-born for all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality. However, we found evidence for lower all-cause (and possibly cancer and CVD) mortality rates for Pacific migrants resident in New Zealand for less than 25 years relative to those resident for more than 25 years. This result may arise from a combination of processes operating over time, including health selection effects from variations in New Zealand's immigration policy, the location of Pacific migrants within the social, political, and cultural environment of the host community, and health impacts of the host culture. We could not determine the relative importance of these processes, but identifying the (modifiable) drivers of the inferred long-term decline in health of the overseas-born Pacific population relative to more-recent Pacific migrants is important to Pacific communities and from a national health and policy perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Richardson
- Department of Public Health, Wellington School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 7343, Wellington, New Zealand,
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202
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Chen ACC, Szalacha LA, Menon U. Perceived discrimination and its associations with mental health and substance use among Asian American and Pacific Islander undergraduate and graduate students. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH : J OF ACH 2014; 62:390-398. [PMID: 24779453 DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2014.917648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Racial discrimination experiences can negatively affect health. This study examined perceived discrimination and its relationship with mental health and substance use among Asian American and Pacific Islander (API) undergraduate and graduate students. PARTICIPANTS A total of 113 API students aged 18-35 completed the study during February-June, 2011. METHODS The authors conducted a cross-sectional, anonymous survey online. Dependent variables included mental health (depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms) and substance use (alcohol problems, use of tobacco, marijuana or hashish, and other illegal drugs). RESULTS Students' perceived discrimination were significantly, positively associated with depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms, but not with substance use. Ethnic identity moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and somatic symptoms, but not depressive or anxiety symptoms. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggested the negative effect of racial discrimination on API students' mental health. The buffering effect of ethnic identity may increase resilience in these students when they face racial discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Chia-Chen Chen
- a College of Nursing and Health Innovation , Arizona State University , Phoenix Arizona
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203
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Benjamins MR. Comparing measures of racial/ethnic discrimination, coping, and associations with health-related outcomes in a diverse sample. J Urban Health 2013; 90:832-48. [PMID: 23430374 PMCID: PMC3795187 DOI: 10.1007/s11524-013-9787-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Discrimination is detrimental to health behaviors and outcomes, but little is known about which measures of discrimination are most strongly related to health, if relationships with health outcomes vary by race/ethnicity, and if coping responses moderate these associations. To explore these issues, the current study assessed race/ethnic differences in five measures of race/ethnic discrimination, as well as emotional and behavioral coping responses, within a population-based sample of Whites, African Americans, Mexicans, and Puerto Ricans (n = 1,699). Stratified adjusted logistic regression models were run to examine associations between the discrimination measures and mental, physical, and health behavior outcomes and to test the role of coping. Overall, 86 % of the sample reported discrimination. Puerto Ricans were more likely than Mexicans and Whites to report most types of discrimination but less likely than Blacks. Discrimination was most strongly related to depression and was less consistently (or not) associated with physical health and health behaviors. Differences by measure of discrimination and respondent race/ethnicity were apparent. No support was found to suggest that coping responses moderate the association between discrimination and health. More work is needed to understand the health effects of this widespread social problem. In addition, interventions attempting to reduce health disparities need to take into account the influence of discrimination.
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204
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Paradies Y, Priest N, Ben J, Truong M, Gupta A, Pieterse A, Kelaher M, Gee G. Racism as a determinant of health: a protocol for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev 2013; 2:85. [PMID: 24059279 PMCID: PMC3850958 DOI: 10.1186/2046-4053-2-85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Racism is increasingly recognized as a key determinant of health. A growing body of epidemiological evidence shows strong associations between self-reported racism and poor health outcomes across diverse minority groups in developed countries. While the relationship between racism and health has received increasing attention over the last two decades, a comprehensive meta-analysis focused on the health effects of racism has yet to be conducted. The aim of this review protocol is to provide a structure from which to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies that assess the relationship between racism and health. METHODS This research will consist of a systematic review and meta-analysis. Studies will be considered for review if they are empirical studies reporting quantitative data on the association between racism and health for adults and/or children of all ages from any racial/ethnic/cultural groups. Outcome measures will include general health and well-being, physical health, mental health, healthcare use and health behaviors. Scientific databases (for example, Medline) will be searched using a comprehensive search strategy and reference lists will be manually searched for relevant studies. In addition, use of online search engines (for example, Google Scholar), key websites, and personal contact with experts will also be undertaken. Screening of search results and extraction of data from included studies will be independently conducted by at least two authors, including assessment of inter-rater reliability. Studies included in the review will be appraised for quality using tools tailored to each study design. Summary statistics of study characteristics and findings will be compiled and findings synthesized in a narrative summary as well as a meta-analysis. DISCUSSION This review aims to examine associations between reported racism and health outcomes. This comprehensive and systematic review and meta-analysis of empirical research will provide a rigorous and reliable evidence base for future research, policy and practice, including information on the extent of available evidence for a range of racial/ethnic minority groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Paradies
- Centre for Citizenship and Globalization, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Melbourne, Victoria 3125, Australia.
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205
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Alvarez-Galvez J, Salvador-Carulla L. Perceived discrimination and self-rated health in Europe: evidence from the European Social Survey (2010). PLoS One 2013; 8:e74252. [PMID: 24040216 PMCID: PMC3764018 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Studies have shown that perceived discrimination has an impact on our physical and mental health. A relevant part of literature has highlighted the influence of discrimination based on race or ethnicity on mental and physical health outcomes. However, the influence of other types of discrimination on health has been understudied. This study is aimed to explore how different types of discrimination are related to our subjective state of health, and so to compare the intensity of these relationships in the European context. METHODS We have performed a multilevel ordered analysis on the fifth wave of the European Social Survey (ESS 2010). This dataset has 52,458 units at individual level that are grouped in 26 European countries. In this study, the dependent variable is self-rated health (SRH) that is analyzed in relationship to ten explanatory variables of perceived discrimination: color or race, nationality, religion, language, ethnic group, age, gender, sexuality, disability and others. RESULTS The model identifies statistically significant differences in the effect that diverse types of perceived discrimination can generate on the self-rated health of Europeans. Specifically, this study identifies three well-defined types of perceived discrimination that can be related to poor health outcomes: (1) age discrimination; (2) disability discrimination; and (3) sexuality discrimination. In this sense, the effect on self-rated health of perceived discrimination related to aging and disabilities seems to be more relevant than other types of discrimination in the European context with a longer tradition in literature (e.g. ethnic and/or race-based). CONCLUSION The present study shows that the relationship between perceived discrimination and health inequities in Europe are not random, but systematically distributed depending on factors such as age, sexuality and disabilities. Therefore the future orientation of EU social policies should aim to reduce the impact of these social determinants on health equity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Alvarez-Galvez
- Department of Social Policy, Faculty of Social Sciences and Law, Universidad Loyola, Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - Luis Salvador-Carulla
- Centre for Disability Research and Policy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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206
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Jackson LT, Van de Vijver FJ, Molokoane DH. A dual-process model of diversity outcomes: The case South African police service in the Pretoria area. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 2013. [DOI: 10.4102/sajhrm.v11i1.504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Orientation: The study addresses the question of how employees of the South African Police Service (SAPS) cope with intercultural relations in an increasingly diverse organisation.Research purpose: A dual-process model of diversity outcomes was tested in which a distinction is made between a positive (work-related) stream that links positive diversity conditions through active coping to work outcomes and a relatively independent health related) stream of negative antecedents, mediating passive coping skills and ill-health related outcomes.Motivation for the study: To test the viability of a dual-process model to understand diversity outcomes in the workplace.Research design, approach and methods: A convenience sample (n= 158) was recruited from members of the SAPS in Gauteng, using a cross-sectional design. Instruments used in previous acculturation research were adapted to measure contextual factors, coping and diversity outcomes.Main findings: A very good fit for the proposed hypothetical model was found. Approach coping partially mediated the relationship between positive acculturation conditions and the subjective experience of work success whereas avoidance coping fully mediated the relationship between discrimination, and ill-health symptoms are related to ill-health symptoms.Practical/managerial implications: Mainstream-facilitating conditions and discrimination influence individual coping styles, which in turn impact on ill-health and the subjective experience of work success. In addition, ill-health also impacts negatively on work-success experiences amongst the sampled SAPS members. It would thus make sense for the SAPS to sanction discrimination.Contribution/value added: A variation of the mediated dual-process model for diversity (Jackson & Van de Vijver, in press), using coping strategies as mediators was supported. The model adds new insights in diversity in organisations.
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207
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Tsai JHC, Thompson EA. Impact of social discrimination, job concerns, and social support on Filipino immigrant worker mental health and substance use. Am J Ind Med 2013; 56:1082-94. [PMID: 23794397 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The personal and social impact of mental health problems and substance use on workforce participation is costly. Social determinants of health contribute significantly to health disparities beyond effects associated with work. Guided by a theory-driven model, we identified pathways by which social determinants shape immigrant worker health. METHOD Associations between known social determinants of mental health problems and substance use (social discrimination, job and employment concerns, and social support) were examined using structural equation modeling in a sample of 1,397 immigrants from the Filipino American Community Epidemiological Study. RESULTS Social discrimination and low social support were associated with mental health problems and substance use (P < 0.05). Job and employment concerns were associated with mental health problems, but not substance use. CONCLUSIONS The integration of social factors into occupational health research is needed, along with prevention efforts designed for foreign-born ethnic minority workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Hsin-Chun Tsai
- Department of Psychosocial and Community Health, School of Nursing; University of Washington; Seattle; Washington
| | - Elaine Adams Thompson
- Department of Psychosocial and Community Health, School of Nursing; University of Washington; Seattle; Washington
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208
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McGorrian C, Hamid NA, Fitzpatrick P, Daly L, Malone KM, Kelleher C. Frequent mental distress (FMD) in Irish Travellers: discrimination and bereavement negatively influence mental health in the All Ireland Traveller Health Study. Transcult Psychiatry 2013; 50:559-78. [PMID: 24037851 DOI: 10.1177/1363461513503016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Travellers are an indigenous minority group in Ireland, with poorer life expectancy and health status than the general population. Recent data have shown that Travellers are at increased risk of poor mental health and sequelae from same. We aimed to examine the associations between sociodemographic and lifestyle factors with poor mental health in Irish Travellers. A census survey of all Travellers was undertaken, with 8,492 enumerated families (80% response rate). A random subset of 1,796 adults completed an adult health survey. Traveller peer researchers employed a novel oral-visual computer-aided data collection tool. Frequent mental distress (FMD) was defined as 14 or more days of poor mental health in the preceding 1 month. Prevalence ratios for typical associates of FMD were estimated using a Poisson regression model, adjusted for age and sex. FMD was present in 11.9% of Traveller respondents, and prevalence increased with age. After age and sex adjustment, FMD was more prevalent in those whose quality of life was impaired by physical health, by those who were recently bereaved of a friend or family member, and by those who had greater experiences of discrimination. This study shows that Travellers experience discrimination and bereavement, which negatively influence their mental health. The findings have implications for the mental healthcare needs of indigenous ethnic minorities worldwide.
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209
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Emerson E. Commentary: Childhood exposure to environmental adversity and the well-being of people with intellectual disabilities. JOURNAL OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY RESEARCH : JIDR 2013; 57:589-600. [PMID: 22676228 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01577.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
People with intellectual disabilities have poorer health than their non-disabled peers. They are also more likely to be exposed to a wide range of environmental adversities in childhood. Research undertaken in the general population has demonstrated that exposure to environmental adversity in childhood can have an adverse impact on health and well-being across the life course. Recently, research in this area has added new breadth and depth to our understanding of: (1) the extent to which cumulative exposure to environmental adversities across the life course, but especially in early childhood, can reduce health and well-being; (2) the social, psychological and biological mediating pathways through which environmental adversities may impair health; (3) the processes associated with resilience and vulnerability in the face of exposure to adversity; and (4) the social significance of these effects in accounting for the magnitude of the inequalities in health that are apparent both between and within populations. This new knowledge is making a significant contribution to the development of social policies that seek to combine health gain with the reduction in health inequalities. This paper attempts to apply this knowledge to research aimed at understanding and improving the health and well-being of people with intellectual disabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Emerson
- Centre for Disability Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK.
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210
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Abstract
Using two nationally representative data sets, this study examined health care expenditure disparities between Caucasians and different Asian American subgroups. Multivariate analyses demonstrate that Asian Americans, as a group, have significantly lower total expenditures compared with Caucasians. Results also point to considerable heterogeneities in health care spending within Asian American subgroups. Findings suggest that language assistance programs would be effective in reducing disparities among Caucasians and Asian American subgroups with the exception of Indians and Filipinos, who tend to be more proficient in English. Results also indicate that citizenship and nativity were major factors associated with expenditure disparities. Socioeconomic status, however, could not explain expenditure disparities. Results also show that Asian Americans have lower physician and pharmaceutical costs but not emergency department or hospital expenditures. These findings suggest the need for culturally competent policies specific to Asian American subgroups and the necessity to encourage cost-effective treatments among Asian Americans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chen
- University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
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211
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Byrd DR. Race/Ethnicity and self-reported levels of discrimination and psychological distress, California, 2005. Prev Chronic Dis 2013; 9:E156. [PMID: 23078667 PMCID: PMC3477894 DOI: 10.5888/pcd9.120042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Little is known about the relationship between discrimination and distress among multiple racial groups because previous studies have focused primarily on either blacks or Asian Americans. The objective of this study was to assess the association between self-reported experiences of racial discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress among 5 racial/ethnic groups in California. Methods I used data from the 2005 California Health Interview Survey describing an adult sample of 27,511 non-Hispanic whites, 8,020 Hispanics, 1,813 non-Hispanic blacks, 3,875 non-Hispanic Asians, and 1,660 people of other races/ethnicities. The Kessler 6-item Psychological Distress Scale determined symptoms of psychological distress. I used a single-item, self-reported measure to ascertain experiences of racial discrimination. Results Reports of racial discrimination differed significantly among racial groups. Self-reported discrimination was independently associated with psychological distress after adjusting for race/ethnicity, age, sex, education level, employment status, general health status, nativity and citizenship status, English use and proficiency, ability to understand the doctor at last visit, and geographic location. The relationship between discrimination and psychological distress was modified by the interaction between discrimination and race/ethnicity; the effect of discrimination on distress was weaker for minority groups (ie, blacks and people of other races/ethnicities) than for whites. Conclusion Self-reported discrimination may be a key predictor of high levels of psychological distress among racial/ethnic groups in California, and race appears to modify this association. Public health practitioners should consider the adverse effects of racial discrimination on minority health.
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Affiliation(s)
- DeAnnah R Byrd
- University of California, Los Angeles School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1772, USA.
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212
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Priest N, Paradies Y, Trenerry B, Truong M, Karlsen S, Kelly Y. A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Soc Sci Med 2012; 95:115-27. [PMID: 23312306 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 407] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 09/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Racial discrimination is increasingly recognised as a determinant of racial and ethnic health inequalities, with growing evidence of strong associations between racial discrimination and adult health outcomes. There is a growing body of literature that considers the effects of racial discrimination on child and youth health. The aim of this paper is to provide a systematic review of studies that examine relationships between reported racial discrimination and child and youth health. We describe the characteristics of 121 studies identified by a comprehensive search strategy, including definitions and measurements of racial discrimination and the nature of reported associations. Most studies were published in the last seven years, used cross-sectional designs and were conducted in the United States with young people aged 12-18 years. African American, Latino/a, and Asian populations were most frequently included in these studies. Of the 461 associations examined in these studies, mental health outcomes (e.g. depression, anxiety) were most commonly reported, with statistically significant associations with racial discrimination found in 76% of outcomes examined. Statistically significant associations were also found for over 50% of associations between racial discrimination and positive mental health (e.g. self esteem, resilience), behaviour problems, wellbeing, and pregnancy/birth outcomes. The field is currently limited by a lack of longitudinal studies, limited psychometrically validated exposure instruments and poor conceptualisation and definition of racial discrimination. There is also a need to investigate the complex and varying pathways by which reported racial discrimination affect child and youth health. Ensuring study quality in this field will allow future research to reveal the complex role that racial discrimination plays as a determinant of child and youth health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Priest
- The McCaughey Centre, Melbourne School of Population Health, University of Melbourne, Level 5, 207 Bouverie St., Carlton 3053, Australia.
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213
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Discrimination, family relationships, and major depression among Asian Americans. J Immigr Minor Health 2012; 14:361-70. [PMID: 22083344 DOI: 10.1007/s10903-011-9548-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Depression represents a growing concern among Asian Americans. This study examined whether discrimination and family dynamics are associated with depression in this population. Weighted logistic regressions using nationally representative data on Asian American adults (N = 2095) were used to examine associations between discrimination, negative interactions with relatives, family support, and 12-month major depressive disorder (MDD). Discrimination (odds ratio [OR] = 2.13, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.67, 2.71) and negative interactions with relatives (OR = 1.28, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.58) were positively associated with MDD. Family support was associated with lower MDD (OR = 0.73, 95% CI = 0.59, 0.89), and buffered lower levels of discrimination. Results suggest that discrimination may have negative mental health implications, and also point to the importance of family relationships for depression among Asian Americans. Findings suggest that providers may consider stress experienced at multiple ecological levels to address Asian American mental health needs.
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214
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Thorburn S, Kue J, Keon KL, Lo P. Medical mistrust and discrimination in health care: a qualitative study of Hmong women and men. J Community Health 2012; 37:822-9. [PMID: 22116737 DOI: 10.1007/s10900-011-9516-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Low rates of breast and cervical cancer screening among Hmong women have been documented. Mistrust of Western medicine and the health care system, as well as experiences of discrimination in health care, may be barriers to seeking health care for this population. In this study, we explored medical mistrust among Hmong women and men, their experiences with discrimination in health care, and how these factors may influence Hmong women's breast and cervical cancer screening behavior. We conducted semi-structured, in-depth interviews with women and men who were members of the Hmong community in Oregon. Transcripts of 83 interviews were analyzed using content analysis. Despite personally trusting Western medicine and the health care system, participants shared reasons that some Hmong people feel mistrust including lack of understanding or familiarity, culture, and tradition. Although mistrust was thought to result in delaying or avoiding breast or cervical cancer screening, more frequently trust was described as positively influencing screening. In addition, few participants reported being treated differently during breast or cervical cancer screening because they were Hmong. When discussing health care more broadly, however, some participants described differential (e.g., disrespectful or rude) treatment. Such experiences led to feelings such as anger and sadness and affected behavior, including willingness to seek care and choice of provider. Medical mistrust and perceived discrimination were not major barriers to breast and cervical cancer screening in this study. Additional studies are needed to assess whether our findings reflect the experiences of other Hmong.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheryl Thorburn
- School of Social and Behavioral Health Sciences, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-6406, USA.
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215
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Allerton L, Emerson E. British adults with chronic health conditions or impairments face significant barriers to accessing health services. Public Health 2012; 126:920-7. [PMID: 22959282 DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2012.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2011] [Revised: 05/31/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To quantify the extent to which adults with chronic health conditions or impairments in Great Britain experience barriers to accessing health services in comparison to adults without impairments. STUDY DESIGN Secondary analysis of cross-sectional population-based survey data from the Life Opportunities Survey. METHODS The Life Opportunities Survey interviewed a nationally representative sample of 37,513 individuals age 16 or older from 19,951 households. A subset of questions addressed disability status, health conditions and impairments, and participation restrictions in accessing public services. Simple bivariate and multivariate logistic regression (controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity) analyses were undertaken to estimate the risk that specific condition/impairment types were associated with barriers to accessing health care. RESULTS Individuals with chronic health conditions or impairments were significantly more likely to report difficulties accessing health care services. Additionally, individuals in each condition/impairment group had significantly higher odds of experiencing a variety of barriers, including discrimination by healthcare staff, inexperienced or unhelpful staff, lack of help with communication, lack of information, problems with transportation, difficulty getting into buildings, difficulty using facilities, and lack of confidence or anxiety. CONCLUSIONS Individuals with chronic health conditions or impairments are significantly more likely than their non-impaired peers to experience barriers in accessing health care. These barriers are likely to exacerbate disability and may increase the likelihood of developing additional preventable health conditions. As a result, they may contribute towards the health inequalities experienced by disabled people. The existence of these barriers also suggests that health care provision in Great Britain is failing to meet its statutory requirement to provide 'reasonable adjustments' to ensure equality of access for disabled adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Allerton
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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216
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Thrasher AD, Clay OJ, Ford CL, Stewart AL. Theory-guided selection of discrimination measures for racial/ ethnic health disparities research among older adults. J Aging Health 2012; 24:1018-43. [PMID: 22451527 PMCID: PMC3693449 DOI: 10.1177/0898264312440322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Discrimination may contribute to health disparities among older adults. Existing measures of perceived discrimination have provided important insights but may have limitations when used in studies of older adults. This article illustrates the process of assessing the appropriateness of existing measures for theory-based research on perceived discrimination and health. METHOD First, we describe three theoretical frameworks that are relevant to the study of perceived discrimination and health-stress-process models, life course models, and the Public Health Critical Race (PHCR) praxis. We then review four widely-used measures of discrimination, comparing their content and describing how well they address key aspects of each framework, and discussing potential areas of modification. DISCUSSION Using theory to guide measure selection can help improve understanding of how perceived discrimination may contribute to racial/ethnic health disparities among older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela D Thrasher
- University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, NC 27599-7440, USA.
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217
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Abdulrahim S, James SA, Yamout R, Baker W. Discrimination and psychological distress: does Whiteness matter for Arab Americans? Soc Sci Med 2012; 75:2116-23. [PMID: 22901668 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The white racial category in the U.S. encompasses persons who have Arab ancestry. Arab Americans, however, have always occupied a precarious position in relationship to Whiteness. This study examined differences in reporting racial/ethnic discrimination among Arab Americans. It also investigated whether and how the association between discrimination and psychological distress varies by characteristics that capture an Arab American's proximity to/distance from Whiteness. We used data from the Detroit Arab American Study (2003; n = 1016), which includes measures of discrimination and the Kessler-10 scale of psychological distress. A series of logistic regression models were specified to test the discrimination-psychological distress association, stratified by five measures that capture Whiteness--subjective racial identification, religion, skin color, ethnic centrality, and residence in the ethnic enclave. Discrimination was more frequently reported by Muslim Arab Americans, those who racially identify as non-white, and who live in the ethnic enclave. Conversely, the association between discrimination and psychological distress was stronger for Christian Arab Americans, those who racially identify as white, who have dark skin color, and who live outside the ethnic enclave. Even though Arab Americans who occupy an identity location close to Whiteness are less subjected to discrimination, they are more negatively affected by it. The findings illuminate the complex pathways through which discrimination associates with psychological distress among 'white' immigrants. Further research on discrimination and health among Arab Americans can help unpack the white racial category and deconstruct Whiteness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawsan Abdulrahim
- Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon.
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218
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Shavers VL, Fagan P, Jones D, Klein WMP, Boyington J, Moten C, Rorie E. The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care. Am J Public Health 2012; 102:953-66. [PMID: 22494002 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2012.300773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We conducted a review to examine current literature on the effects of interpersonal and institutional racism and discrimination occurring within health care settings on the health care received by racial/ethnic minority patients. METHODS We searched the PsychNet, PubMed, and Scopus databases for articles on US populations published between January 1, 2008 and November 1, 2011. We used various combinations of the following search terms: discrimination, perceived discrimination, race, ethnicity, racism, institutional racism, stereotype, prejudice or bias, and health or health care. Fifty-eight articles were reviewed. RESULTS Patient perception of discriminatory treatment and implicit provider biases were the most frequently examined topics in health care settings. Few studies examined the overall prevalence of racial/ethnic discrimination and none examined temporal trends. In general, measures used were insufficient for examining the impact of interpersonal discrimination or institutional racism within health care settings on racial/ethnic disparities in health care. CONCLUSIONS Better instrumentation, innovative methodology, and strategies are needed for identifying and tracking racial/ethnic discrimination in health care settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vickie L Shavers
- Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, MD, USA.
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219
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Takeuchi DT, Gong F, Gee G. The NLAAS Story: Some Reflections, Some Insights A commentary prepared for the special issue of the Asian American Journal of Psychology. ASIAN AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2012; 3:10.1037/a0029019. [PMID: 24307929 PMCID: PMC3846397 DOI: 10.1037/a0029019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
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220
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Gee GC, Walsemann KM, Brondolo E. A life course perspective on how racism may be related to health inequities. Am J Public Health 2012; 102:967-74. [PMID: 22420802 PMCID: PMC3483932 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2012.300666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies show that racism may influence health inequities. As individuals grow from infancy into old age, they encounter social institutions that may create new exposures to racial bias. Yet, few studies have considered this idea fully. We suggest a framework that shows how racism and health inequities may be viewed from a life course perspective. It applies the ideas of age-patterned exposures, sensitive periods, linked lives, latency period, stress proliferation, historic period, and cohorts. It suggests an overarching idea that racism can structure one's time in asset-building contexts (e.g., education) or disadvantaged contexts (e.g., prison). This variation in time and exposure can contribute to racial inequities in life expectancy and other health outcomes across the life course and over generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilbert C Gee
- Department of Community Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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221
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Quach T, Nuru-Jeter A, Morris P, Allen L, Shema SJ, Winters JK, Le GM, Gomez SL. Experiences and perceptions of medical discrimination among a multiethnic sample of breast cancer patients in the Greater San Francisco Bay Area, California. Am J Public Health 2012; 102:1027-34. [PMID: 22420791 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2011.300554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We conducted qualitative interviews with breast cancer survivors to identify themes related to institutional, personally mediated, and internalized discrimination in the medical setting. METHODS We conducted 7 focus groups and 23 one-on-one interviews with a multiethnic sample of breast cancer survivors randomly selected from a population-based registry covering the Greater San Francisco Bay Area, California. RESULTS Participants reported experiencing different forms of medical discrimination related to class, race, and language. Among African Americans, participants reported experiencing internalized discrimination and personal or group discrimination discrepancy-perceiving discrimination against them as a racial/ethnic group, yet not perceiving or discussing personal experiences of discrimination. Among Asian immigrants, participants reported experiencing institutional and personally mediated overt types of discrimination, including lack of access to quality and readily available translation services. Our results also indicated well-established coping mechanisms in response to discrimination experiences in both groups. CONCLUSIONS Participants reported experiencing medical discrimination at all 3 levels, which may have deleterious health effects through the biopsychosocial stress pathway and through active coping mechanisms that could lead to delayed- or underutilization of the health care system to avoid discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thu Quach
- Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Fremont, CA, USA.
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222
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Williams DR, John DA, Oyserman D, Sonnega J, Mohammed SA, Jackson JS. Research on discrimination and health: an exploratory study of unresolved conceptual and measurement issues. Am J Public Health 2012; 102:975-8. [PMID: 22420798 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2012.300702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Our goal in this study was to better understand racial and socioeconomic status (SES) variations in experiences of racial and nonracial discrimination. METHODS We used 1999 and 2000 data from the YES Health Study, which involved a community sample of 50 Black and 50 White respondents drawn from 4 neighborhoods categorized according to racial group (majority Black or majority White) and SES (≤ 150% or > 250% of the poverty line). Qualitative and quantitative analyses examined experiences of discrimination across these neighborhoods. RESULTS More than 90% of Blacks and Whites described the meaning of unfair treatment in terms of injustice and felt certain about the attribution of their experiences of discrimination. These experiences triggered similar emotional reactions (most frequently anger and frustration) and levels of stress across groups, and low-SES Blacks and Whites reported higher levels of discrimination than their moderate-SES counterparts. CONCLUSIONS Experiences of discrimination were commonplace and linked to similar emotional responses and levels of stress among both Blacks and Whites of low and moderate SES. Effects were the same whether experiences were attributed to race or to other reasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Williams
- Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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223
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Li S, Delva J. Social capital and smoking among Asian American men: an exploratory study. Am J Public Health 2012; 102 Suppl 2:S212-21. [PMID: 22401511 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2011.300442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We examined how different dimensions of social capital (i.e., family and friend connections, neighborhood and family cohesion, family conflict) were associated with smoking behavior among a nationally representative sample of Asian American men and whether the associations varied by ethnic group. METHODS The sample consisted of 998 adult Asian American men who participated in the National Latino and Asian American Survey from 2002 to 2003. We conducted weighted multivariate logistic regressions on data for the sample and for each of 4 ethnic subgroups (Chinese, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Other). RESULTS Vietnamese American men had the highest prevalence of current smoking; Chinese American men, the lowest. After controlling for sociodemographics, socioeconomic status, acculturation, and perceived discrimination, neighborhood cohesion was inversely associated with smoking among Asian American men, and family and friend connections and family cohesion were not. An exception was family cohesion, which was associated with increased odds of smoking among Filipino American men. CONCLUSIONS The relationship between social capital and smoking among Asian American men varied according to specific dimensions of social capital and was ethnicity specific. These findings highlight the need for smoking prevention and cessation interventions to take into consideration the heterogeneity that exists among Asian Americans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijian Li
- Center for Study of Asian American Health, School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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224
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Lewis TT, Yang FM, Jacobs EA, Fitchett G. Racial/ethnic differences in responses to the everyday discrimination scale: a differential item functioning analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175:391-401. [PMID: 22306556 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwr287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The authors examined the impact of race/ethnicity on responses to the Everyday Discrimination Scale, one of the most widely used discrimination scales in epidemiologic and public health research. Participants were 3,295 middle-aged US women (African-American, Caucasian, Chinese, Hispanic, and Japanese) from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) baseline examination (1996-1997). Multiple-indicator, multiple-cause models were used to examine differential item functioning (DIF) on the Everyday Discrimination Scale by race/ethnicity. After adjustment for age, education, and language of interview, meaningful DIF was observed for 3 (out of 10) items: "receiving poorer service in restaurants or stores," "being treated as if you are dishonest," and "being treated with less courtesy than other people" (all P's < 0.001). Consequently, the "profile" of everyday discrimination differed slightly for women of different racial/ethnic groups, with certain "public" experiences appearing to have more salience for African-American and Chinese women and "dishonesty" having more salience for racial/ethnic minority women overall. "Courtesy" appeared to have more salience for Hispanic women only in comparison with African-American women. Findings suggest that the Everyday Discrimination Scale could potentially be used across racial/ethnic groups as originally intended. However, researchers should use caution with items that demonstrated DIF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tené T Lewis
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA.
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225
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Viruell-Fuentes EA, Miranda PY, Abdulrahim S. More than culture: structural racism, intersectionality theory, and immigrant health. Soc Sci Med 2012; 75:2099-106. [PMID: 22386617 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 586] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2011] [Revised: 12/06/2011] [Accepted: 12/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Explanations for immigrant health outcomes often invoke culture through the use of the concept of acculturation. The over reliance on cultural explanations for immigrant health outcomes has been the topic of growing debate, with the critics' main concern being that such explanations obscure the impact of structural factors on immigrant health disparities. In this paper, we highlight the shortcomings of cultural explanations as currently employed in the health literature, and argue for a shift from individual culture-based frameworks, to perspectives that address how multiple dimensions of inequality intersect to impact health outcomes. Based on our review of the literature, we suggest specific lines of inquiry regarding immigrants' experiences with day-to-day discrimination, as well as on the roles that place and immigration policies play in shaping immigrant health outcomes. The paper concludes with suggestions for integrating intersectionality theory in future research on immigrant health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna A Viruell-Fuentes
- Department of Latina/Latino Studies, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 510 E. Chalmers St., MC-495, Champaign, IL 61820, USA.
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226
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Lo CC, Cheng TC. Discrimination's Role in Minority Groups’ Rates of Substance-Use Disorder. Am J Addict 2012; 21:150-6. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2011.00205.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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227
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Harris R, Cormack D, Tobias M, Yeh LC, Talamaivao N, Minster J, Timutimu R. The pervasive effects of racism: Experiences of racial discrimination in New Zealand over time and associations with multiple health domains. Soc Sci Med 2012; 74:408-415. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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228
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Kim SS, Williams DR. Perceived discrimination and self-rated health in South Korea: a nationally representative survey. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30501. [PMID: 22272357 PMCID: PMC3260296 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There is mounting evidence that discriminatory experiences can harm health. However, previous research has mainly focused on the health effects of racial discrimination in U.S. or European countries although there is pervasive discrimination by gender, age, education and other factors in Asian countries. Methods We analyzed the data from the 7th wave of Korean Labor and Income Panel Study to investigate the association between perceived discriminatory experience and poor self-rated health in South Korea. Perceived discriminatory experiences were measured in eight situations through a modified Experience of Discrimination questionnaire. In each of eight situations, the lifetime prevalence of perceived discriminatory experience was compared between men and women and the main causes of those experiences were identified separately by gender. After adjusting for potential confounders, we examined the association between perceived discriminatory experience and poor self-rated health in each of eight social situations and also checked the association using the number of situations of perceived discriminatory experiences. Results For both men and women, education level and age were the main sources of work-related perceived discriminatory experiences. Gender was one of the main causes among women across eight situations and more than 90% of women reported their gender as a main cause of discriminatory experience in getting higher education and at home. Discriminatory experiences in four situations were positively associated with poor self-rated health. The odds ratio for poor self-rated health for those exposed to one, two, three or four or more social situations of perceived discrimination were respectively 1.06 (95% CI : 0.87–1.29), 1.15 (95% CI : 0.96–1.55), 1.59 (95% CI : 1.19–2.14), and 1.78 (95% CI :1.26–2.51). Conclusion There is consistent association between perceived discriminatory experience and poor self-rated health across eight social situations in South Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Sup Kim
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, The George Washington University School of Public Health and Health Services, Washington, DC, United States of America.
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229
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Williams DR, Haile R, Mohammed SA, Herman A, Sonnega J, Jackson JS, Stein DJ. Perceived discrimination and psychological well-being in the U.S.A. and South Africa. ETHNICITY & HEALTH 2012; 17:111-33. [PMID: 22339224 PMCID: PMC3468317 DOI: 10.1080/13557858.2012.654770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore levels of perceived racial and non-racial discrimination and their associations with self-esteem and mastery in the U.S.A. and South Africa. DESIGN We used ordinary least square regressions to test the cross-sectional associations between discrimination and psychological resources using two national probability samples of adults: the National Survey of American Life and the South African Stress and Health Study. RESULTS Levels of perceived racial discrimination were higher in the U.S.A. than in South Africa. In the U.S.A., both African-Americans and Caribbean blacks have comparable or higher levels of self-esteem and mastery than whites. In contrast, South African whites have higher levels of both self-esteem and mastery than Africans, Coloureds, and Indians. Perceived discrimination, especially chronic everyday discrimination, is inversely related to self-esteem and mastery in both societies. In South Africa, stress and socioeconomic status (SES) but not discrimination are important determinants of racial differences in self-esteem and mastery. CONCLUSIONS In two racialized societies, perceived discrimination acts independent of demographic factors, general stressors, social desirability bias, racial identity, and SES, to negatively affect the psychological resources of self-esteem and mastery.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Williams
- Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue, Kresge Building, Boston 02115, USA.
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230
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Luo Y, Xu J, Granberg E, Wentworth WM. A Longitudinal Study of Social Status, Perceived Discrimination, and Physical and Emotional Health Among Older Adults. Res Aging 2011. [DOI: 10.1177/0164027511426151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study examines the relationships between social status, perceived discrimination, and physical and emotional health using a nationally representative sample of 6,377 older adults from the 2006 and 2008 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. About 63% of older adults reported at least one type of everyday discrimination and 31% reported at least one major discriminatory event during lifetime. Blacks, those separated, divorced, or widowed, and those with lower household assets have higher levels of perceived discrimination than Whites, the married or partnered, and those with more assets. Perceived discrimination is negatively associated with changes in health over 2 years, and everyday discrimination has stronger effects than major discriminatory events, especially on emotional health. The effects of perceived everyday discrimination on changes in depressive symptoms and self-rated health are independent of general stress. Efforts to reduce discrimination, including perceptions of discrimination, can be beneficial for health in old age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Luo
- Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Jun Xu
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
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231
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Krieger N, Waterman PD, Kosheleva A, Chen JT, Carney DR, Smith KW, Bennett GG, Williams DR, Freeman E, Russell B, Thornhill G, Mikolowsky K, Rifkin R, Samuel L. Exposing racial discrimination: implicit & explicit measures--the My Body, My Story study of 1005 US-born black & white community health center members. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27636. [PMID: 22125618 PMCID: PMC3220691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To date, research on racial discrimination and health typically has employed explicit self-report measures, despite their potentially being affected by what people are able and willing to say. We accordingly employed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) for racial discrimination, first developed and used in two recent published studies, and measured associations of the explicit and implicit discrimination measures with each other, socioeconomic and psychosocial variables, and smoking. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Among the 504 black and 501 white US-born participants, age 35-64, randomly recruited in 2008-2010 from 4 community health centers in Boston, MA, black participants were over 1.5 times more likely (p<0.05) to be worse off economically (e.g., for poverty and low education) and have higher social desirability scores (43.8 vs. 28.2); their explicit discrimination exposure was also 2.5 to 3.7 times higher (p<0.05) depending on the measure used, with over 60% reporting exposure in 3 or more domains and within the last year. Higher IAT scores for target vs. perpetrator of discrimination occurred for the black versus white participants: for "black person vs. white person": 0.26 vs. 0.13; and for "me vs. them": 0.24 vs. 0.19. In both groups, only low non-significant correlations existed between the implicit and explicit discrimination measures; social desirability was significantly associated with the explicit but not implicit measures. Although neither the explicit nor implicit discrimination measures were associated with odds of being a current smoker, the excess risk for black participants (controlling for age and gender) rose in models that also controlled for the racial discrimination and psychosocial variables; additional control for socioeconomic position sharply reduced and rendered the association null. CONCLUSIONS Implicit and explicit measures of racial discrimination are not equivalent and both warrant use in research on racial discrimination and health, along with data on socioeconomic position and social desirability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Krieger
- Department of Society, Human Development and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America.
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232
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Yoshihama M, Bybee D, Blazevski J. Day-to-day discrimination and health among Asian Indians: A population-based study of Gujarati men and women in Metropolitan Detroit. J Behav Med 2011; 35:471-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s10865-011-9375-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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233
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Wang J, Leu J, Shoda Y. When the seemingly innocuous "stings": racial microaggressions and their emotional consequences. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2011; 37:1666-78. [PMID: 21885859 DOI: 10.1177/0146167211416130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Commonplace situations that are seemingly innocuous may nonetheless be emotionally harmful for racial minorities. In the current article the authors propose that despite their apparent insignificance, these situations can be harmful and experienced as subtle racism when they are believed to have occurred because of their race. In Study 1, Asian Americans reported greater negative emotion intensity when they believed that they encountered a situation because of their race, even after controlling for other potential social identity explanations. Study 2 replicated this finding and confirmed that the effect was significantly stronger among Asian Americans than among White participants. These findings clarify how perceptions of subtle racial discrimination that do not necessarily involve negative treatment may account for the "sting" of racial microaggressions, influencing the emotional well-being of racial minorities, even among Asian Americans, a group not often expected to experience racism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA.
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234
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Shariff-Marco S, Breen N, Landrine H, Reeve BB, Krieger N, Gee GC, Williams DR, Mays VM, Ponce NA, Alegría M, Liu B, Willis G, Johnson TP. MEASURING EVERYDAY RACIAL/ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION IN HEALTH SURVEYS: How Best to Ask the Questions, in One or Two Stages, Across Multiple Racial/Ethnic Groups? DU BOIS REVIEW : SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH ON RACE 2011; 8:159-177. [PMID: 29354187 PMCID: PMC5771490 DOI: 10.1017/s1742058x11000129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
While it is clear that self-reported racial/ethnic discrimination is related to illness, there are challenges in measuring self-reported discrimination or unfair treatment. In the present study, we evaluate the psychometric properties of a self-reported instrument across racial/ ethnic groups in a population-based sample, and we test and interpret findings from applying two different widely-used approaches to asking about discrimination and unfair treatment. Even though we found that the subset of items we tested tap into a single underlying concept, we also found that different groups are more likely to report on different aspects of discrimination. Whether race is mentioned in the survey question affects both frequency and mean scores of reports of racial/ethnic discrimination. Our findings suggest caution to researchers when comparing studies that have used different approaches to measure racial/ethnic discrimination and allow us to suggest practical empirical guidelines for measuring and analyzing racial/ethnic discrimination. No less important, we have developed a self-reported measure of recent racial/ethnic discrimination that functions well in a range of different racial/ethnic groups and makes it possible to compare how racial/ethnic discrimination is associated with health disparities among multiple racial/ethnic groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salma Shariff-Marco
- Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute
| | - Nancy Breen
- Applied Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute
| | - Hope Landrine
- Center for Health Disparities Research, East Carolina University
| | - Bryce B Reeve
- Applied Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute
| | | | - Gilbert C Gee
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - David R Williams
- Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health; Departments of African and African American Studies and of Sociology, Harvard University
| | - Vickie M Mays
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles and Center for Research, Education, Training, and Strategic Communication on Minority Health Disparities, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Ninez A Ponce
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles and UCLA Center for Health Policy and Research
| | | | - Benmei Liu
- Surveillance Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute
| | - Gordon Willis
- Applied Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute
| | - Timothy P Johnson
- Survey Research Laboratory, Department of Public Administration and Institute for Health Research and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago
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235
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Gee GC, Ford CL. STRUCTURAL RACISM AND HEALTH INEQUITIES: Old Issues, New Directions. DU BOIS REVIEW : SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH ON RACE 2011; 8:115-132. [PMID: 25632292 DOI: 10.1017/s1742058x1100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Racial minorities bear a disproportionate burden of morbidity and mortality. These inequities might be explained by racism, given the fact that racism has restricted the lives of racial minorities and immigrants throughout history. Recent studies have documented that individuals who report experiencing racism have greater rates of illnesses. While this body of research has been invaluable in advancing knowledge on health inequities, it still locates the experiences of racism at the individual level. Yet, the health of social groups is likely most strongly affected by structural, rather than individual, phenomena. The structural forms of racism and their relationship to health inequities remain under-studied. This article reviews several ways of conceptualizing structural racism, with a focus on social segregation, immigration policy, and intergenerational effects. Studies of disparities should more seriously consider the multiple dimensions of structural racism as fundamental causes of health disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilbert C Gee
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Chandra L Ford
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles
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236
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Gee GC, Ford CL. STRUCTURAL RACISM AND HEALTH INEQUITIES: Old Issues, New Directions. DU BOIS REVIEW : SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH ON RACE 2011; 8:115-132. [PMID: 25632292 PMCID: PMC4306458 DOI: 10.1017/s1742058x11000130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 775] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Racial minorities bear a disproportionate burden of morbidity and mortality. These inequities might be explained by racism, given the fact that racism has restricted the lives of racial minorities and immigrants throughout history. Recent studies have documented that individuals who report experiencing racism have greater rates of illnesses. While this body of research has been invaluable in advancing knowledge on health inequities, it still locates the experiences of racism at the individual level. Yet, the health of social groups is likely most strongly affected by structural, rather than individual, phenomena. The structural forms of racism and their relationship to health inequities remain under-studied. This article reviews several ways of conceptualizing structural racism, with a focus on social segregation, immigration policy, and intergenerational effects. Studies of disparities should more seriously consider the multiple dimensions of structural racism as fundamental causes of health disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilbert C Gee
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Chandra L Ford
- School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles
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237
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The California Neighborhoods Data System: a new resource for examining the impact of neighborhood characteristics on cancer incidence and outcomes in populations. Cancer Causes Control 2011; 22:631-47. [PMID: 21318584 DOI: 10.1007/s10552-011-9736-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Accepted: 01/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Research on neighborhoods and health has been growing. However, studies have not investigated the association of specific neighborhood measures, including socioeconomic and built environments, with cancer incidence or outcomes. We developed the California Neighborhoods Data System (CNDS), an integrated system of small area-level measures of socioeconomic and built environments for California, which can be readily linked to individual-level geocoded records. The CNDS includes measures such as socioeconomic status, population density, racial residential segregation, ethnic enclaves, distance to hospitals, walkable destinations, and street connectivity. Linking the CNDS to geocoded cancer patient information from the California Cancer Registry, we demonstrate the variability of CNDS measures by neighborhood socioeconomic status and predominant race/ethnicity for the 7,049 California census tracts, as well as by patient race/ethnicity. The CNDS represents an efficient and cost-effective resource for cancer epidemiology and control. It expands our ability to understand the role of neighborhoods with regard to cancer incidence and outcomes. Used in conjunction with cancer registry data, these additional contextual measures enable the type of transdisciplinary, "cells-to-society" research that is now being recognized as necessary for addressing population disparities in cancer incidence and outcomes.
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Emerson E. Self-reported exposure to disablism is associated with poorer self-reported health and well-being among adults with intellectual disabilities in England: A cross-sectional survey. Public Health 2010; 124:682-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2010.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2009] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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de Castro AB, Rue T, Takeuchi DT. Associations of employment frustration with self-rated physical and mental health among Asian American immigrants in the U.S. Labor force. Public Health Nurs 2010; 27:492-503. [PMID: 21087302 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1446.2010.00891.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examined the associations between employment frustration and both self-rated physical health (SRPH) and self-rated mental health (SRMH) among Asian American immigrants. DESIGN AND SAMPLE A cross-sectional quantitative analysis was conducted utilizing data from 1,181 Asian immigrants participating in the National Latino and Asian American Study. MEASURES Employment frustration was measured by self-report of having difficulty finding the work one wants because of being of Asian descent. SRPH and SRMH were each assessed using a global one-item measure, with responses ranging from poor to excellent. Control variables included gender, age, ethnicity, education, occupation, income, whether immigrated for employment, years in the United States, English proficiency, and a general measure for everyday discrimination. RESULTS Ordered logistic regression showed that employment frustration was negatively associated with SRPH. This relationship, however, was no longer significant in multivariate models including English proficiency. The negative association between employment frustration and SRMH persisted even when including all control variables. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that Asian immigrants in the United States who experience employment frustration report lower levels of both physical and mental health. However, English proficiency may attenuate the relationship of employment frustration with physical health.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B de Castro
- Department of Psychosocial and Community Health, University of Washington School of Nursing, Seattle, Washington 98195-7263, USA.
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Gee GC, Ponce N. Associations between racial discrimination, limited English proficiency, and health-related quality of life among 6 Asian ethnic groups in California. Am J Public Health 2010; 100:888-95. [PMID: 20299644 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2009.178012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We examined the association of racial discrimination and limited English proficiency with health-related quality of life among Asian Americans in California. METHODS We studied Chinese (n = 2576), Filipino (n = 1426), Japanese (n = 833), Korean (n = 1128), South Asian (n = 822), and Vietnamese (n = 938) respondents to the California Health Interview Survey in 2003 and 2005. We assessed health-related quality of life with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's measures of self-rated health, activity limitation days, and unhealthy days. RESULTS Overall, Asians who reported racial discrimination or who had limited English proficiency were more likely to have poor quality of life, after adjustment for demographic characteristics. South Asian participants who reported discrimination had an estimated 14.4 more activity limitation days annually than South Asians who did not report discrimination. Results were similar among other groups. We observed similar but less consistent associations for limited English proficiency. CONCLUSIONS Racial discrimination, and to a lesser extent limited English proficiency, appear to be key correlates of quality of life among Asian ethnic groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilbert C Gee
- 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1772, USA.
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James SA. Epidemiologic Research on Health Disparities: Some Thoughts on History and Current Developments. Epidemiol Rev 2009; 31:1-6. [DOI: 10.1093/epirev/mxp010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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