Interleukin-10 and the immune response against cancer: a counterpoint

Lung cancer: a classic example of tumor escape and progression while providing opportunities for immunological intervention

Lung cancers remain one of the most common and deadly cancers in the world today (12.5% of newly diagnosed cancers) despite current advances in chemo- and radiation therapies. Often, by the time these tumors are diagnosed, they have already metastasized. These tumors demonstrate the classic hallmarks of cancer in that they have advanced defensive strategies allowing them to escape various standard oncological treatments. Immunotherapy is making inroads towards effectively treating other fatal cancers, such as melanoma, glioblastoma multiforme, and castrate-resistant prostate cancers. This paper will cover the escape mechanisms of bronchogenic lung cancer that must be overcome before they can be successfully treated. We also review the history of immunotherapy directed towards lung cancers.

Therapeutical measures to control airway tolerance in asthma and lung cancer

Airway tolerance is a specialized immunological surveillance which is activated by the cells of the lung to deal with and distinguish between innocuous and pathogenic inhalants. However, this distinction does not always occur. Airway tolerance is necessary to avoid the development of allergic disorders, such as asthma, which is dominated by a pathological expansion of Th2 and Th17 cells in the airways. By contrast, tumor cells induce tolerogenic factors in their microenvironment to evade T-cell mediated anti-tumor-immune responses. This review updates current understandings on the effect of the cytokines TGF-β, IL-10, and IL-17A on the lung immune responses to antigen, and analyzes their involvement in allergic asthma and lung cancer. The aim of the review is to evaluate where therapeutic intervention may be feasible and where it might fail. The multifunctional role of these cytokines further complicates the decision on the timing and concentration for their use as therapeutical targets. In fact, TGF-β has suppressive activity in early tumorigenesis, but may become tumor-promoting in the later stages of the disease. This dual behavior is sometimes due to changes in the cellular target of TGF-β, and to the expansion of the induced (i)-Tregs. Similarly, IL-17A has been found to elicit pro- as well as anti-tumor properties. Thus, this pro-inflammatory cytokine induces the production of IL-6 which interferes with Treg development. Yet IL-17A could promote tumor growth in conjunction with IL-6-dependent activation of Stat3. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of airway tolerance could help to improve the therapy to both, allergic asthma and lung cancer. Hereby, asthma therapy aims to induce and maintain tolerance to inhaled allergens and therapy against lung cancer tries to inhibit the tolerogenic response surrounding the tumor.

Local cytokine profiles of patients with cervical intraepithelial and invasive neoplasia

Several studies have suggested that patients with cervical intraepithelial and invasive neoplasia have reduced levels of Th1 cytokines, and increased levels of Th2 cytokines. Thus, the aim of this study was to delineate the immunological profile associated with lesion progression. Biopsies were obtained from 28 patients with low grade cervical intraepithelial lesions (LSILs), 53 patients with high grade cervical intraepithelial lesions (HSILs), 25 patients with invasive cancer (CA), and 20 healthy controls. Levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 were then assayed by RT-PCR and ELISA for each biopsy sample. For LSILs, higher levels of Th1 cytokines were detected, while HSILs were associated with a Th2 cytokine profile. In contrast, CA tissues were associated with the strongest expression of a Treg cytokine profile. In conclusion the most important contribution of these work is identification of the Treg cytokine profile in HPV progression lesions and in combination, these results suggested that tumor progression is dependent on suppression of cellular immunity.

Macrophages in tumor microenvironments and the progression of tumors

Macrophages are widely distributed innate immune cells that play indispensable roles in the innate and adaptive immune response to pathogens and in-tissue homeostasis. Macrophages can be activated by a variety of stimuli and polarized to functionally different phenotypes. Two distinct subsets of macrophages have been proposed, including classically activated (M1) and alternatively activated (M2) macrophages. M1 macrophages express a series of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and effector molecules, such as IL-12, IL-23, TNF-α, iNOS and MHCI/II. In contrast, M2 macrophages express a wide array of anti-inflammatory molecules, such as IL-10, TGF-β, and arginase1. In most tumors, the infiltrated macrophages are considered to be of the M2 phenotype, which provides an immunosuppressive microenvironment for tumor growth. Furthermore, tumor-associated macrophages secrete many cytokines, chemokines, and proteases, which promote tumor angiogenesis, growth, metastasis, and immunosuppression. Recently, it was also found that tumor-associated macrophages interact with cancer stem cells. This interaction leads to tumorigenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. So mediating macrophage to resist tumors is considered to be potential therapy.

The T cell response to IL-10 alters cellular dynamics and paradoxically promotes central nervous system autoimmunity

IL-10 is a critical anti-inflammatory cytokine, the deficiency of which leads to spontaneous autoimmunity. However, therapeutically administered or ectopically expressed IL-10 can either suppress or promote disease. Distinct lineage-specific activities may explain the contradictory effects of IL-10. To dissect the T cell-specific response to IL-10 during organ-specific autoimmunity, we generated mice with a selective deletion of IL-10Rα in T cells and analyzed its effects in an autoimmune model, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). Surprisingly, the T cell response to IL-10 increased EAE severity. This did not result from altered T cell functional potential; T cell cytokine profile was preserved. IL-10 also diminished the proliferation of T cells in situ within the target organ, an effect that would be expected to restrain disease. However, IL-10 acted cell autonomously to sustain the autoreactive T cells essential for immunopathogenesis, promoting their accumulation and distorting the regulatory and effector T cell balance. Indeed, in chimeric mice and after adoptive transfer, wild type T cells showed a competitive advantage over cells deficient in IL-10Rα. Therefore, T cell specific actions of IL-10 can support autoimmune inflammation, and this appears to result from an overall increase in the long term fitness of pathologic T cells. Lineage-restricted, disease-promoting activities of IL-10 should be considered in the therapeutic manipulation of the IL-10 pathway.

Interleukin-10 genotype correlated to deficiency syndrome in hepatitis B cirrhosis

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) syndrome is an important basis for TCM diagnosis and treatment. As Child-Pugh classification as well as compensation and decompensation phase in liver cirrhosis, it is also an underlying clinical classification. In this paper, we investigated the correlation between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and TCM syndromes in patients with hepatitis B cirrhosis (HBC). Samples were obtained from 343 HBC patients in China. Three SNPs of IL-10 (-592A/C, -819C/T, and -1082A/G) were detected with polymerase chain-reaction-ligase detection reaction (PCR-LDR). The result showed the SNP-819C/T was significantly correlated with Deficiency syndrome (P = 0.031), but none of the 3 loci showed correlation either with Child-Pugh classification and phase in HBC patients. The logistic regression analysis showed that the Excess syndrome was associated with dizzy and spider nevus, and the Deficiency syndrome was associated with dry eyes, aversion to cold, IL-10-819C/T loci, and IL-10-1082A/G loci. The odds ratio (OR) value at IL-10-819C/T was 4.022. The research results suggested that IL-10-819C/T locus (TC plus CC genotype) is probably a risk factor in the occurrence of Deficiency syndrome in HBC patients.

Circulating levels of TNF receptor II are prognostic for patients with peripheral T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma

PURPOSE

Peripheral T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas (T-NHL) represent a small but heterogeneous and clinically aggressive subset of NHLs with a poor outcome. Cytokines or their receptors might be associated with the clinical outcome of these lymphomas. Therefore, we tested whether gene variations and serum levels of soluble TNF receptor (TNFR)I (sTNFRI), sTNFRII, interleukin (IL)-10, or sIL-4R are predictive for treatment response in T-NHLs.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Peripheral blood DNA from 117 patients with T-NHL treated in prospective clinical trials was subjected to genotyping analysis. Whenever possible, pretreatment sera were obtained, and circulating levels of sTNFRI, sTNFRII, IL-10, and sIL-4R were determined with a specific capture enzyme-linked immunoassay.

RESULTS

Patients characterized by TNFRI-609GG (rs4149570) showed a trend toward better event free survival [EFS; univariate: P = 0.041; multivariate: HR, 1.76; confidence interval (CI), 0.99-3.14 with P = 0.056]. A protective role of IL-10-1087A, -824T, and -597A reported in another study was not confirmed in our cohort. Patients with circulating levels of soluble TNFRII ≥2.16 ng/mL had a 2.07-fold increased relative risk for shorter overall survival (OS; univariate: P = 0.0034; multivariate: HR, 2.07; CI, 0.92-4.70 with P = 0.081) and a 2.49-fold higher risk for shorter EFS (univariate: P = 0.00068; multivariate: HR, 2.49; CI, 1.22-5.08 with P = 0.012). Elevations of circulating levels of sTNFRI, IL-10, and sIL-4R are frequent, but the clinical response in these patients is not significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest a critical role for TNF-TNFR signaling for the clinical outcome of patients with peripheral T-NHLs.

Interleukin 10 in the tumor microenvironment: a target for anticancer immunotherapy

IL-10 is an immunomodulatory cytokine that is frequently upregulated in various types of cancer. The biological role of IL-10 in cancer is quite complex; however, the presence of IL-10 in advanced metastases and the positive correlation between serum IL-10 levels and progression of disease indicates a critical role of IL-10 in the tumor microenvironment. IL-10 has been shown to directly affect the function of antigen-presenting cells by inhibiting the expression of MHC and costimulatory molecules, which in turn induces immune suppression or tolerance. Additionally, IL-10 downregulates the expression of Th1 cytokines and induces T-regulatory responses. Taken together, a combination of IL-10 antagonism and immunostimulatory treatments such as cancer vaccines, Toll-like receptor agonists, Th1 cytokines, and chemokines would be a logical approach to enhance an antitumor immune response.

Interleukin-10-819 promoter polymorphism in association with gastric cancer risk

Background

Potential functional allele T/C single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of Interleukin 10 (IL-10) promoter -819 (rs1800871) has been implicated in gastric cancer risk. We aimed to explore the role of T/C SNP of IL-10 -819 in the susceptibility to gastric cancer through a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Methods

Each initially included article was scored for quality appraisal. Desirable data were extracted and registered into databases. 11 studies were ultimately eligible for the meta-analysis of IL-10 -819 T/C SNP. We adopted the most probably appropriate genetic model (recessive model). Potential sources of heterogeneity were sought out via subgroup and sensitivity analyses, and publication biases were estimated.

Results

IL-10 -819 TT genotype is associated with the overall reduced gastric cancer risk among Asians and even apparently observed among high quality subgroup Asians. IL-10-819 TT genotype is not statistically associated with the overall reduced gastric cancer susceptibility in persons with H. pylori infection compared with controls without H. pylori infection. IL-10 -819 TT genotype is reversely associated with diffuse-subtype risk but not in intestinal-subtype risk. IL-10 -819 TT genotype is not reversely associated with non-cardia or cardia subtype gastric cancer susceptibility.

Conclusions

IL-10 -819 TT genotype seems to be more protective from gastric cancer in Asians. Whether IL-10 -819 TT genotype may be protective from gastric cancer susceptibility in persons infected with H. pylori or in diffuse-subtype cancer needs further exploring in the future well-designed high quality studies among different ethnicity populations. Direct sequencing should be more used in the future.

Immunohistochemical expression of epithelial and stromal immunomodulatory signalling molecules is a prognostic indicator in breast cancer

Background

The immune system has paradoxical roles during cancer development and the prognostic significance of immune modulating factors is controversial. The aim of this study was to determine the expression of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF- beta), interleukin-10 (IL-10) and their prognostic significance in breast cancers. Ki67 was included as a measure of growth fraction of tumor cells.

Methods

On immunohistochemical stained slides from 38 breast cancer patients, we performed digital video analysis of tumor cell areas and adjacent tumor stromal areas from the primary tumors and their corresponding lymph node metastases. COX-2 was recorded as graded staining intensity.

Results

The expression of TGF-beta, IL-10 and Ki67 were recorded in tumor cell areas and adjacent tumor stromal areas. In both primary tumors and metastases, the expression of COX-2 was higher in the tumor stromal areas than in the tumor cell areas (both P < 0.001). High stromal staining intensity in the primary tumors was associated with a 3.9 (95% CI 1.1-14.2) times higher risk of death compared to the low staining group (P = 0.036). The expression of TGF-beta was highest in the tumor cell areas of both primary tumors and metastases (both P < 0.001). High stromal expression of TGF-beta was associated with increased mortality. For IL-10, the stromal expression was highest in the primary tumors (P < 0.001), whereas in the metastases the expression was highest in tumor cell areas (P < 0.001). High IL-10 expression in tumor- and stromal cell areas of primary tumors predicted mortality. Ki67 was higher expressed in tumor stromal areas of the metastases, and in tumor cell areas of the primary tumors (P < 0.001). Ki67 expression in tumor cell areas and stromal areas of the metastases was independently associated with breast cancer mortality.

Conclusions

Stromal expression of COX-2, TGF-beta and Ki67 may facilitate tumor progression in breast cancer.

Molecular Mechanism and Potential Targets for Blocking HPV-Induced Lesion Development

Persistent infection with high-risk HPV is the etiologic agent associated with the development of cervical cancer (CC) development. However, environmental, social, epidemiological, genetic, and host factors may have a joint influence on the risk of disease progression. Cervical lesions caused by HPV infection can be removed naturally by the host immune response and only a small percentage may progress to cancer; thus, the immune response is essential for the control of precursor lesions and CC. We present a review of recent research on the molecular mechanisms that allow HPV-infected cells to evade immune surveillance and potential targets of molecular therapy to inhibit tumor immune escape.

Cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-10 is a potentially useful biomarker in immunocompetent primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL)

The diagnosis of primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL) by radiographical examination is often difficult because of its similarity to other brain tumors. To test whether interleukin-10 (IL-10) and IL-6 can be used to distinguish PCNSL from other brain tumors that are radiographically similar, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of IL-10 and IL-6 were measured in 66 patients with intracranial tumors (PCNSLs: 26 cases; other brain tumors: 40 cases). In the patients with PCNSLs, the median CSF levels of IL-10 and IL-6 were 27 pg/mL and 5.4 pg/mL, respectively. The CSF IL-10 and IL-6 levels were significantly higher in PCNSLs than in the other brain tumors. To validate the diagnostic value of CSF IL-10 in PCNSL, we prospectively examined 24 patients with brain lesions that were suspected to be PCNSL. We observed that the CSF IL-10 levels were significantly higher in PCNSLs than in other brain tumors. At an IL-10 cutoff level of 9.5 pg/mL, the sensitivity and specificity were 71.0% and 100%, respectively. After therapy, the CSF IL-10 levels were decreased in all patients and were increased at relapse in most of these patients. Immunohistochemically, all PCNSLs, except for 1 unclassified PCNSL, expressed both IL-10 and IL-10 receptor-A. In the patients with high CSF IL-10, IL-10 expression levels in tumor were relatively higher, compared with low CSF IL-10; however, there was no significant difference between these groups. In addition, elevated CSF level of IL-10 was significantly associated with having a shorter progression-free survival (hazard ratio, 3.37; 95% confidence interval, 0.985-11.528; log-rank, P= .038). These results indicate that the CSF level of IL-10 may be a useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in patients with PCNSLs.

Immunotherapy with IL-10- and IFN-γ-producing CD4 effector cells modulate "Natural" and "Inducible" CD4 TReg cell subpopulation levels: observations in four cases of patients with ovarian cancer

Adoptive T cell therapy for cancer patients optimally requires participation of CD4 T cells. In this phase I/II study, we assessed the therapeutic effects of adoptively transferred IL-10- and IFN-γ-producing CD4 effector cells in patients with recurrent ovarian cancer. Using MUC1 peptide and IL-2 for ex vivo CD4 effector cell generation, we show that three monthly treatment cycles of autologous T cell restimulation and local intraperitoneal re-infusion-modulated T cell-mediated immune responses that were associated with enhanced patient survival. One patient remains disease-free, another patient experienced prolonged survival for nearly 16 months with recurrent disease, and two patients expired within 3-5 months following final infusion. Prolonged survivors showed elevated levels of systemic CD3(+)CD4(+)CD25(+) and CD3(+)CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells when compared to that of pre-treatment levels and similarly treated short-term survivors. Such cell populations among these patients contained variable levels of "Inducible" Tr1 (CD4(+)CD25(-)FoxP3(-)IL-10(+)) and "Natural" (CD4(+)CD25(+)CD45RO(+)FoxP3(+)) TReg cell numbers and ratios that were associated with prolonged and/or disease-free survival. Moreover, peptide-restimulated T cells from these patients showed an elevation in both IFN-γ production, memory cell phenotype, and select TNF family ligands associated with enhanced T cell survival and apoptosis-inducing activities. This suggests that intraperitoneally administered Th1-like cells, producing elevated levels of IL-10, may require and/or induce differential levels of distinct systemic TReg subpopulations that influence, in part, long-term tumor immunity and enhanced memory/effector CD4-mediated therapeutic potentials. Furthermore, treatment efficacy and enhanced memory cell phenotype did not appear to be dependent on TReg cell numbers but upon ratios of "Inducible" and "Natural" TReg subpopulations.

IL-12 triggers a programmatic change in dysfunctional myeloid-derived cells within mouse tumors

Solid tumors are complex masses with a local microenvironment, or stroma, that supports tumor growth and progression. Among the diverse tumor-supporting stromal cells is a heterogeneous population of myeloid-derived cells. These cells are alternatively activated and contribute to the immunosuppressive environment of the tumor; overcoming their immunosuppressive effects may improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapies. We recently found that engineering tumor-specific CD8(+) T cells to secrete the inflammatory cytokine IL-12 improved their therapeutic efficacy in the B16 mouse model of established melanoma. Here, we report the mechanism underlying this finding. Surprisingly, direct binding of IL-12 to receptors on lymphocytes or NK cells was not required. Instead, IL-12 sensitized bone marrow-derived tumor stromal cells, including CD11b(+)F4/80(hi) macrophages, CD11b(+)MHCII(hi)CD11c(hi) dendritic cells, and CD11b(+)Gr-1(hi) myeloid-derived suppressor cells, causing them to enhance the effects of adoptively transferred CD8(+) T cells. This reprogramming of myeloid-derived cells occurred partly through IFN-γ. Surprisingly, direct presentation of antigen to the transferred CD8(+) T cells by tumor was not necessary; however, MHCI expression on host cells was essential for IL-12-mediated antitumor enhancements. These results are consistent with a model in which IL-12 enhances the ability of CD8(+) T cells to collapse large vascularized tumors by triggering programmatic changes in otherwise suppressive antigen-presenting cells within tumors and support the use of IL-12 as part of immunotherapy for the treatment of solid tumors.

Role of interleukin-10 in breast cancer

Cytokines are low molecular weight regulatory proteins or glycoprotein that modulates the intensity and duration of immune response by stimulating or inhibiting the activation, proliferation, and/or differentiation of target cells. Different cytokines are known to have diverse role in breast cancer initiation and progression. Interleukin-10 (IL-10), a pleiotropic anti-inflammatory cytokine, induces immunosuppression and assists in escape from tumor immune surveillance. Like several other cytokines, IL-10 also can exert dual proliferative and inhibitory effect on breast tumor cells indicating a complex role of IL-10 in breast cancer initiation and progression. In this review, we tried to put together a comprehensive current view on significance of IL-10 in promotion, inhibition, and importance as prognosticator in breast cancer based on in vitro, in vivo, and clinical evidences. For literature collection, we conducted PubMed search with keywords "IL-10" and "breast cancer".

The tumor microenvironment: part 1

For years the mutated, highly proliferating neoplastic cells were presented as the only important agent in tumors; however, during the last 3–4 decades it has become clear that the microenvironment of the cancer cells plays a determinative role in the malignant evolution of neoplasia. Cancers are in fact heterogeneous entities containing, in addition to the neoplastic cell component, cells derived of multiple lineages (fibroblasts, endothelial cells lining blood and lymphatic vessels, pericytes, adipocytes and immune system cells belonging to both innate and adaptive responses), as well as the extracellular matrix, with a large variety of soluble molecules of biological importance, constituting a complex organ-like structure. The tumor microenvironment consists in a tissue that may have a predictive significance for tumor behavior and response to therapy.

Dual biological effects of the cytokines interleukin-10 and interferon-γ

It is generally thought that each cytokine exerts either immune stimulatory (inflammatory) or immune inhibitory (antiinflammatory or regulatory) biological activities. However, multiple cytokines can enact both inhibitory and stimulatory effects on the immune system. Two of these cytokines are interleukin (IL)-10 and interferon-gamma (IFNγ). IL-10 has demonstrated antitumor immunity even though it has been known for years as an immunoregulatory protein. Generally perceived as an immune stimulatory cytokine, IFNγ can also induce inhibitory molecule expression including B7-H1 (PD-L1), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), and arginase on multiple cell populations (dendritic cells, tumor cells, and vascular endothelial cells). In this review, we will summarize current knowledge of the dual roles of both of these cytokines and stress the previously underappreciated stimulatory role of IL-10 and inhibitory role of IFNγ in the context of malignancy. Our progressive understanding of the dual effects of these cytokines is important for dissecting cytokine-associated pathology and provides new avenues for developing effective immune therapy against human diseases, including cancer.

Gene expression profiling in acute allograft rejection: challenging the immunologic constant of rejection hypothesis

In humans, the role and relationship between molecular pathways that lead to tissue destruction during acute allograft rejection are not fully understood. Based on studies conducted in humans, we recently hypothesized that different immune-mediated tissue destruction processes (i.e. cancer, infection, autoimmunity) share common convergent final mechanisms. We called this phenomenon the "Immunologic Constant of Rejection (ICR)." The elements of the ICR include molecular pathways that are consistently described through different immune-mediated tissue destruction processes and demonstrate the activation of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), the recruitment of cytotoxic immune cells (primarily through CXCR3/CCR5 ligand pathways), and the activation of immune effector function genes (IEF genes; granzymes A/B, perforin, etc.). Here, we challenge the ICR hypothesis by using a meta-analytical approach and systematically reviewing microarray studies evaluating gene expression on tissue biopsies during acute allograft rejection. We found the pillars of the ICR consistently present among the studies reviewed, despite implicit heterogeneity. Additionally, we provide a descriptive mechanistic overview of acute allograft rejection by describing those molecular pathways most frequently encountered and thereby thought to be most significant. The biological role of the following molecular pathways is described: IFN-γ, CXCR3/CCR5 ligand, IEF genes, TNF-α, IL-10, IRF-1/STAT-1, and complement pathways. The role of NK cell, B cell and T-regulatory cell signatures are also addressed.

T-helper cell-mediated proliferation and cytokine responses against recombinant Merkel cell polyomavirus-like particles

The newly discovered Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) resides in approximately 80% of Merkel cell carcinomas (MCC). Causal role of MCPyV for this rare and aggressive skin cancer is suggested by monoclonal integration and truncation of large T (LT) viral antigen in MCC cells. The mutated MCPyV has recently been found in highly purified leukemic cells from patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), suggesting a pathogenic role also in CLL. About 50-80% of adults display MCPyV-specific antibodies. The humoral immunity does not protect against the development of MCC, as neutralizing MCPyV antibodies occur in higher levels among MCC patients than healthy controls. Impaired T-cell immunity has been linked with aggressive MCC behavior. Therefore, cellular immunity appears to be important in MCPyV infection surveillance. In order to elucidate the role of MCPyV-specific Th-cell immunity, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of healthy adults were stimulated with MCPyV VP1 virus-like particles (VLPs), using human bocavirus (HBoV) VLPs and Candida albicans antigen as positive controls. Proliferation, IFN-γ, IL-13 and IL-10 responses were examined in 15 MCPyV-seropositive and 15 seronegative volunteers. With the MCPyV antigen, significantly stronger Th-cell responses were found in MCPyV-seropositive than MCPyV-seronegative subjects, whereas with the control antigens, the responses were statistically similar. The most readily detectable cytokine was IFN-γ. The MCPyV antigen tended to induce stronger IFN-γ responses than HBoV VLP antigen. Taken together, MCPyV-specific Th-cells elicit vigorous IFN-γ responses. IFN-γ being a cytokine with major antiviral and tumor suppressing functions, Th-cells are suggested to be important mediators of MCPyV-specific immune surveillance.

Antigen-presenting cell (APC) subsets in ovarian cancer

The major human antigen-presenting cells (APCs) include monocytes/macrophages, myeloid dendritic cells (mDC), plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), and B cells. These APC subsets have been observed in ovarian tumor environments. Their phenotypes and functionalities are subjected to alteration by multiple factors in the tumor environment. In this review, we summarize the nature, cellular interactions, and prognostic significance of the main APC populations in ovarian cancer, and discuss the relevance of manipulating APC subsets for patient treatment.

Serum cytokine profiles in patients with prostate carcinoma

It has been suggested that various cytokines are associated with the pathophysiology of prostate carcinoma (Pca). We profiled ten cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α) in the serum levels of 11 patients with organ-confined Pca, 15 with advanced Pca without cachexia, 8 with advanced Pca with cachexia (cachexia group) and 5 healthy males as controls. Cytokines were measured using a highly sensitive fluorescence microsphere system. Compared to the control group, serum levels of all cytokines were significantly higher in the cachexia group, and six cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α and IFN-γ) were significantly higher in the group with advanced Pca without cachexia. In the group with organ-confined Pca, only IL-1β and IL-12 levels were significantly higher compared to the control group. In the cachexia group, levels of all cytokines apart from TNF-α were significantly higher compared to the group with organ-confined Pca, and levels of four cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IL-8 and IL-10) were significantly higher compared to the group with advanced Pca without cachexia. These results indicate that i) an aberrance imbalance of cytokine production was associated with the pathophysiology of Pca and cachexia, ii) cytokine profiles in Pca patients were distinct by disease stage, and iii) IL-1β and IL-12 may be applicable as early diagnostic indicators.

Knockdown of HMGB1 in tumor cells attenuates their ability to induce regulatory T cells and uncovers naturally acquired CD8 T cell-dependent antitumor immunity

Although high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in tumor cells is involved in many aspects of tumor progression, its role in tumor immune suppression remains elusive. Host cell-derived IL-10 suppressed a naturally acquired CD8 T cell-dependent antitumor response. The suppressive activity of tumor-associated Foxp3(+)CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (Treg) was IL-10 dependent. Neutralizing HMGB1 impaired tumor cell-promoted IL-10 production by Treg. Short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of HMGB1 (HMGB1 KD) in tumor cells did not affect tumor cell growth but uncovered naturally acquired long-lasting tumor-specific IFN-γ- or TNF-α-producing CD8 T cell responses and attenuated their ability to induce Treg, leading to naturally acquired CD8 T cell- or IFN-γ-dependent tumor rejection. The data suggest that tumor cell-derived HMGB1 may suppress naturally acquired CD8 T cell-dependent antitumor immunity via enhancing Treg to produce IL-10, which is necessary for Treg-mediated immune suppression.

Renal transplant recipients have elevated frequencies of circulating myeloid-derived suppressor cells

BACKGROUND

Cancer, particularly cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), is a major cause of mortality in renal transplant recipients (RTRs). Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) play a central role in suppressing cancer immunosurveillance but their potential mobilisation in RTRs and levels relative to those of other immunoregulatory dendritic cell (DC) populations have not been analysed.

METHODS

The circulating frequencies of MDSC and DC were analysed by multicolour flow cytometry in immunocompetent patients without (n = 13) or with (ICI-SCC(Pos), n = 14) current SCC, normal donors (NDs, n = 34), chronic kidney disease patients (CKD patients, n = 22) and RTRs (n = 31).

RESULTS

Compared to NDs, RTRs had significantly elevated levels of both CD14(Neg) and CD14(Pos) MDSC subsets (P < 0.001), while CKD patients and ICI-SCC(Pos) had significantly elevated levels of only the CD14(Neg)-MDSC subset. DC frequencies were significantly decreased in RTRs and CKD patients but were at normal levels in ICI-SCC(Pos). The MDSC/DC ratio was significantly elevated (P < 0.05) in RTRs (median = 5.7), CKD patients (median = 3.2) and ICI-SCC(Pos) (median = 3.5) relative to NDs (median = 0.7). The use of immunosuppressive drugs in CKD patients and past/current occurrence of SCC in RTRs was associated with significantly increased CD14(Neg)-MDSC frequencies. MDSC enriched from RTRs, when co-cultured with activated NDs T cells significantly suppressed extracellular IL-10 levels and can, when activated with formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine, inhibit T-cell proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

RTRs, CKD patients and ICI-SCC(Pos) have increased MDSC frequencies and MDSC/DC ratios. These changes may impact on cancer immunosurveillance. Therefore, MDSC represent both a potential therapeutic target and prognostic marker in these patients, with respect to the development of SCC and other malignancies.

Blocking the immunosuppressive axis with small interfering RNA targeting interleukin (IL)-10 receptor enhances dendritic cell-based vaccine potency

Improving dendritic cell (DC) functions is highly promising for therapeutic intervention of diverse diseases, including cancer. Immunosuppressive cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-10 produced by DCs themselves (autocrine) and other regulatory immune cells (paracrine) down-regulate functional profiles of DCs through specific cell surface receptors such as IL-10R. Here, we tried to improve DC functions using small interfering RNA (siRNA) technology to block an IL-10R-mediated immunosuppressive axis. DCs modified with siRNA targeting against IL-10R or IL-10 (DC/siIL-10R or DC/siIL-10) led to up-regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II, CD40 co-stimulatory molecule, and IL-12 proinflammatory cytokine after lipopolysacharide (LPS) stimulation compared to DC/siGFP. Notably, the LPS-induced functional profiles of DC/siIL-10R were strongly resistant to the addition of recombinant IL-10, which mimicked paracrine IL-10. In contrast, those of DC/siIL-10 were reversed by adding exogenous IL-10. Consistently, DC/siIL-10R generated more human papilloma virus (HPV) E7-specific CD8(+) T cells and stronger anti-tumour effects against E7-expressing TC-1 tumour cells in vaccinated mice than DC/siGFP, as well as DC/siIL-10. Taken together, these results provide the groundwork for future clinical translation of siRNA-mediated strategy targeting IL-10R to enhance DC-based vaccine potency.

Cytokine analysis as a tool to understand tumour-host interaction in ovarian cancer

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is an immunogenic tumour and exploits many suppressive ways to escape immune eradication. EOC is known to spread primarily by tumour cell implantations in peritoneal cavity. Therefore, ascites may be an ideal fluid compartment to unravel the immune status of the peritoneal cavity. We analysed the expression of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IFN-γ, TNF-α, TNF-β, TGF-β and CCL22 in ovarian cancer ascites, representing immune activating and suppressing cytokines. We observed high expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8 and immune suppressive cytokines IL-10, CCL22 and TGF-β in most samples whereas Th1 (IL-12p70, IFN-γ) and Th2 (IL-4, IL-5) cytokines were only detectable in 13% of the samples. TGF-β was only detected in latent form, questioning its immune suppressive role. CCL22 was in similar levels present in early stage compared to advanced stage tumours. At advanced stage, we observed a negative correlation with CCL22 levels and Th1/2 cytokine expression. We found a positive correlation between IL-6 concentration in ascites and residual disease after debulking. Additionally, IL-6 levels were remarkably higher at recurrence compared to primary advanced disease, which opens an opportunity for inhibition of IL-6 expression in the prevention of recurrence. Despite the heterogeneity of EOC and the complexity of cytokine functions, our results show that cytokine analysis in ascites may aid in understanding tumour-host interaction in EOC.

Polymorphisms of interleukin-10 promoter are not associated with prognosis of advanced gastric cancer

AIM: To evaluate the association between of the interleukin-10 (IL-10) promoter polymorphisms and survival of advanced gastric cancer (GC) patients.

METHODS: The IL-10 (-1082, rs1800896; -819, rs1800871; and-592, rs1800896) genotypes in 234 patients with advanced gastric cancer and in 243 healthy controls were determined by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated by unconditional logistic regression for the associations between IL-10 genotypes and the risk of GC. The Kaplan-Meier method with log-rank testing was used to evaluate the association between genotype and survival of the patients.

RESULTS: The IL-10 -1082 G allele and GCC (-1082, -819 and -592) haplotype were associated with increased gastric cancer risks (OR 1.2, 95% CI 0.6-3.2, P = 0.007, for -1082 G allele, OR = 2.3, 95% CI, 1.2-4.1, P = 0.005, for GCC haplotype, respectively). However, none of the three IL-10 gene polymorphisms (-1082, -819 and -592) was correlated with gastric cancer survival (P > 0.05), and none of the genotypes of the three IL-10 sites was found as independent prognostic risk factors in the multivariate test.

CONCLUSION: IL-10 gene promoter polymorphisms may not be associated with the prognosis of advanced gastric cancer.

Intravenous immunoglobulin-based immunotherapy: an arsenal of possibilities for patients and science

The use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) concentrated from pooled healthy donors' plasma has gained increasing popularity. IVIG therapy has become important as a replacement therapy in primary and acquired humoral immunodeficiencies, and it has been extended to autoimmune, neurodegenerative and inflammatory conditions and transplantation therapy. Recurrent pregnancy failure and cancer are rather new platforms, where IVIG has shown its beneficial effects. This manuscript is focused on these two off-labelled usages. The immunomodulatory mechanisms of IVIG therapy appear as a coordinated orchestration of different functions, resulting in a synergistic effect. Treatment monitoring and detailed molecular analyses reveal how such treatments may interfere with disease pathogenesis. These finding may foster the development of novel therapeutic and/or preventive strategies. Studying this field with bidirectional bench-to-bedside and bedside-to-bench approaches fit well into 'the two-way road' paradigm of translational medicine.

Lack of association of IL-10 gene polymorphisms with prostate cancer: evidence from 11,581 subjects

Published data on the association between interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene polymorphisms and prostate cancer (PCa) are inconclusive. To derive a more precise estimation of the association, we conducted a meta-analysis. Data were collected from the following electronic databases: PubMed, Elsevier Science Direct, Excerpta Medica Database and Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, with the last report up to September 2010. The odds ratio (OR) and its 95% confidence interval (95%CI) were used to assess the strength of association. A total of 13 separate studies including 5503 cases and 6078 controls based on the search criteria were involved in this meta-analysis. Meta-analysis was performed for three IL-10 gene polymorphisms (rs1800896, rs1800871, and rs1800872). We found no association between IL-10 gene rs1800896 polymorphism and PCa in overall population (G versus A: OR=1.00, 95%CI=0.91-1.10, P=0.99; AG+GG versus AA: OR=1.18, 95%CI=0.97-1.43, P=0.10; GG versus AA+AG: OR=1.04, 95%CI=0.86-1.26, P=0.67). In subgroup analysis, similar results were found in Caucasian (G versus A: OR=0.99, 95%CI=0.84-1.18, P=0.92; AG+GG versus AA: OR=1.32, 95%CI=0.90-1.94, P=0.16; GG versus AA+AG: OR=1.07, 95%CI=0.89-1.28, P=0.48), and Asian (G versus A: OR=0.97, 95%CI=0.78-1.20, P=0.78; AG+GG versus AA: OR=1.07, 95%CI=0.79-1.45, P=0.65; GG versus AA+AG: OR=1.24, 95%CI=0.38-4.07, P=0.73) populations. We did not detect an association between IL-10 gene rs1800871 polymorphism and PCa in overall population (T versus C: OR=0.96, 95%CI=0.85-1.08, P=0.51; CT+TT versus CC: OR=0.94, 95%CI=0.80-1.11, P=0.48; TT versus CC+CT: OR=0.94, 95%CI=0.81-1.10, P=0.44). Similar results were found in Asian population (T versus C: OR=0.85, 95%CI=0.71-1.09, P=0.09; CT+TT versus CC: OR=0.72, 95%CI=0.52-1.17, P=0.05; TT versus CC+CT: OR=0.89, 95%CI=0.68-1.17, P=0.39). We found no association between IL-10 gene rs1800872 polymorphism and PCa in overall population (A versus C: OR=1.03, 95%CI=0.96-1.11, P=0.41; CA+AA versus CC: OR=1.04, 95%CI=0.92-1.17, P=0.56; AA versus CC+CA: OR=1.02, 95%CI=0.85-1.22, P=0.87). Similar results were found in Caucasian population (A versus C: OR=1.06, 95%CI=0.98-1.16, P=0.16; CA+AA versus CC: OR=1.07, 95%CI=0.85-1.35, P=0.57; AA versus CC+CA: OR=1.23, 95%CI=0.92-1.64, P=0.17). This meta-analysis suggests that there is no association between IL-10 gene rs1800896, rs1800871 and rs1800872 polymorphisms and PCa.

Bevacizumab plus fotemustine as first-line treatment in metastatic melanoma patients: clinical activity and modulation of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis factors

PURPOSE

To assess the clinical and biological activity of the association of bevacizumab and fotemustine as first-line treatment in advanced melanoma patients.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Previously untreated, metastatic melanoma patients (n = 20) received bevacizumab (at 15 mg/kg every 3 weeks) and fotemustine (100 mg/m² by intravenous administration on days 1, 8, and 15, repeated after 4 weeks) in a multicenter, single-arm, open-label, phase II study. Primary endpoint was the best overall response rate; other endpoints were toxicity, time to progression (TTP), and overall survival (OS). Serum cytokines, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis factors were monitored by multiplex arrays and by in vitro angiogenesis assays. Effects of fotemustine on melanoma cells, in vitro, on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C release and apoptosis were assessed by ELISA and flow cytometry, respectively.

RESULTS

One complete response, 2 partial responses (PR), and 10 patients with stable disease were observed. TTP and OS were 8.3 and 20.5 months, respectively. Fourteen patients experienced adverse events of toxicity grade 3-4. Serum VEGF-A levels in evaluated patients (n = 15) and overall serum proangiogenic activity were significantly inhibited. A significant reduction in VEGF-C levels was found in several post-versus pretherapy serum samples. In vitro, fotemustine inhibited VEGF-C release by melanoma cells without inducing significant cell death. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-12p70 showed the highest levels in sera of PR patients, compared with patients with stable or progressive disease whereas IL-23 showed the opposite pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of bevacizumab plus fotemustine has clinical activity in advanced melanoma and promotes systemic modulation of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis factors.

Interleukin-10 gene polymorphisms influence susceptibility to cachexia in patients with low-third gastric cancer in a Chinese population

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Interleukin (IL)-10 is a pleiotropic cytokine that can both stimulate and suppress the immune response. Previous studies have reported that IL-10 production was significantly elevated in cachectic patients, and it has been confirmed that polymorphisms of the IL10 gene could influence its expression. Therefore, we designed this study to investigate whether polymorphisms of the IL10 gene were associated with cachexia in patients with low-third gastric cancer in a Chinese population.

METHODS

190 patients with low-third gastric cancer were included in this study. The serum levels of IL-10 were measured by radioimmunoassay. The single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at positions -1082A/G, -819T/C, and -592A/C in the IL10 gene promoter were analyzed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP).

RESULTS

The serum levels of IL-10 were significantly higher in patients with cachexia than in those without (Z = -10.66, p < 0.001). Single SNP analysis showed that the frequency of the IL10 -1082G allele was increased in patients with cachexia (p = 0.02). The -1082AG and -819CC genotypes were observed to be associated with an increased risk of cachexia. In a logistic regression analysis adjusted for actual weight and carcinoma stage, the -1082AG genotype was associated with an odds ratio (OR) of 2.45 (95% CI 1.21, 4.96; p = 0.01), and the -819CC genotype was associated with an OR of 3.70 (95% CI 1.20, 11.39; p = 0.02) for cachexia. Furthermore, haplotype analysis of the -1082A/G, -819T/C, and -592A/C SNPs revealed that at least five haplotypes (ATA, ACC, GCC, ACA, and ATC) were present in this Chinese population, and the -1082G/-819C/-592C (GCC) haplotype was associated with a significantly increased risk of cachexia as compared with the ATA haplotype (OR = 2.42; 95% CI 1.17, 5.00; p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that genetic polymorphisms of IL-10 may influence susceptibility to cachexia in patients with low-third gastric cancer in this Chinese population.

Integrative analysis reveals selective 9p24.1 amplification, increased PD-1 ligand expression, and further induction via JAK2 in nodular sclerosing Hodgkin lymphoma and primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma

Classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) and mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (MLBCL) are lymphoid malignancies with certain shared clinical, histologic, and molecular features. Primary cHLs and MLBCLs include variable numbers of malignant cells within an inflammatory infiltrate, suggesting that these tumors escape immune surveillance. Herein, we integrate high-resolution copy number data with transcriptional profiles and identify the immunoregulatory genes, PD-L1 and PD-L2, as key targets at the 9p24.1 amplification peak in HL and MLBCL cell lines. We extend these findings to laser-capture microdissected primary Hodgkin Reed-Sternberg cells and primary MLBCLs and find that programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) ligand/9p24.1 amplification is restricted to nodular sclerosing HL, the cHL subtype most closely related to MLBCL. Using quantitative immunohistochemical methods, we document the association between 9p24.1 copy number and PD-1 ligand expression in primary tumors. In cHL and MLBCL, the extended 9p24.1 amplification region also included the Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) locus. Of note, JAK2 amplification increased protein expression and activity, specifically induced PD-1 ligand transcription and enhanced sensitivity to JAK2 inhibition. Therefore, 9p24.1 amplification is a disease-specific structural alteration that increases both the gene dosage of PD-1 ligands and their induction by JAK2, defining the PD-1 pathway and JAK2 as complementary rational therapeutic targets.

Immunotherapy for melanoma: current status and perspectives

Immunotherapy is an important modality in the therapy of patients with malignant melanoma. As our knowledge about this disease continues to expand, so does the immunotherapeutic armamentarium. Nevertheless, successful preclinical models do not always translate into clinically meaningful results. The authors give a comprehensive analysis of most recent advances in the immune anti-melanoma therapy, including interleukins, interferons, other cytokines, adoptive immunotherapy, biochemotherapy, as well as the use of different vaccines. We also present the fundamental concepts behind various immune enhancement strategies, passive immunotherapy, as well as the use of immune adjuvants. This review brings into discussion the results of newer and older clinical trials, as well as potential limitations and drawbacks seen with the utilization of various immune therapies in malignant melanoma. Development of novel therapeutic approaches, along with optimization of existing therapies, continues to hold a great promise in the field of melanoma therapy research. Use of anti-CTLA4 and anti-PD1 antibodies, realization of the importance of co-stimulatory signals, which translated into the use of agonist CD40 monoclonal antibodies, as well as activation of innate immunity through enhanced expression of co-stimulatory molecules on the surface of dendritic cells by TLR agonists are only a few items on the list of recent advances in the treatment of melanoma. The need to engineer better immune interactions and to boost positive feedback loops appear crucial for the future of melanoma therapy, which ultimately resides in our understanding of the complexity of immune responses in this disease.

Cox-2 and IL-10 polymorphisms and association with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in a Korean sample

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is involved in inflammation and carcinogenesis. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is also regarded as anti-inflammatory factors with the multi-functional ability to positively and negatively influence functional immunity and tumor development. Genetic polymorphisms of COX-2 and IL-10 might contribute to the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of COX-2 and IL-10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with the risk of SCCHN in a Korean sample. We analyzed the COX-2 SNPs, -1329A>G, +1266C>T, and +6365T>C, and the IL-10 SNPs, -1082A>G, +920T>G, and +3917T>C, in 290 Korean SCCHN patients and 358 healthy controls. There was no significant association between the risk of SCCHN and the three COX-2 or three IL-10 SNPs. We analyzed three haplotypes (ht1, ht2, ht3) for COX-2 and found that COX-2 ht3+/+ was associated with a decreased risk of SCCHN in a Korean sample, compared with the COX-2 ht3 -/- genotype (P=0.03). Two haplotypes (ht1, ht2) of IL-10 were analyzed and there was no statistical significance in the distribution of haplotypes. Based on these results, the COX-2 haplotype ht3 can be used as a molecular biomarker to predict low risk groups of SCCHN in a Korean sample.

Association of interleukin-10 gene polymorphisms with breast cancer in a Chinese population

Backgroud

Interleukin-10(IL-10) is a multifunctional cytokine with both immunosuppressive and antiangiogenic functions. Polymorphisms in the IL-10 gene promoter genetically determine interindividual differences in IL-10 production. This study was performed to determined whether polymorphisms in the IL-10 gene promoter were associated with breast cancer in a Chinese Han population.

Methods

We genotyped 315 patients with breast cancer and 322 healthy control subjects for -1082A/G, -819T/C and -592A/C single nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter region of the IL-10 gene by polymerase chain reactionerestriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP).

Results

There were no significant differences in genotype, allele, or haplotype frequencies in all three loci between patients and healthy controls. Analysis of breast cancer prognostic and predictive factors revealed that the -1082AA genotype was associated with a significantly increased risk of lymph node (LN) involvement (P = 0.041) and larger tumor size (P = 0.039) at the time of diagnosis. Furthermore, in the haplotype analysis of IL-10 gene, we found that patients carrying ATA haplotype were in higher LN involvement (p = 0.022) and higher tumor stage(p = 0.028) of breast cancer at the time of diagnosis compared with others.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that IL-10 promoter polymorphisms participate in the progression of breast cancer rather than in its initial development in Chinese Han women.

Adenosine and prostaglandin E2 cooperate in the suppression of immune responses mediated by adaptive regulatory T cells

Adaptive regulatory T cells (Tr1) are induced in the periphery upon encountering cognate antigens. In cancer, their frequency is increased; however, Tr1-mediated suppression mechanisms are not yet defined. Here, we evaluate the simultaneous involvement of ectonucleotidases (CD39/CD73) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) in Tr1-mediated suppression. Human Tr1 cells were generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived, sorted CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells and incubated with autologous immature dendritic cells, irradiated COX-2(+) or COX-2(-) tumor cells, and IL-2, IL-10, and IL-15 (each at 10-15 IU/ml) for 10 days as described (Bergmann, C., Strauss, L., Zeidler, R., Lang, S., and Whiteside, T. L. (2007) Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 56, 1429-1442). Tr1 were phenotyped by multicolor flow cytometry, and suppression of proliferating responder cells was assessed in carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester-based assays. ATP hydrolysis was measured using a luciferase detection assay, and levels of adenosine or prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) in cell supernatants were analyzed by mass spectrometry or ELISA, respectively. Intracellular cAMP levels were measured by enzyme immunoassay. The COX-2(+) tumor induced a greater number of Tr1 than COX-2(-) tumor (p < 0.05). Tr1 induced by COX-2(+) tumor were more suppressive, hydrolyzed more exogenous ATP (p < 0.05), and produced higher levels of adenosine and PGE(2) (p < 0.05) than Tr1 induced by COX-2(-) tumor. Inhibitors of ectonucleotidase activity, A(2A) and EP(2) receptor antagonists, or an inhibitor of the PKA type I decreased Tr1-mediated suppression (p < 0.05), whereas rolipram, a PDE(4) inhibitor, increased the intracellular cAMP level in responder cells and their susceptibility to Tr1-mediated suppression. Tr1 present in tumors or the peripheral blood of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients co-expressed COX-2, CD39, and CD73. A concomitant inhibition of PGE(2) and adenosine via the common intracellular cAMP pathway might be a novel approach for improving results of immune therapies for cancer.

Vaccine prevention of cancer: can endogenous antigens be targeted?

This perspective on the report by Beatty et al. in this issue of the journal (beginning on page 438) discusses the prevention of cancer through vaccination strategies that target antigens associated with tumor promotion and progression. Such approaches were first developed for treating cancer. We address cancer vaccination in the context of a mouse model of inflammatory bowel disease expressing MUC1, an epithelial mucin aberrantly expressed during chronic inflammation and in colorectal carcinogenesis, and in a broader context that includes the potential of targeting the tumor microenvironment for immunoprevention in humans. Obstacles in developing effective cancer vaccines, including antigen selection, immunoediting, and tumor-mediated immunosuppression, are also discussed.

CD8+ T cells expressing IL-10 are associated with a favourable prognosis in lung cancer

The dual role of tumour-infiltrating macrophages and lymphocytes on nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) progression and prognosis may be due to the differential activity of their phenotypes. To investigate the impact of inflammatory cells on NSCLC, we first quantified the number of macrophages (CD68+) and lymphocytes (CD8+ and CD4+) and the percentage of CD8+ cells expressing IL-10 (CD8+/IL-10+) in tumour stroma and epithelium. Then, we evaluated the possible relationships between the numbers of these cells and the clinicopathological features and the overall survival of patients. Paraffin-embedded sections of surgical specimens from 64 patients who had undergone surgery for NSCLC were immunostained with antibodies directed against CD68, CD4, CD8 and IL-10. The percentage of CD8+/IL-10+ cells was higher in cancer stroma of patients with stage I NSCLC than in those with stages II, III, and IV. High percentages of stromal CD8+/IL-10+ cells were associated with longer overall patient survival. In contrast, the number of CD68+, CD8+ and CD4+ cells did not differ between stage I NSCLC and stages II, III, and IV. In conclusion, the survival advantage of patients with stage I NSCLC may be related to the anti-tumour activity of the CD8+/IL-10+ cell phenotype.

Romero J, Carretero R, Tallada Buñuel M, Ruiz Cabello F, Manuel Cózar Olmo J. [Polymorphisms in inflammatory response genes in metastatic renal cancer]

Inflammation has been implicated as an etiological factor in different human cancers. Allelic variations in the genes implicated in inflammation are candidates as genetic determinants or markers of renal carcinoma risk. The present stud investigates whether polymorphisms of the genes that give rise to increases in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines are associated with an increased risk of renal carcinoma. To this effect, a number of case-control studies were designed to assess the correlation between renal carcinoma and polymorphisms IL10-1082 A/G (rs 1800896), IL10-592 A/C (rs 1800872), IL10-819 C/T (rs 1800871), IL10-1082 A/G, IL4-590 C/T (rs 2243250), TNF-A-308 A/G (rs 1800629), RANTES-403 G/A (rs 2107538), IL1-A-889 C/T (rs 1800587), MCP-1 2518 G/A (rs 1024611), CTLA-4/+49 A/G (rs 231775) and CTLA-4 CT60 A/G (rs 3087243) in 127 renal carcinoma patients and in 176 healthy subjects. The results obtained in relation to cytokine polymorphism IL-10-1082 A/G indicate that AG heterozygosity status is the principal risk factor in relation to locally advanced or metastatic tumor stage and renal carcinoma. In the case of the molecule CTLA4, the results obtained in renal cancer reveal an association between the polymorphisms of the CTLA-4 gene and an increased risk of developing renal cell carcinoma. A high genotypic frequency of polymorphisms CTLA4/CT60-AA and CTLA4/A49G-AA is observed in patients with renal cell carcinoma versus the controls. An association has been established between polymorphism CTLA4/CT60 and tumor grade in patients with renal cell carcinoma. Logistic regression analysis has confirmed these data, demonstrating a high frequency of the AA genotype in patients with high-grade tumors. The results obtained support the hypothesis that different genetic factors implicated in the regulation of adaptive immune responses, stromal cell composition and local cytokine production levels may be crucial elements in the modification of the clinicopathological parameters of renal carcinoma.