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Liu JJ, Williams H, Li XR, Schoettle AW, Sniezko RA, Murray M, Zamany A, Roke G, Chen H. Profiling methyl jasmonate-responsive transcriptome for understanding induced systemic resistance in whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 95:359-374. [PMID: 28861810 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-017-0655-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
RNA-seq analysis on whitebark pine needles demonstrated that methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-triggered transcriptome re-programming substantially overlapped with defense responses against insects and fungal pathogens in Pinus species, increasing current knowledge regarding induced systemic resistance (ISR) to pathogens and pests in whitebark pine. Many whitebark pine populations are in steep decline due to high susceptibility to mountain pine beetle and the non-native white pine blister rust (WPBR). Resistance, including induced systemic resistance (ISR), is not well characterized in whitebark pine, narrowing the current options for increasing the success of restoration and breeding programs. Exogenous jasmonates are known to trigger ISR by activating the plant's immune system through regulation of gene expression to produce chemical defense compounds. This study reports profiles of whitebark pine needle transcriptomes, following methyl jasmonate (MeJA) treatment using RNA-seq. A MeJA-responsive transcriptome was de novo assembled and transcriptome profiling identified a set of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), revealing 1422 up- and 999 down-regulated transcripts with at least twofold change (FDR corrected p < 0.05) in needle tissues in response to MeJA application. GO analysis revealed that these DEGs have putative functions in plant defense signalling, transcription regulation, biosyntheses of secondary metabolites, and other biological processes. Lineage-specific expression of defense-related genes was characterized through comparison with MeJA signalling in model plants. In particular, MeJA-triggered transcriptome re-programming substantially overlapped with defense responses against WPBR and insects in related Pinus species, suggesting that MeJA may be used to improve whitebark pine resistance to pathogens/pests. Our study provides new insights into molecular mechanisms and metabolic pathways involved in whitebark pine ISR. DEGs identified in this study can be used as candidates to facilitate identification of genomic variation contributing to host resistance and aid in breeding selection of elite genotypes with better adaptive fitness to environmental stressors in this endangered tree species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Jun Liu
- Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada.
| | - Holly Williams
- Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada
| | - Xiao Rui Li
- Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada
| | - Anna W Schoettle
- USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 240 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - Richard A Sniezko
- USDA Forest Service, Dorena Genetic Resource Center, 34963 Shoreview Road, Cottage Grove, OR, 97424, USA
| | - Michael Murray
- Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, 333 Victoria St., Nelson, BC, V1L 4K3, Canada
| | - Arezoo Zamany
- Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada
| | - Gary Roke
- Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada
| | - Hao Chen
- Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada
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202
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Ferrenberg S, Langenhan JM, Loskot SA, Rozal LM, Mitton JB. Resin monoterpene defenses decline within three widespread species of pine (Pinus) along a 1530-m elevational gradient. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Scott Ferrenberg
- Department of Biology; New Mexico State University; Las Cruces New Mexico 88003 USA
| | | | - Steven A. Loskot
- Department of Chemistry; Seattle University; Seattle Washington 98122 USA
| | - Leonardo M. Rozal
- Department of Chemistry; Seattle University; Seattle Washington 98122 USA
| | - Jeffry B. Mitton
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado 80309 USA
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203
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Padovan A, Keszei A, Hassan Y, Krause ST, Köllner TG, Degenhardt J, Gershenzon J, Külheim C, Foley WJ. Four terpene synthases contribute to the generation of chemotypes in tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 17:160. [PMID: 28978322 PMCID: PMC5628445 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-017-1107-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Terpene rich leaves are a characteristic of Myrtaceae. There is significant qualitative variation in the terpene profile of plants within a single species, which is observable as "chemotypes". Understanding the molecular basis of chemotypic variation will help explain how such variation is maintained in natural populations as well as allowing focussed breeding for those terpenes sought by industry. The leaves of the medicinal tea tree, Melaleuca alternifolia, are used to produce terpinen-4-ol rich tea tree oil, but there are six naturally occurring chemotypes; three cardinal chemotypes (dominated by terpinen-4-ol, terpinolene and 1,8-cineole, respectively) and three intermediates. It has been predicted that three distinct terpene synthases could be responsible for the maintenance of chemotypic variation in this species. RESULTS We isolated and characterised the most abundant terpene synthases (TPSs) from the three cardinal chemotypes of M. alternifolia. Functional characterisation of these enzymes shows that they produce the dominant compounds in the foliar terpene profile of all six chemotypes. Using RNA-Seq, we investigated the expression of these and 24 additional putative terpene synthases in young leaves of all six chemotypes of M. alternifolia. CONCLUSIONS Despite contributing to the variation patterns observed, variation in gene expression of the three TPS genes is not enough to explain all variation for the maintenance of chemotypes. Other candidate terpene synthases as well as other levels of regulation must also be involved. The results of this study provide novel insights into the complexity of terpene biosynthesis in natural populations of a non-model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Padovan
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601 Australia
| | - Andras Keszei
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601 Australia
| | - Yasmin Hassan
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601 Australia
| | - Sandra T. Krause
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin Luther University, Hoher Weg 8, 06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Tobias G. Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jörg Degenhardt
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin Luther University, Hoher Weg 8, 06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Carsten Külheim
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601 Australia
| | - William J. Foley
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601 Australia
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204
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Lenhart PA. Using plant nutrient landscapes to assess Anthropocene effects on insect herbivores. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2017; 23:51-58. [PMID: 29129282 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2017.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Global climate change will dramatically affect insect herbivores through changes in plant quality. Linking how multiple climate factors affect plant macronutrient content may be the most accurate way to understand the response of insect herbivores. Studies should embrace the complexity of interacting climate factors in natural systems and characterize shifts in multidimensional plant nutrient landscapes. This nutrient landscape simplifies interpretation of climate effects, although selection of appropriate currencies, scale, and interactions with allelochemicals present challenges. By assessing climate change through the filter of nutrient landscapes we could gain an understanding of how complex interacting climate change drivers affect the 'buffet' available to different insect herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Lenhart
- S-225 Agricultural Science Center N, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States.
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205
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Bustos-Segura C, Padovan A, Kainer D, Foley WJ, Külheim C. Transcriptome analysis of terpene chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia across different tissues. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2017; 40:2406-2425. [PMID: 28771760 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant chemotypes or chemical polymorphisms are defined by discrete variation in secondary metabolites within a species. This variation can have consequences for ecological interactions or the human use of plants. Understanding the molecular basis of chemotypic variation can help to explain how variation of plant secondary metabolites is controlled. We explored the transcriptomes of the 3 cardinal terpene chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia in young leaves, mature leaves, and stem and compared transcript abundance to variation in the constitutive profile of terpenes. Leaves from chemotype 1 plants (dominated by terpinen-4-ol) show a similar pattern of gene expression when compared to chemotype 5 plants (dominated by 1,8-cineole). Only terpene synthases in young leaves were differentially expressed between these chemotypes, supporting the idea that terpenes are mainly synthetized in young tissue. Chemotype 2 plants (dominated by terpinolene) show a greater degree of differential gene expression compared to the other chemotypes, which might be related to the isolation of plant populations that exhibit this chemotype and the possibility that the terpinolene synthase gene in M. alternifolia was derived by introgression from a closely related species, Melaleuca trichostachya. By using multivariate analyses, we were able to associate terpenes with candidate terpene synthases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Bustos-Segura
- Division of Evolution and Ecology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Entomology, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchatel, Neuchatel, 2000, Switzerland
| | - Amanda Padovan
- Division of Evolution and Ecology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - David Kainer
- Division of Evolution and Ecology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - William J Foley
- Division of Evolution and Ecology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Carsten Külheim
- Division of Evolution and Ecology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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206
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Wam HK, Stolter C, Nybakken L. Compositional Changes in Foliage Phenolics with Plant Age, a Natural Experiment in Boreal Forests. J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:920-928. [PMID: 28852911 PMCID: PMC5636854 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0881-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The composition of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) extensively impacts ecosystem functioning. It is vital that we understand temporal patterns in the plants' allocation of resources to PSMs, particularly those influenced by human activity. Existing data are insufficient in the long-term perspective of perennial plants (age or ontogeny). We analysed phenolic concentrations in foliage from birch (Betula pubescens Ehr.) considered to be undamaged and growing on 5, 10 and 15 years old clear-cuts in two boreal forest landscapes in Norway, sampled at the peak of the growing season. In sum, low molecular weight phenolic concentrations decreased with age. Apart from one apigenin glycoside, the low molecular weight phenolics co-varied similarly at all ages, suggesting a lack of temporal compound-specific prioritisation of this group. In contrast, the concentration of MeOH-soluble condensed tannins increased with age. The compositional shift fits well with several hypotheses that may provide proximate explanations for age patterns in PSM allocations, including both resource constraints and external pressures. Regardless of these explanations, our study adds an important perennial perspective (plant age) to temporal PSM patterns already well-known in boreal plant phenology (foliage age).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilde Karine Wam
- Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), 1431, Ås, Norway.
| | - Caroline Stolter
- Department of Animal Ecology and Conservation, University of Hamburg, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Line Nybakken
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1432, Ås, Norway
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207
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Sato Y, Ito K, Kudoh H. Optimal foraging by herbivores maintains polymorphism in defence in a natural plant population. Funct Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Sato
- Center for Ecological ResearchKyoto University Otsu Shiga Japan
- Department of Plant Life SciencesFaculty of AgricultureRyukoku University Otsu Shiga Japan
| | - Koichi Ito
- Center for Ecological ResearchKyoto University Otsu Shiga Japan
- Department of PsychologyCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesWashington Singer LaboratoriesUniversity of Exeter Exeter UK
| | - Hiroshi Kudoh
- Center for Ecological ResearchKyoto University Otsu Shiga Japan
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208
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Kelly CA, Bowers MD. The Perennial Penstemon: Variation in Defensive Chemistry Across Years, Populations, and Tissues. J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:599-607. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0854-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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209
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Klutsch JG, Najar A, Sherwood P, Bonello P, Erbilgin N. A Native Parasitic Plant Systemically Induces Resistance in Jack Pine to a Fungal Symbiont of Invasive Mountain Pine Beetle. J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:506-518. [PMID: 28466378 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0845-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 03/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Conifer trees resist pest and pathogen attacks by complex defense responses involving different classes of defense compounds. However, it is unknown whether prior infection by biotrophic pathogens can lead to subsequent resistance to necrotrophic pathogens in conifers. We used the infection of jack pine, Pinus banksiana, by a common biotrophic pathogen dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium americanum, to investigate induced resistance to a necrotrophic fungus, Grosmannia clavigera, associated with the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae. Dwarf mistletoe infection had a non-linear, systemic effect on monoterpene production, with increasing concentrations at moderate infection levels and decreasing concentrations at high infection levels. Inoculation with G. clavigera resulted in 33 times higher monoterpene concentrations and half the level of phenolics in the necrotic lesions compared to uninoculated control trees. Monoterpene production following dwarf mistletoe infection seemed to result in systemic induced resistance, as trees with moderate disease severity were most resistant to G. clavigera, as evident from shorter lesion lengths. Furthermore, trees with moderate disease severity had the highest systemic but lowest local induction of α-pinene after G. clavigera inoculation, suggesting a possible tradeoff between systemically- and locally-induced defenses. The opposing effects to inoculation by G. clavigera on monoterpene and phenolic levels may indicate the potential for biosynthetic tradeoffs by the tree between these two major defense classes. Our results demonstrate that interactions between a biotrophic parasitic plant and a necrotrophic fungus may impact mountain pine beetle establishment in novel jack pine forests through systemic effects mediated by the coordination of jack pine defense chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer G Klutsch
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada.
| | - Ahmed Najar
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
| | - Patrick Sherwood
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.,The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler Aberdeen, Scotland, AB15 8QH, UK
| | - Pierluigi Bonello
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Nadir Erbilgin
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
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210
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Rai A, Saito K, Yamazaki M. Integrated omics analysis of specialized metabolism in medicinal plants. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 90:764-787. [PMID: 28109168 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Medicinal plants are a rich source of highly diverse specialized metabolites with important pharmacological properties. Until recently, plant biologists were limited in their ability to explore the biosynthetic pathways of these metabolites, mainly due to the scarcity of plant genomics resources. However, recent advances in high-throughput large-scale analytical methods have enabled plant biologists to discover biosynthetic pathways for important plant-based medicinal metabolites. The reduced cost of generating omics datasets and the development of computational tools for their analysis and integration have led to the elucidation of biosynthetic pathways of several bioactive metabolites of plant origin. These discoveries have inspired synthetic biology approaches to develop microbial systems to produce bioactive metabolites originating from plants, an alternative sustainable source of medicinally important chemicals. Since the demand for medicinal compounds are increasing with the world's population, understanding the complete biosynthesis of specialized metabolites becomes important to identify or develop reliable sources in the future. Here, we review the contributions of major omics approaches and their integration to our understanding of the biosynthetic pathways of bioactive metabolites. We briefly discuss different approaches for integrating omics datasets to extract biologically relevant knowledge and the application of omics datasets in the construction and reconstruction of metabolic models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Rai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8675, Japan
| | - Kazuki Saito
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8675, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 1-7-22 Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Mami Yamazaki
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8675, Japan
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211
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Oxidizable Phenolic Concentrations Do Not Affect Development and Survival of Paropsis Atomaria Larvae Eating Eucalyptus Foliage. J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:411-421. [PMID: 28367596 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0835-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Insect folivores can cause extensive damage to plants. However, different plant species, and even individuals within species, can differ in their susceptibility to insect attack. Polyphenols that readily oxidize have recently gained attention as potential defenses against insect folivores. We tested the hypothesis that variation in oxidizable phenolic concentrations in Eucalyptus foliage influences feeding and survival of Paropsis atomaria (Eucalyptus leaf beetle) larvae. First we demonstrated that oxidizable phenolic concentrations vary both within and between Eucalyptus species, ranging from 0 to 61 mg.g-1 DM (0 to 81% of total phenolics), in 175 samples representing 13 Eucalyptus species. Foliage from six individuals from each of ten species of Eucalyptus were then offered to batches of newly hatched P. atomaria larvae, and feeding, instar progression and mortality of the first and second instar larvae were recorded. Although feeding and survival parameters differed dramatically between individual plants, they were not influenced by the oxidizable phenolic concentration of leaves, suggesting that P. atomaria larvae may have effective mechanisms to deal with oxidizable phenolics. Larvae feeding on plants with higher nitrogen (N) concentrations had higher survival rates and reached third instar earlier, but N concentrations did not explain most of the variation in feeding and survival. The cause of variation in eucalypt herbivory by P. atomaria larvae is therefore still unknown, although oxidizable phenolics could potentially defend eucalypt foliage against other insect herbivores.
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212
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Maldonado C, Barnes CJ, Cornett C, Holmfred E, Hansen SH, Persson C, Antonelli A, Rønsted N. Phylogeny Predicts the Quantity of Antimalarial Alkaloids within the Iconic Yellow Cinchona Bark (Rubiaceae: Cinchona calisaya). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:391. [PMID: 28382048 PMCID: PMC5360753 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Considerable inter- and intraspecific variation with respect to the quantity and composition of plant natural products exists. The processes that drive this variation remain largely unknown. Understanding which factors determine chemical diversity has the potential to shed light on plant defenses against herbivores and diseases and accelerate drug discovery. For centuries, Cinchona alkaloids were the primary treatment of malaria. Using Cinchona calisaya as a model, we generated genetic profiles of leaf samples from four plastid (trnL-F, matK, rps16, and ndhF) and one nuclear (ITS) DNA regions from twenty-two C. calisaya stands sampled in the Yungas region of Bolivia. Climatic and soil parameters were characterized and bark samples were analyzed for content of the four major alkaloids using HPLC-UV to explore the utility of evolutionary history (phylogeny) in determining variation within species of these compounds under natural conditions. A significant phylogenetic signal was found for the content of two out of four major Cinchona alkaloids (quinine and cinchonidine) and their total content. Climatic parameters, primarily driven by changing altitude, predicted 20.2% of the overall alkaloid variation, and geographical separation accounted for a further 9.7%. A clade of high alkaloid producing trees was identified that spanned a narrow range of altitudes, from 1,100 to 1,350 m. However, climate expressed by altitude was not a significant driver when accounting for phylogeny, suggesting that the chemical diversity is primarily driven by phylogeny. Comparisons of the relative effects of both environmental and genetic variability in determining plant chemical diversity have scarcely been performed at the genotypic level. In this study we demonstrate there is an essential need to do so if the extensive genotypic variation in plant biochemistry is to be fully understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Maldonado
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
- Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San AndresLa Paz, Bolivia
| | | | - Claus Cornett
- Analytical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Else Holmfred
- Analytical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Steen H. Hansen
- Analytical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claes Persson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity CentreGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Alexandre Antonelli
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Botanical GardenGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Nina Rønsted
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
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213
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Reid ML, Sekhon JK, LaFramboise LM. Toxicity of Monoterpene Structure, Diversity and Concentration to Mountain Pine Beetles, Dendroctonus ponderosae: Beetle Traits Matter More. J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:351-361. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0824-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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214
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Loke KK, Rahnamaie-Tajadod R, Yeoh CC, Goh HH, Mohamed-Hussein ZA, Zainal Z, Ismail I, Mohd Noor N. Transcriptome analysis of Polygonum minus reveals candidate genes involved in important secondary metabolic pathways of phenylpropanoids and flavonoids. PeerJ 2017; 5:e2938. [PMID: 28265493 PMCID: PMC5333554 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Polygonum minus is an herbal plant in the Polygonaceae family which is rich in ethnomedicinal plants. The chemical composition and characteristic pungent fragrance of Polygonum minus have been extensively studied due to its culinary and medicinal properties. There are only a few transcriptome sequences available for species from this important family of medicinal plants. The limited genetic information from the public expressed sequences tag (EST) library hinders further study on molecular mechanisms underlying secondary metabolite production. METHODS In this study, we performed a hybrid assembly of 454 and Illumina sequencing reads from Polygonum minus root and leaf tissues, respectively, to generate a combined transcriptome library as a reference. RESULTS A total of 34.37 million filtered and normalized reads were assembled into 188,735 transcripts with a total length of 136.67 Mbp. We performed a similarity search against all the publicly available genome sequences and found similarity matches for 163,200 (86.5%) of Polygonum minus transcripts, largely from Arabidopsis thaliana (58.9%). Transcript abundance in the leaf and root tissues were estimated and validated through RT-qPCR of seven selected transcripts involved in the biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids and flavonoids. All the transcripts were annotated against KEGG pathways to profile transcripts related to the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. DISCUSSION This comprehensive transcriptome profile will serve as a useful sequence resource for molecular genetics and evolutionary research on secondary metabolite biosynthesis in Polygonaceae family. Transcriptome assembly of Polygonum minus can be accessed at http://prims.researchfrontier.org/index.php/dataset/transcriptome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok-Keong Loke
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | | | - Chean-Chean Yeoh
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Hoe-Han Goh
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Zeti-Azura Mohamed-Hussein
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Zamri Zainal
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Ismanizan Ismail
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Normah Mohd Noor
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
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Borzak CL, Potts BM, Barry KM, Pinkard EA, O'Reilly-Wapstra JM. Genetic stability of physiological responses to defoliation in a eucalypt and altered chemical defence in regrowth foliage. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 37:220-235. [PMID: 27881800 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpw101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Defoliation may initiate physiological recovery and chemical defence mechanisms that allow a plant to improve fitness after damage. Such responses may result in changes in plant resource allocation that influence growth and foliar chemistry. In this study, we investigated the nature and stability of the defoliation response of juvenile plants from three divergent populations of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. A partial defoliation treatment that removed all upper crown leaves and the apical buds was applied to plants sourced from eight families from each of three populations representing contrasting chemical resistance to mammalian herbivory. Growth, photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content were assessed pre-defoliation and periodically up to 12 weeks post-defoliation. The content of key plant primary and secondary metabolites was assessed pre-defoliation, at 12 weeks post-defoliation in the old foliage (positioned below the point of defoliation) and in the new foliage of the control plants and regrowth (from axillary buds) on the defoliated plants. There were clear treatment impacts on physiological responses, growth and foliar chemical traits, but despite significant constitutive differences in physiology, growth and chemistry the three E. globulus populations did not vary in their response to foliage loss. Distinct physiological responses to defoliation were observed with treatment plants showing significant up-regulation of photosynthetic rate and increased chlorophyll content in the old foliage remaining in the lower crown. There was a significant increase in the concentrations of a number of foliar chemical compounds in the regrowth arising from previously dormant axillary buds compared with new growth derived from apical meristems. There were changes in biomass allocation; defoliated plants had increased branching and leaf biomass, with changes in regrowth morphology to increase light capture. This study argues for multiple responses of E. globulus juveniles to defoliation involving apical bud loss, including elevated chemical defences matched with increased growth. From a chemical defence perspective, these responses create an enhanced chemical mosaic to the herbivore, with leaves remaining after partial browsing potentially being more palatable than the regrowth. This study demonstrates the multiple independent strategies plants may use to respond to partial defoliation and emphasizes the dynamic interplay between growth and defence in the recovery response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L Borzak
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Brad M Potts
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Karen M Barry
- School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 78, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Pinkard
- CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences and Climate Adaptation Flagship, Private Bag 12, Hobart, TAS7001, Australia
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216
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Urbizu-González AL, Castillo-Ruiz O, Martínez-Ávila GCG, Torres-Castillo JA. Natural variability of essential oil and antioxidants in the medicinal plant Turnera diffusa. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2017; 10:121-125. [PMID: 28237475 DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 12/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate differences in yield and composition of the essential oil and antioxidant contents in Turnera diffusa plants from localities in central region of Tamaulipas. METHODS Samples were collected in Tamaulipas, Mexico in the arid zone. Essential oil was obtained through steam distillation and analyzed using GC-MS. Polyphenol contents, antioxidant activities using ABTS and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) methods also were evaluated. RESULTS A total of 21 compounds were identified in the essential oils; nevertheless, only Eucalyptol, 1,4-Methanocycloocta[d]pyridazine, 1,4,4a,5,6,9,10,10a-octahydro-11,11-dimethyl-, (1à,4à,4aà,10aà) y Ethanone, 1-(1,3-dimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl) were detected in the three sites. Highest contents were registered in the sample from Padrón y Juárez with phenolic content of 33.85 mg GAE/g of dry material and antioxidant activities with ABTS 72.32% and with FRAP 21.33 mg GAE/g of dry material. Statistical differences were observed in essential oil, phenolics and antioxidants contents between populations. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that climatic differences and origin influence the phytochemicals in the medicinal plant Turnera diffusa, and thus, it is worth to consider such effects for industrial and medicinal purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lucía Urbizu-González
- Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Instituto de Ecología Aplicada, División del Golfo 356, Col. Libertad, 87019, Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | - Octelina Castillo-Ruiz
- Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Unidad Académica Multidisciplinaria Reynosa Aztlán, Calle 16 y Lago de Chápala s/n Col. Aztlán, C.P. 88740, Reynosa, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | | | - Jorge Ariel Torres-Castillo
- Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Instituto de Ecología Aplicada, División del Golfo 356, Col. Libertad, 87019, Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico.
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217
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Hattas D, Scogings PF, Julkunen-Tiitto R. Does the Growth Differentiation Balance Hypothesis Explain Allocation to Secondary Metabolites in Combretum apiculatum , an African Savanna Woody Species? J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:153-163. [PMID: 28091822 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0808-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The growth differentiation balance hypothesis (GDBH) provides a framework that predicts a trade-off between costs of secondary metabolites (SMs) relative to the demand for photosynthate by growth. However, this hypothesis was developed using empirical evidence from plant species in northern boreal and temperate systems, leaving its applicability to species under different abiotic and biotic conditions questionable and generalizations problematic. The objective of this study was to investigate whether the GDBH explains allocation to SMs in the deciduous African savanna woody species C. apiculatum along a 6-point N gradient. The cornerstone prediction of the GDBH, i.e., the parabolic response in SMs along the N gradient, was not observed, with secondary metabolism showing compound-specific responses. Quercetin, myricetin, and kaempferol glycoside concentrations, all produced via the same pathway, responded differently across the N gradient. Flavonol glycoside, cinnamic acid, and quercetin glycoside concentrations decreased as N increased, which provides partial support for the carbon nutrient balance hypothesis. Simulated herbivory had no effect on photosynthesis, decreased foliar N and consequently increased C:N ratio, but did not induce an increase in SMs, with condensed tannins and flavonol glycosides being unaffected. Defoliated plants at low N concentration compensated for lost biomass, which suggests a tolerance response, but as predicted by the limiting resource model, plants at higher N concentration were evidently C limited and thus unable to compensate. Our results show that the GDBH does not explain allocation to SMs in C. apiculatum, and suggest that mechanistic explanations of plant allocation should consider the integrative defensive effect of changed SMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawood Hattas
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa.
| | - Peter F Scogings
- Department of Agriculture, University of Zululand, Mangeze, South Africa.,School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X54001, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Riitta Julkunen-Tiitto
- Natural Product Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
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218
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Moore BD, Johnson SN. Get Tough, Get Toxic, or Get a Bodyguard: Identifying Candidate Traits Conferring Belowground Resistance to Herbivores in Grasses. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 7:1925. [PMID: 28105030 PMCID: PMC5214545 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Grasses (Poaceae) are the fifth-largest plant family by species and their uses for crops, forage, fiber, and fuel make them the most economically important. In grasslands, which broadly-defined cover 40% of the Earth's terrestrial surface outside of Greenland and Antarctica, 40-60% of net primary productivity and 70-98% of invertebrate biomass occurs belowground, providing extensive scope for interactions between roots and rhizosphere invertebrates. Grasses invest 50-70% of fixed carbon into root construction, which suggests roots are high value tissues that should be defended from herbivores, but we know relatively little about such defenses. In this article, we identify candidate grass root defenses, including physical (tough) and chemical (toxic) resistance traits, together with indirect defenses involving recruitment of root herbivores' natural enemies. We draw on relevant literature to establish whether these defenses are present in grasses, and specifically in grass roots, and which herbivores of grasses are affected by these defenses. Physical defenses could include structural macro-molecules such as lignin, cellulose, suberin, and callose in addition to silica and calcium oxalate. Root hairs and rhizosheaths, a structural adaptation unique to grasses, might also play defensive roles. To date, only lignin and silica have been shown to negatively affect root herbivores. In terms of chemical resistance traits, nitrate, oxalic acid, terpenoids, alkaloids, amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides, benzoxazinoids, phenolics, and proteinase inhibitors have the potential to negatively affect grass root herbivores. Several good examples demonstrate the existence of indirect defenses in grass roots, including maize, which can recruit entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) via emission of (E)-β-caryophyllene, and similar defenses are likely to be common. In producing this review, we aimed to equip researchers with candidate root defenses for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben D Moore
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University Richmond, NSW, Australia
| | - Scott N Johnson
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University Richmond, NSW, Australia
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219
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Bustos-Segura C, Poelman EH, Reichelt M, Gershenzon J, Gols R. Intraspecific chemical diversity among neighbouring plants correlates positively with plant size and herbivore load but negatively with herbivore damage. Ecol Lett 2016; 20:87-97. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.12713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Bustos-Segura
- Evolution, Ecology and Genetics Division; Research School of Biology; The Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Erik H. Poelman
- Laboratory of Entomology; Wageningen University; PO Box 16 6700 AA Wageningen The Netherlands
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Department of Biochemistry; Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Str. 8 D-07745 Jena Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry; Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Str. 8 D-07745 Jena Germany
| | - Rieta Gols
- Laboratory of Entomology; Wageningen University; PO Box 16 6700 AA Wageningen The Netherlands
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220
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Reverter M, Saulnier D, David R, Bardon-Albaret A, Belliard C, Tapissier-Bontemps N, Lecchini D, Sasal P. Effects of local Polynesian plants and algae on growth and expression of two immune-related genes in orbicular batfish (Platax orbicularis). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 58:82-88. [PMID: 27633677 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The emerging orbicular batfish (Platax orbicularis) aquaculture is the most important fish aquaculture industry in French Polynesia. However, bacterial infections are causing severe mortality episodes. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find an effective management solution. Besides the supplying difficulty and high costs of veterinary drugs in French Polynesia, batfish aquaculture takes place close to the coral reef, where use of synthetic persistent drugs should be restricted. Medicinal plants and bioactive algae are emerging as a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to chemical drugs. We have studied the effect of local Polynesian plants and the local opportunistic algae Asparagopsis taxiformis on batfish when orally administered. Weight gain and expression of two immune-related genes (lysozyme g - Lys G and transforming growth factor beta - TGF-β1) were studied to analyze immunostimulant activity of plants on P. orbicularis. Results showed that several plants increased Lys G and TGF-β1 expression on orbicular batfish after 2 and 3 weeks of oral administration. A. taxiformis was the plant displaying the most promising results, promoting a weight gain of 24% after 3 weeks of oral administration and significantly increasing the relative amount of both Lys G and TGF-β1 transcripts in kidney and spleen of P. orbicularis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Reverter
- CRIOBE, USR3278-CNRS/EPHE/UPVD/PSL, University of PerpignanViaDomitia, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France; CRIOBE, USR3278-CNRS/EPHE/UPVD/PSL, BP1013 Papetoai, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia; Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia.
| | - Denis Saulnier
- Ifremer, UMR 241 EIO, UPF-ILM-IRD, B.P. 49, 98719 Taravao, Tahiti, French Polynesia; Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - Rarahu David
- Ifremer, UMR 241 EIO, UPF-ILM-IRD, B.P. 49, 98719 Taravao, Tahiti, French Polynesia; Service de la Pêche BP 20 Papeete, Tahiti 98713, French Polynesia
| | - Agnès Bardon-Albaret
- Ifremer, UMR 241 EIO, UPF-ILM-IRD, B.P. 49, 98719 Taravao, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - Corinne Belliard
- Ifremer, UMR 241 EIO, UPF-ILM-IRD, B.P. 49, 98719 Taravao, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - Nathalie Tapissier-Bontemps
- CRIOBE, USR3278-CNRS/EPHE/UPVD/PSL, University of PerpignanViaDomitia, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France; Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - David Lecchini
- CRIOBE, USR3278-CNRS/EPHE/UPVD/PSL, BP1013 Papetoai, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia; Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - Pierre Sasal
- CRIOBE, USR3278-CNRS/EPHE/UPVD/PSL, BP1013 Papetoai, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia; Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia
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221
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Intra-Population Variation of Secondary Metabolites in Cistus ladanifer L. Molecules 2016; 21:molecules21070945. [PMID: 27455211 PMCID: PMC6274576 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21070945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In previous studies, secondary metabolites in the leaf exudate of Cistus ladanifer, specifically aglycone flavonoids and diterpenes, were demonstrated to play an ecophysiological role. They protect against ultraviolet radiation, have antiherbivore activity, and are allelopathic agents. Their synthesis in the plant was also found to vary quantitatively and qualitatively in response to various environmental factors. In view of these findings, the present work was designed to clarify whether within a single population there are differences among individuals subject to the same environmental conditions. To this end, we analyzed the leaves of 100 individuals of C. ladanifer. The results showed the existence of intrapopulational variation, since, although all the individuals had the same composition of secondary chemistry, the amounts were different. The individuals of a given population of C. ladanifer differ from each other even when growing under similar conditions. According to the ammount of flavonoids and diterpenes observed in each individual, it was possible to distinguish four different groups of individuals. Most individuals, evenly distributed within the population, had low concentrations of the studied compounds, whilst other individuals synthesized greater amounts and were randomly distributed among the former. Given the functions of flavonoids and diterpenes in this species, the quantified intra-population variation may involve greater plasticity for the species in the face of environmental changes.
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222
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Parameterising a public good: how experiments on predation can be used to predict cheat frequencies. Evol Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-016-9851-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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223
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Smilanich AM, Fincher RM, Dyer LA. Does plant apparency matter? Thirty years of data provide limited support but reveal clear patterns of the effects of plant chemistry on herbivores. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:1044-1057. [PMID: 26889654 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
According to the plant-apparency hypothesis, apparent plants allocate resources to quantitative defenses that negatively affect generalist and specialist herbivores, while unapparent plants invest more in qualitative defenses that negatively affect nonadapted generalists. Although this hypothesis has provided a useful framework for understanding the evolution of plant chemical defense, there are many inconsistencies surrounding associated predictions, and it has been heavily criticized and deemed obsolete. We used a hierarchical Bayesian meta-analysis model to test whether defenses from apparent and unapparent plants differ in their effects on herbivores. We collected a total of 225 effect sizes from 158 published papers in which the effects of plant chemistry on herbivore performance were reported. As predicted by the plant-apparency hypothesis, we found a prevalence of quantitative defenses in woody plants and qualitative defenses in herbaceous plants. However, the detrimental impacts of qualitative defenses were more effective against specialists than generalists, and the effects of chemical defenses did not significantly differ between specialists and generalists for woody or herbaceous plants. A striking pattern that emerged from our data was a pervasiveness of beneficial effects of secondary metabolites on herbivore performance, especially generalists. This pattern provides evidence that herbivores are evolving effective counteradaptations to putative plant defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Smilanich
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, 1664 N. Virginia St, Reno, NV, 89557, USA
| | - R Malia Fincher
- Department of Biology, Samford University, 800 Lakeshore Dr., Birmingham, AL, 35229, USA
| | - Lee A Dyer
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, 1664 N. Virginia St, Reno, NV, 89557, USA
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224
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Alves DS, Machado ART, Campos VAC, Oliveira DF, Carvalho GA. Selection of Annonaceae Species for the Control of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Metabolic Profiling of Duguetia lanceolata Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 109:649-659. [PMID: 26791817 DOI: 10.1093/jee/tov396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study was performed to investigate the activity of 19 dichloromethane-soluble fractions obtained from the methanolic extracts of 10 Annonaceae species against the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith). The stem bark of Duguetia lanceolata A. St.-Hil. showed the highest insecticidal activity, with a median lethal time (LT50) of 61.4 h and a median lethal concentration (LC50) of 946.5 µg/ml of diet. The dichloromethane-soluble fractions from six D. lanceolata specimens were subjected to evaluation of their activities against S. frugiperda and metabolomic analysis using hydrogen (1H) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Although all of the samples affected S. frugiperda mortality, their insecticidal activities varied according to the sample used in the experiments. Using partial least squares regression of the results, the D. lanceolata specimens were grouped according to their metabolite profile and insecticidal activity. A detailed analysis via uni- and bidimensional NMR spectroscopy showed that the peaks in the 1H NMR spectra associated with increased insecticidal activity could be attributed to 2,4,5-trimethoxystyrene, which suggests that this substance is involved in the insecticidal activity of the stem bark fraction of D. lanceolata.
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225
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Li D, Baldwin IT, Gaquerel E. Beyond the Canon: Within-Plant and Population-Level Heterogeneity in Jasmonate Signaling Engaged by Plant-Insect Interactions. PLANTS 2016; 5:plants5010014. [PMID: 27135234 PMCID: PMC4844416 DOI: 10.3390/plants5010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Plants have evolved sophisticated communication and defense systems with which they interact with insects. Jasmonates are synthesized from the oxylipin pathway and act as pivotal cellular orchestrators of many of the metabolic and physiological processes that mediate these interactions. Many of these jasmonate-dependent responses are tissue-specific and translate from modulations of the canonical jasmonate signaling pathway. Here we provide a short overview of within-plant heterogeneities in jasmonate signaling and dependent responses in the context of plant-insect interactions as illuminated by examples from recent work with the ecological model, Nicotiana attenuata. We then discuss means of manipulating jasmonate signaling by creating tissue-specific jasmonate sinks, and the micrografting of different transgenic plants. The metabolic phenotyping of these manipulations provides an integrative understanding of the functional significance of deviations from the canonical model of this hormonal pathway. Additionally, natural variation in jasmonate biosynthesis and signaling both among and within species can explain polymorphisms in resistance to insects in nature. In this respect, insect-guided explorations of population-level variations in jasmonate metabolism have revealed more complexity than previously realized and we discuss how different "omic" techniques can be used to exploit the natural variation that occurs in this important signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dapeng Li
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany.
| | - Ian T Baldwin
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany.
| | - Emmanuel Gaquerel
- Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 360, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.
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226
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Serra A, Hemu X, Nguyen GKT, Nguyen NTK, Sze SK, Tam JP. A high-throughput peptidomic strategy to decipher the molecular diversity of cyclic cysteine-rich peptides. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23005. [PMID: 26965458 PMCID: PMC4786859 DOI: 10.1038/srep23005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclotides are plant cyclic cysteine-rich peptides (CRPs). The cyclic nature is reported to be gene-determined with a precursor containing a cyclization-competent domain which contains an essential C-terminal Asn/Asp (Asx) processing signal recognized by a cyclase. Linear forms of cyclotides are rare and are likely uncyclizable because they lack this essential C-terminal Asx signal (uncyclotide). Here we show that in the cyclotide-producing plant Clitoria ternatea, both cyclic and acyclic products, collectively named cliotides, can be bioprocessed from the same cyclization-competent precursor. Using an improved peptidomic strategy coupled with the novel Asx-specific endopeptidase butelase 2 to linearize cliotides at a biosynthetic ligation site for transcriptomic analysis, we characterized 272 cliotides derived from 38 genes. Several types of post-translational modifications of the processed cyclotides were observed, including deamidation, oxidation, hydroxylation, dehydration, glycosylation, methylation, and truncation. Taken together, our results suggest that cyclotide biosynthesis involves 'fuzzy' processing of precursors into both cyclic and linear forms as well as post-translational modifications to achieve molecular diversity, which is a commonly found trait of natural product biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Serra
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
| | - Xinya Hemu
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
| | - Giang K. T. Nguyen
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
| | - Ngan T. K. Nguyen
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
| | - Siu Kwan Sze
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
| | - James P. Tam
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
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227
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Falcão RE, de Souza SA, Camara CA, Quintans JS, Santos PL, Correia MTS, Silva TM, Lima AA, Quintans-Júnior LJ, Guimarães AG. Evaluation of the orofacial antinociceptive profile of the ethyl acetate fraction and its major constituent, rosmarinic acid, from the leaves of Hyptis pectinata on rodents. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE FARMACOGNOSIA-BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACOGNOSY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bjp.2015.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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228
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Mason CM, Bowsher AW, Crowell BL, Celoy RM, Tsai CJ, Donovan LA. Macroevolution of leaf defenses and secondary metabolites across the genus Helianthus. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 209:1720-33. [PMID: 26583880 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Leaf defenses are widely recognized as key adaptations and drivers of plant evolution. Across environmentally diverse habitats, the macroevolution of leaf defenses can be predicted by the univariate trade-off model, which predicts that defenses are functionally redundant and thus trade off, and the resource availability hypothesis, which predicts that defense investment is determined by inherent growth rate and that higher defense will evolve in lower resource environments. Here, we examined the evolution of leaf physical and chemical defenses and secondary metabolites in relation to environmental characteristics and leaf economic strategy across 28 species of Helianthus (the sunflowers). Using a phylogenetic comparative approach, we found few evolutionary trade-offs among defenses and no evidence for defense syndromes. We also found that leaf defenses are strongly related to leaf economic strategy, with higher defense in more resource-conservative species, although there is little support for the evolution of higher defense in low-resource habitats. A wide variety of physical and chemical defenses predict resistance to different insect herbivores, fungal pathogens, and a parasitic plant, suggesting that most sunflower defenses are not redundant in function and that wild Helianthus represents a rich source of variation for the improvement of crop sunflower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase M Mason
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Alan W Bowsher
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Breanna L Crowell
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Rhodesia M Celoy
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, and Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Chung-Jui Tsai
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, and Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Lisa A Donovan
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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Kai M, Effmert U, Piechulla B. Bacterial-Plant-Interactions: Approaches to Unravel the Biological Function of Bacterial Volatiles in the Rhizosphere. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:108. [PMID: 26903987 PMCID: PMC4746483 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhizobacteria produce an enormous amount of volatile compounds, however, the function of these metabolites is scarcely understood. Investigations evaluating influences on plants performed in various laboratories using individually developed experimental setups revealed different and often contradictory results, e.g., ranging from a significant plant growth promotion to a dramatic suppression of plant development. In addition to these discrepancies, these test systems neglected properties and complexity of the rhizosphere. Therefore, to pursue further investigations of the role of bacterial volatiles in this underground habitat, the applied methods have to simulate its natural characteristics as much as possible. In this review, we will describe and discuss pros and cons of currently used bioassays, give insights into rhizosphere characteristics, and suggest improvements for test systems that would consider in natura conditions and would allow gaining further knowledge of the potential function and significance of rhizobacterial volatiles in plant life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Kai
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biological Science, University of Rostock Rostock, Germany
| | - Uta Effmert
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biological Science, University of Rostock Rostock, Germany
| | - Birgit Piechulla
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biological Science, University of Rostock Rostock, Germany
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230
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Speed MP, Fenton A, Jones MG, Ruxton GD, Brockhurst MA. Coevolution can explain defensive secondary metabolite diversity in plants. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 208:1251-63. [PMID: 26243527 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Many plant species produce defensive compounds that are often highly diverse within and between populations. The genetic and cellular mechanisms by which metabolite diversity is produced are increasingly understood, but the evolutionary explanations for persistent diversification in plant secondary metabolites have received less attention. Here we consider the role of plant-herbivore coevolution in the maintenance and characteristics of diversity in plant secondary metabolites. We present a simple model in which plants can evolve to invest in a range of defensive toxins, and herbivores can evolve resistance to these toxins. We allow either single-species evolution or reciprocal coevolution. Our model shows that coevolution maintains toxin diversity within populations. Furthermore, there is a fundamental coevolutionary asymmetry between plants and their herbivores, because herbivores must resist all plant toxins, whereas plants need to challenge and nullify only one resistance trait. As a consequence, average plant fitness increases and insect fitness decreases as number of toxins increases. When costs apply, the model showed both arms race escalation and strong coevolutionary fluctuation in toxin concentrations across time. We discuss the results in the context of other evolutionary explanations for secondary metabolite diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Speed
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Andy Fenton
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Meriel G Jones
- Functional and Comparative Genomics, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Graeme D Ruxton
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK
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231
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Karst J, Erbilgin N, Pec GJ, Cigan PW, Najar A, Simard SW, Cahill JF. Ectomycorrhizal fungi mediate indirect effects of a bark beetle outbreak on secondary chemistry and establishment of pine seedlings. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 208:904-14. [PMID: 26033270 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Dendroctonus ponderosae has killed millions of Pinus contorta in western North America with subsequent effects on stand conditions, including changes in light intensity, needle deposition, and the composition of fungal community mutualists, namely ectomycorrhizal fungi. It is unknown whether these changes in stand conditions will have cascading consequences for the next generation of pine seedlings. To test for transgenerational cascades on pine seedlings, we tested the effects of fungal inoculum origin (beetle-killed or undisturbed stands), light intensity and litter (origin and presence) on seedling secondary chemistry and growth in a glasshouse. We also tracked survival of seedlings over two growing seasons in the same stands from which fungi and litter were collected. Fungal communities differed by inoculum origin. Seedlings grown with fungi collected from beetle-killed stands had lower monoterpene concentrations and fewer monoterpene compounds present compared with seedlings grown with fungi collected from undisturbed stands. Litter affected neither monoterpenes nor seedling growth. Seedling survival in the field was lower in beetle-killed than in undisturbed stands. We demonstrate that stand mortality caused by prior beetle attacks of mature pines have cascading effects on seedling secondary chemistry, growth and survival, probably mediated through effects on below-ground mutualisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Karst
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Nadir Erbilgin
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
| | - Gregory J Pec
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Paul W Cigan
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Ahmed Najar
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
| | - Suzanne W Simard
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - James F Cahill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada
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232
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Tohge T, Scossa F, Fernie AR. Integrative Approaches to Enhance Understanding of Plant Metabolic Pathway Structure and Regulation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 169:1499-511. [PMID: 26371234 PMCID: PMC4634077 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.01006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Huge insight into molecular mechanisms and biological network coordination have been achieved following the application of various profiling technologies. Our knowledge of how the different molecular entities of the cell interact with one another suggests that, nevertheless, integration of data from different techniques could drive a more comprehensive understanding of the data emanating from different techniques. Here, we provide an overview of how such data integration is being used to aid the understanding of metabolic pathway structure and regulation. We choose to focus on the pairwise integration of large-scale metabolite data with that of the transcriptomic, proteomics, whole-genome sequence, growth- and yield-associated phenotypes, and archival functional genomic data sets. In doing so, we attempt to provide an update on approaches that integrate data obtained at different levels to reach a better understanding of either single gene function or metabolic pathway structure and regulation within the context of a broader biological process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Tohge
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany (T.T., A.R.F.); andConsiglio per la Ricerca e Analisi dell'Economia Agraria, Centro di Ricerca per la Frutticoltura, 00134 Rome, Italy (F.S.)
| | - Federico Scossa
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany (T.T., A.R.F.); andConsiglio per la Ricerca e Analisi dell'Economia Agraria, Centro di Ricerca per la Frutticoltura, 00134 Rome, Italy (F.S.)
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany (T.T., A.R.F.); andConsiglio per la Ricerca e Analisi dell'Economia Agraria, Centro di Ricerca per la Frutticoltura, 00134 Rome, Italy (F.S.)
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233
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Pankoke H, Gehring R, Müller C. Impact of the dual defence system of Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae) on performance, nutrient utilisation and feeding choice behaviour of Amata mogadorensis larvae (Lepidoptera, Erebidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 82:99-108. [PMID: 26306994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2015.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Iridoid glycosides are plant defence compounds with potentially detrimental effects on non-adapted herbivores. Some plant species possess β-glucosidases that hydrolyse iridoid glycosides and thereby release protein-denaturing aglycones. To test the hypothesis that iridoid glycosides and plant β-glucosidases form a dual defence system, we used Plantago lanceolata and a polyphagous caterpillar species. To analyse the impact of leaf-age dependent differences in iridoid glycoside concentrations and β-glucosidase activities on insect performance, old or young leaves were freeze-dried and incorporated into artificial diets or were provided freshly to the larvae. We determined larval consumption rates and the amounts of assimilated nitrogen. Furthermore, we quantified β-glucosidase activities in artificial diets and fresh leaves and the amount of iridoid glycosides that larvae feeding on fresh leaves ingested and excreted. Compared to fresh leaves, caterpillars grew faster on artificial diets, on which larval weight gain correlated positively to the absorbed amount of nitrogen. When feeding fresh young leaves, larvae even lost weight and excreted only minute proportions of the ingested iridoid glycosides intact with the faeces, indicating that the hydrolysis of these compounds might have interfered with nitrogen assimilation and impaired larval growth. To disentangle physiological effects from deterrent effects of iridoid glycosides, we performed dual choice feeding assays. Young leaves, their methanolic extracts and pure catalpol reduced larval feeding in comparison to the respective controls, while aucubin had no effect on larval consumption. We conclude that the dual defence system of P. lanceolata consisting of iridoid glycosides and β-glucosidases interferes with the nutrient utilisation via the hydrolysis of iridoid glycosides and also mediates larval feeding behaviour in a concentration- and substance-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helga Pankoke
- Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany.
| | - René Gehring
- Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Caroline Müller
- Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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234
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Secondary compounds enhance flammability in a Mediterranean plant. Oecologia 2015; 180:103-10. [PMID: 26416250 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3454-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Some plant secondary compounds, such as terpenes, are very flammable; however, their role in enhancing plant flammability is poorly understood and often neglected in reviews on plant chemical ecology. This is relevant as there is growing evidence that flammability-enhancing traits are adaptive in fire-prone ecosystems. We analyzed the content of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, performed flammability tests and genotyped microsatellite markers, all in the same individuals of Rosmarinus officinalis, to evaluate the link between the content of terpenes, flammability and the genetic similarity among individuals. The results suggest that terpenes enhance flammability in R. officinalis, and that variability in flammability among individuals is likely to have a genetic basis. Overall our results suggest that the capacity to produce and store terpenes can be considered a flammability-enhancing trait and could have an adaptive value in fire-prone ecosystems.
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235
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Bustos-Segura C, Külheim C, Foley W. Effects of Terpene Chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia on Two Specialist Leaf Beetles and Susceptibility to Myrtle Rust. J Chem Ecol 2015; 41:937-47. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-015-0628-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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236
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Chen J, Xu Y, Wei G, Liao S, Zhang Y, Huang W, Yuan L, Wang Y. Chemotypic and genetic diversity in Epimedium sagittatum from different geographical regions of China. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2015; 116:180-187. [PMID: 25936868 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Different geographical plant populations within a single species can exhibit variation, in the production of secondary metabolites. Genetic and environmental variations both contribute to differences between populations; however, the relative importance of these factors is unclear. Here, the extent of variation in the production of four flavonoid glycosides (epimedin A, B, C and icariin) were investigated in eleven wild populations of Epimedium sagittatum used in traditional Chinese medicine. Secondary metabolite profiles were classified into five chemotypes. A common garden experiment indicated this chemotype variation has a significant genetic basis. Extensive genetic variation among intraspecific populations was shown using a retrotransposon-based molecular marker system. These results will assist in development of strategies for conservation, utilization and domestication of E. sagittatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Yanqin Xu
- College of Pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Guoyan Wei
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Sihong Liao
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Wenjun Huang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Ling Yuan
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Ying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China.
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237
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Witzel K, Hanschen FS, Klopsch R, Ruppel S, Schreiner M, Grosch R. Verticillium longisporum infection induces organ-specific glucosinolate degradation in Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:508. [PMID: 26217360 PMCID: PMC4498036 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The species Verticillium represents a group of highly destructive fungal pathogens, responsible for vascular wilt in a number of crops. The host response to infection by Verticillium longisporum at the level of secondary plant metabolites has not been well explored. Natural variation in the glucosinolate (GLS) composition of four Arabidopsis thaliana accessions was characterized: the accessions Bur-0 and Hi-0 accumulated alkenyl GLS, while 3-hydroxypropyl GLS predominated in Kn-0 and Ler-0. With respect to GLS degradation products, Hi-0 and Kn-0 generated mainly isothiocyanates, whereas Bur-0 released epithionitriles and Ler-0 nitriles. An analysis of the effect on the composition of both GLS and its breakdown products in the leaf and root following the plants' exposure to V. longisporum revealed a number of organ- and accession-specific alterations. In the less disease susceptible accessions Bur-0 and Ler-0, colonization depressed the accumulation of GLS in the rosette leaves but accentuated it in the roots. In contrast, in the root, the level of GLS breakdown products in three of the four accessions fell, suggestive of their conjugation or binding to a fungal target molecule(s). The plant-pathogen interaction influenced both the organ- and accession-specific formation of GLS degradation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Witzel
- *Correspondence: Katja Witzel, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, Theodor-Echtermeyer-Weg 1, 14979 Grossbeeren, Germany,
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238
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Taft S, Najar A, Erbilgin N. Pheromone Production by an Invasive Bark Beetle Varies with Monoterpene Composition of its Naïve Host. J Chem Ecol 2015; 41:540-9. [PMID: 26014128 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-015-0590-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The secondary chemistry of host plants can have cascading impacts on the establishment of new insect herbivore populations, their long-term population dynamics, and their invasion potential in novel habitats. Mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) has recently expanded its range into forests of jack pine, Pinus banksiana Lamb., in western Canada. We investigated whether variations in jack pine monoterpenes affect beetle pheromone production, as the primary components of the beetle's aggregation pheromone, (-)-trans-verbenol and anti-aggregation pheromone (-)-verbenone, are biosynthesized from the host monoterpene α-pinene. Jack pine bolts were collected from five Canadian provinces east of the beetle's current range, live D. ponderosae were introduced into them, and their monoterpene compositions were characterized. Production of (-)-trans-verbenol and (-)-verbenone emitted by beetles was measured to determine whether pheromone production varies with monoterpene composition of jack pines. Depending on particular ratios of major monoterpenes in host phloem, jack pine could be classified into three monoterpenoid groups characterized by high amounts of (+)-α-pinene, 3-carene, or a more moderate blend of monoterpenes, and beetle pheromone production varied among these groups. Specifically, beetles reared in trees characterized by high (+)-α-pinene produced the most (-)-trans-verbenol and (-)-verbenone, while beetles in trees characterized by high 3-carene produced the least. Our results indicate that pheromone production by D. ponderosae will remain a significant aspect and important predictor of its survival and persistence in the boreal forest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer Taft
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 442 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
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239
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Padovan A, Patel HR, Chuah A, Huttley GA, Krause ST, Degenhardt J, Foley WJ, Külheim C. Transcriptome sequencing of two phenotypic mosaic Eucalyptus trees reveals large scale transcriptome re-modelling. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0123226. [PMID: 25978451 PMCID: PMC4433141 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic mosaic trees offer an ideal system for studying differential gene expression. We have investigated two mosaic eucalypt trees from two closely related species (Eucalyptus melliodora and E. sideroxylon), which each support two types of leaves: one part of the canopy is resistant to insect herbivory and the remaining leaves are susceptible. Driving this ecological distinction are differences in plant secondary metabolites. We used these phenotypic mosaics to investigate genome wide patterns of foliar gene expression with the aim of identifying patterns of differential gene expression and the somatic mutation(s) that lead to this phenotypic mosaicism. We sequenced the mRNA pool from leaves of the resistant and susceptible ecotypes from both mosaic eucalypts using the Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform. We found large differences in pathway regulation and gene expression between the ecotypes of each mosaic. The expression of the genes in the MVA and MEP pathways is reflected by variation in leaf chemistry, however this is not the case for the terpene synthases. Apart from the terpene biosynthetic pathway, there are several other metabolic pathways that are differentially regulated between the two ecotypes, suggesting there is much more phenotypic diversity than has been described. Despite the close relationship between the two species, they show large differences in the global patterns of gene and pathway regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Padovan
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Hardip R. Patel
- Genome Discovery Unit, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Aaron Chuah
- Genome Discovery Unit, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Gavin A. Huttley
- Genome Discovery Unit, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Sandra T. Krause
- Institut für Pharmazie, Martin-Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg, 06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Jörg Degenhardt
- Institut für Pharmazie, Martin-Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg, 06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - William J. Foley
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Carsten Külheim
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
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240
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Becerra JX. Macroevolutionary and geographical intensification of chemical defense in plants driven by insect herbivore selection pressure. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2015; 8:15-21. [PMID: 32846662 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2015.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Revised: 01/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Plants produce an extensive array of secondary chemical compounds that often function as defenses against insect herbivores. In theory, because of steadily herbivore adaptation, lineages of plants have reacted by escalating their chemical arsenals over time. Following this assumption, over the last three decades researchers have searched for potential signs of chemical intensification in plants. Although modern methodologies now allow the inference of macroevolutionary chemical trends with substantial confidence there are still only a handful of studies on this subject. These examples suggest that intensification of plant chemical defenses is the result of lineages progressively incrementing their compounds as well as recruiting an increasing number of biosynthetic pathways to produce more complex chemical mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith X Becerra
- Department of Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States.
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241
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Sourakov A. You are what you eat: native versus exoticCrotalariaspecies (Fabaceae) as host plants of the Ornate Bella Moth,Utetheisa ornatrix(Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae). J NAT HIST 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2015.1006700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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242
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Raguso RA, Agrawal AA, Douglas AE, Jander G, Kessler A, Poveda K, Thaler JS. The raison d'être of chemical ecology. Ecology 2015; 96:617-30. [DOI: 10.1890/14-1474.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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243
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Barah P, Bones AM. Multidimensional approaches for studying plant defence against insects: from ecology to omics and synthetic biology. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:479-93. [PMID: 25538257 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The biggest challenge for modern biology is to integrate multidisciplinary approaches towards understanding the organizational and functional complexity of biological systems at different hierarchies, starting from the subcellular molecular mechanisms (microscopic) to the functional interactions of ecological communities (macroscopic). The plant-insect interaction is a good model for this purpose with the availability of an enormous amount of information at the molecular and the ecosystem levels. Changing global climatic conditions are abruptly resetting plant-insect interactions. Integration of discretely located heterogeneous information from the ecosystem to genes and pathways will be an advantage to understand the complexity of plant-insect interactions. This review will present the recent developments in omics-based high-throughput experimental approaches, with particular emphasis on studying plant defence responses against insect attack. The review highlights the importance of using integrative systems approaches to study plant-insect interactions from the macroscopic to the microscopic level. We analyse the current efforts in generating, integrating and modelling multiomics data to understand plant-insect interaction at a systems level. As a future prospect, we highlight the growing interest in utilizing the synthetic biology platform for engineering insect-resistant plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Barah
- Cell Molecular Biology and Genomics Group, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), N 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Atle M Bones
- Cell Molecular Biology and Genomics Group, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), N 7491 Trondheim, Norway
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244
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Taft S, Najar A, Godbout J, Bousquet J, Erbilgin N. Variations in foliar monoterpenes across the range of jack pine reveal three widespread chemotypes: implications to host expansion of invasive mountain pine beetle. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:342. [PMID: 26042134 PMCID: PMC4436562 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The secondary compounds of pines (Pinus) can strongly affect the physiology, ecology and behaviors of the bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae) that feed on sub-cortical tissues of hosts. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) has a wide natural distribution range in North America (Canada and USA) and thus variations in its secondary compounds, particularly monoterpenes, could affect the host expansion of invasive mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), which has recently expanded its range into the novel jack pine boreal forest. We investigated monoterpene composition of 601 jack pine trees from natural and provenance forest stands representing 63 populations from Alberta to the Atlantic coast. Throughout its range, jack pine exhibited three chemotypes characterized by high proportions of α-pinene, β-pinene, or limonene. The frequency with which the α-pinene and β-pinene chemotypes occurred at individual sites was correlated to climatic variables, such as continentality and mean annual precipitation, as were the individual α-pinene and β-pinene concentrations. However, other monoterpenes were generally not correlated to climatic variables or geographic distribution. Finally, while the enantiomeric ratios of β-pinene and limonene remained constant across jack pine's distribution, (-):(+)-α-pinene exhibited two separate trends, thereby delineating two α-pinene phenotypes, both of which occurred across jack pine's range. These significant variations in jack pine monoterpene composition may have cascading effects on the continued eastward spread and success of D. ponderosae in the Canadian boreal forest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer Taft
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
- *Correspondence: Spencer Taft, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 442 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Ahmed Najar
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Julie Godbout
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry CentreQuébec, QC, Canada
| | - Jean Bousquet
- Canada Research Chair in Forest and Environmental Genomics, Forest Research Centre, Université LavalQuébec, QC, Canada
| | - Nadir Erbilgin
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
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245
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Borzak CL, Potts BM, Davies NW, O'Reilly-Wapstra JM. Population divergence in the ontogenetic trajectories of foliar terpenes of a Eucalyptus species. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2015; 115:159-170. [PMID: 25434028 PMCID: PMC4284115 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The development of plant secondary metabolites during early life stages can have significant ecological and evolutionary implications for plant-herbivore interactions. Foliar terpenes influence a broad range of ecological interactions, including plant defence, and their expression may be influenced by ontogenetic and genetic factors. This study investigates the role of these factors in the expression of foliar terpene compounds in Eucalyptus globulus seedlings. METHODS Seedlings were sourced from ten families each from three genetically distinct populations, representing relatively high and low chemical resistance to mammalian herbivory. Cotyledon-stage seedlings and consecutive leaf pairs of true leaves were harvested separately across an 8-month period, and analysed for eight monoterpene compounds and six sesquiterpene compounds. KEY RESULTS Foliar terpenes showed a series of dynamic changes with ontogenetic trajectories differing between populations and families, as well as between and within the two major terpene classes. Sesquiterpenes changed rapidly through ontogeny and expressed opposing trajectories between compounds, but showed consistency in pattern between populations. Conversely, changed expression in monoterpene trajectories was population- and compound-specific. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that adaptive opportunities exist for changing levels of terpene content through ontogeny, and evolution may exploit the ontogenetic patterns of change in these compounds to create a diverse ontogenetic chemical mosaic with which to defend the plant. It is hypothesized that the observed genetically based patterns in terpene ontogenetic trajectories reflect multiple changes in the regulation of genes throughout different terpene biosynthetic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L Borzak
- School of Biological Sciences and National Centre for Future Forest Industries, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia and Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 74, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
| | - Brad M Potts
- School of Biological Sciences and National Centre for Future Forest Industries, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia and Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 74, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
| | - Noel W Davies
- School of Biological Sciences and National Centre for Future Forest Industries, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia and Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 74, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
| | - Julianne M O'Reilly-Wapstra
- School of Biological Sciences and National Centre for Future Forest Industries, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia and Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 74, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
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246
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Ode PJ, Johnson SN, Moore BD. Atmospheric change and induced plant secondary metabolites - are we reshaping the building blocks of multi-trophic interactions? CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 5:57-65. [PMID: 32846743 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
At least for the foreseeable future, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases - particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) and ozone (O3) - are projected to rise inexorably. Recent studies have begun to unveil the complex nature of how these gases modulate the expression of plant signaling hormones, the defensive chemistries produced, and the responses of the myriad trophic interactions involving plant pathogens as well as insect herbivores and their natural enemies. Given the ubiquity of complex trophic interactions in both natural and managed systems, it is crucial that we understand how CO2 and O3 interact with defense signaling hormones of plants and their consequences for their trophic associates if we are to adapt to, and even mitigate, the effects of climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Ode
- Bioagricultural Sciences & Pest Management and The Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, CO, USA.
| | - Scott N Johnson
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Ben D Moore
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, NSW, Australia
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247
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Sampedro L. Physiological trade-offs in the complexity of pine tree defensive chemistry. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 34:915-8. [PMID: 25261122 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpu082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Sampedro
- Misión Biológica de Galicia-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, E36080 Pontevedra, Galicia, Spain (genecolpines.weebly.com)
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248
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Villari C, Faccoli M, Battisti A, Bonello P, Marini L. Testing phenotypic trade-offs in the chemical defence strategy of Scots pine under growth-limiting field conditions. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 34:919-30. [PMID: 25194142 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpu063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plants protect themselves from pathogens and herbivores through fine-tuned resource allocation, including trade-offs among resource investments to support constitutive and inducible defences. However, empirical research, especially concerning conifers growing under natural conditions, is still scarce. We investigated the complexity of constitutive and induced defences in a natural Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand under growth-limiting conditions typical of alpine environments. Phenotypic trade-offs at three hierarchical levels were tested by investigating the behaviour of phenolic compounds and terpenoids of outer bark and phloem. We tested resource-derived phenotypic correlations between (i) constitutive and inducible defences vs tree ring growth, (ii) different constitutive defence metabolites and (iii) constitutive concentration and inducible variation of individual metabolites. Tree ring growth was positively correlated only with constitutive concentration of total terpenoids, and no overall phenotypic trade-offs between different constitutive defensive metabolites were found. At the lowest hierarchical level tested, i.e., at the level of relationship between constitutive and inducible variation of individual metabolites, we found that different compounds displayed different behaviours; we identified five different defensive metabolite response types, based on direction and strength of the response, regardless of tree age and growth rate. Therefore, under growth-limiting field conditions, Scots pine appears to utilize varied and complex outer bark and phloem defence chemistry, in which only part of the constitutive specialized metabolism is influenced by tree growth, and individual components do not appear to be expressed in a mutually exclusive manner in either constitutive or inducible metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Villari
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, 201 Kottman Hall, 2021 Coffey Rd, Columbus, OH 43210, USA Dipartimento di Agronomia Animali Alimenti Risorse Naturali e Ambiente, Università di Padova, Agripolis, Legnaro, Padova 35020, Italy
| | - Massimo Faccoli
- Dipartimento di Agronomia Animali Alimenti Risorse Naturali e Ambiente, Università di Padova, Agripolis, Legnaro, Padova 35020, Italy
| | - Andrea Battisti
- Dipartimento di Agronomia Animali Alimenti Risorse Naturali e Ambiente, Università di Padova, Agripolis, Legnaro, Padova 35020, Italy
| | - Pierluigi Bonello
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, 201 Kottman Hall, 2021 Coffey Rd, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Lorenzo Marini
- Dipartimento di Agronomia Animali Alimenti Risorse Naturali e Ambiente, Università di Padova, Agripolis, Legnaro, Padova 35020, Italy
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