Neuronal assemblies of the Drosophila mushroom body

Dye fills reveal additional olfactory tracts in the protocerebrum of wild-type Drosophila

The antennal lobe (AL) is the primary olfactory center in insect brains. It receives sensory input from the olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and sends, through its projection neurons (PNs), reformatted output to secondary olfactory centers, including the mushroom body (MB) calyx and the lateral horn (LH) in the protocerebrum. By injecting dye into the AL of wild-type Drosophila, we identified previously unknown direct pathways between the AL and the ventrolateral, superior medial, and posterior lateral protocerebra. We found that most of these areas in the protocerebrum are connected with the AL through multiple tracts, suggesting that these areas are sites of convergence for olfactory information. Furthermore, areas such as the superior medial protocerebrum now appear to receive olfactory output both directly from the AL and indirectly from lobes of the MB and the LH, suggesting a degree of functional interaction among these areas. We also analyzed the length and number of fibers in each tract. We compare our results obtained from wild-type flies with recent results from transgenic strains and discuss how information about odorants is distributed to multiple protocerebral areas.

Organization of antennal lobe-associated neurons in adult Drosophila melanogaster brain

The primary olfactory centers of both vertebrates and insects are characterized by glomerular structure. Each glomerulus receives sensory input from a specific type of olfactory sensory neurons, creating a topographic map of the odor quality. The primary olfactory center is also innervated by various types of neurons such as local neurons, output projection neurons (PNs), and centrifugal neurons from higher brain regions. Although recent studies have revealed how olfactory sensory input is conveyed to each glomerulus, it still remains unclear how the information is integrated and conveyed to other brain areas. By using the GAL4 enhancer-trap system, we conducted a systematic mapping of the neurons associated with the primary olfactory center of Drosophila, the antennal lobe (AL). We identified in total 29 types of neurons, among which 13 are newly identified in the present study. Analyses of arborizations of these neurons in the AL revealed how glomeruli are linked with each other, how different PNs link these glomeruli with multiple secondary sites, and how these secondary sites are organized by the projections of the AL-associated neurons.

Dopaminergic neurons encode a distributed, asymmetric representation of temperature in Drosophila

Dopaminergic circuits modulate a wide variety of innate and learned behaviors in animals, including olfactory associative learning, arousal, and temperature-preference behavior. It is not known whether distinct or overlapping sets of dopaminergic neurons modulate these behaviors. Here, I have functionally characterized the dopaminergic circuits innervating the Drosophila mushroom body with in vivo calcium imaging and conditional silencing of genetically defined subsets of neurons. Distinct subsets of PPL1 dopaminergic neurons innervating the vertical lobes of the mushroom body responded to decreases in temperature, but not increases, with rapidly adapting bursts of activity. PAM neurons innervating the horizontal lobes did not respond to temperature shifts. Ablation of the antennae and maxillary palps reduced, but did not eliminate, the responses. Genetic silencing of dopaminergic neurons innervating the vertical mushroom body lobes substantially reduced behavioral cold avoidance, but silencing smaller subsets of these neurons had no effect. These data demonstrate that overlapping dopaminergic circuits encode a broadly distributed, asymmetric representation of temperature that overlays regions implicated previously in learning, memory, and forgetting. Thus, diverse behaviors engage overlapping sets of dopaminergic neurons that encode multimodal stimuli and innervate a single anatomical target, the mushroom body.

Systematic analysis of neural projections reveals clonal composition of the Drosophila brain

BACKGROUND

During development neurons are generated by sequential divisions of neural stem cells, or neuroblasts. In the insect brain progeny of certain stem cells form lineage-specific sets of projections that arborize in distinct brain regions, called clonal units. Though this raises the possibility that the entire neural network in the brain might be organized in a clone-dependent fashion, only a small portion of clones has been identified.

RESULTS

Using Drosophila melanogaster, we randomly labeled one of about 100 stem cells at the beginning of the larval stage, analyzed the projection patterns of their progeny in the adult, and identified 96 clonal units in the central part of the fly brain, the cerebrum. Neurons of all the clones arborize in distinct regions of the brain, though many clones feature heterogeneous groups of neurons in terms of their projection patterns and neurotransmitters. Arborizations of clones overlap preferentially to form several groups of closely associated clones. Fascicles and commissures were all made by unique sets of clones. Whereas well-investigated brain regions such as the mushroom body and central complex consist of relatively small numbers of clones and are specifically connected with a limited number of neuropils, seemingly disorganized neuropils surrounding them are composed by a much larger number of clones and have extensive specific connections with many other neuropils.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed that the insect brain is formed by a composition of cell-lineage-dependent modules. Clonal analysis reveals organized architecture even in those neuropils without obvious structural landmarks.

Reinforcement signalling in Drosophila; dopamine does it all after all

Reinforcement systems are believed to drive synaptic plasticity within neural circuits that store memories. Recent evidence from the fruit fly suggests that anatomically distinct dopaminergic neurons ultimately provide the key instructive signals for both appetitive and aversive learning. This dual role for dopamine overturns the previous model that octopamine signalled reward and dopamine punishment. More importantly, this anatomically segregated double role for dopamine in reward and aversion mirrors that emerging in mammals. Therefore, an antagonistic organization of distinct reinforcing dopaminegic neurons is a conserved feature of brains. It now seems crucial to understand how the dopaminergic neurons are controlled and what the released dopamine does to the underlying circuits to convey opposite valence.

Functional mapping of the neuronal substrates for drug tolerance in Drosophila

Physical dependence on alcohol and anesthetics stems from neuroadaptive changes that act to counter the effects of sedation in the brain. In Drosophila, exposure to either alcohol or solvent anesthetics have been shown to induce changes in expression of the BK-type Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel gene slo. An increase in slo expression produces an adaptive modulation of neural activity that generates resistance to sedation and promotes drug tolerance and dependence. Increased BK channel activity counteracts the sedative effects of these drugs by reducing the neuronal refractory period and enhancing the capacity of neurons for repetitive firing. However, the brain regions or neuronal populations capable of producing inducible resistance or tolerance remain unknown. Here we map the neuronal substrates relevant for the slo-dependent modulation of drug sensitivity. Using spatially-controlled induction of slo expression we identify the mushroom bodies, the ellipsoid body and a subset of the circadian clock neurons as pivotal regions for the control of recovery from sedation.

Modeling the insect mushroom bodies: application to a delayed match-to-sample task

Despite their small brains, insects show advanced capabilities in learning and task solving. Flies, honeybees and ants are becoming a reference point in neuroscience and a main source of inspiration for autonomous robot design issues and control algorithms. In particular, honeybees demonstrate to be able to autonomously abstract complex associations and apply them in tasks involving different sensory modalities within the insect brain. Mushroom Bodies (MBs) are worthy of primary attention for understanding memory and learning functions in insects. In fact, even if their main role regards olfactory conditioning, they are involved in many behavioral achievements and learning capabilities, as has been shown in honeybees and flies. Owing to the many neurogenetic tools, the fruit fly Drosophila became a source of information for the neuroarchitecture and biochemistry of the MBs, although the MBs of flies are by far simpler in organization than their honeybee orthologs. Electrophysiological studies, in turn, became available on the MBs of locusts and honeybees. In this paper a novel bio-inspired neural architecture is presented, which represents a generalized insect MB with the basic features taken from fruit fly neuroanatomy. By mimicking a number of different MB functions and architecture, we can replace and improve formerly used artificial neural networks. The model is a multi-layer spiking neural network where key elements of the insect brain, the antennal lobes, the lateral horn region, the MBs, and their mutual interactions are modeled. In particular, the model is based on the role of parts of the MBs named MB-lobes, where interesting processing mechanisms arise on the basis of spatio-temporal pattern formation. The introduced network is able to model learning mechanisms like olfactory conditioning seen in honeybees and flies and was found able also to perform more complex and abstract associations, like the delayed matching-to-sample tasks known only from honeybees. A biological basis of the proposed model is presented together with a detailed description of the architecture. Simulation results and remarks on the biological counterpart are also reported to demonstrate the possible applications of the designed computational model. Such neural architecture, able to autonomously learn complex associations is envisaged to be a suitable basis for an immediate implementation within an robot control architecture.

Two dopaminergic neurons signal to the dorsal fan-shaped body to promote wakefulness in Drosophila

BACKGROUND

The neuronal circuitry underlying sleep is poorly understood. Although dopamine (DA) is thought to play a key role in sleep/wake regulation, the identities of the individual DA neurons and their downstream targets required for this process are unknown.

RESULTS

Here, we identify a DA neuron in each PPL1 cluster that promotes wakefulness in Drosophila. Imaging data suggest that the activity of these neurons is increased during wakefulness, consistent with a role in promoting arousal. Strikingly, these neurons project to the dorsal fan-shaped body, which has previously been shown to promote sleep. The reduced sleep caused by activation of DA neurons can be blocked by loss of DopR, and restoration of DopR expression in the fan-shaped body can rescue the wake-promoting effects of DA in a DopR mutant background.

CONCLUSIONS

These experiments define a novel arousal circuit at the single-cell level. Because the dorsal fan-shaped body promotes sleep, these data provide a key link between wake and sleep circuits. Furthermore, these findings suggest that inhibition of sleep centers via monoaminergic signaling is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to promote arousal.

Memory formation: traversing the highwire

Molecules that suppress memory formation protect against the consolidation of inaccurate information. A recent study in Drosophila has identified a new pathway for memory suppression and the neurons that are a gateway to long-term memory formation.

A GAL4-driver line resource for Drosophila neurobiology

We established a collection of 7,000 transgenic lines of Drosophila melanogaster. Expression of GAL4 in each line is controlled by a different, defined fragment of genomic DNA that serves as a transcriptional enhancer. We used confocal microscopy of dissected nervous systems to determine the expression patterns driven by each fragment in the adult brain and ventral nerve cord. We present image data on 6,650 lines. Using both manual and machine-assisted annotation, we describe the expression patterns in the most useful lines. We illustrate the utility of these data for identifying novel neuronal cell types, revealing brain asymmetry, and describing the nature and extent of neuronal shape stereotypy. The GAL4 lines allow expression of exogenous genes in distinct, small subsets of the adult nervous system. The set of DNA fragments, each driving a documented expression pattern, will facilitate the generation of additional constructs for manipulating neuronal function.

Representation of the brain's superior protocerebrum of the flesh fly, Neobellieria bullata, in the central body

The central complex of the insect brain is a system of midline neuropils involved in transforming sensory information into behavioral outputs. Genetic studies focusing on nerve cells supplying the central complex from the protocerebrum propose that such neurons play key roles in circuits involved in learning the distinction of visual cues during operant conditioning. To better identify the possible sites of such circuits we used Bodian and anti-synapsin staining to resolve divisions of the superior protocerebrum into discrete neuropils. Here we show that in the fly Neobellieria bullata, the superior protocerebrum is composed of at least five clearly defined regions that correspond to those identified in Drosophila melanogaster. Intracellular dye fills and Golgi impregnations resolve "tangential neurons" that have intricate systems of branches in two of these regions. The branches are elaborate, decorated with specializations indicative of pre- and postsynaptic sites. The tangentially arranged terminals of these neurons extend across characteristic levels of the central complex's fan-shaped body. In this and another blowfly species, we identify an asymmetric pair of neuropils situated deep in the fan-shaped body, called the asymmetric bodies because of their likely homology with similar elements in Drosophila. One of the pair of bodies receives collaterals from symmetric arrangements of tangential neuron terminals. Cobalt injections reveal that the superior protocerebrum is richly supplied with local interneurons that are likely participants in microcircuitry associated with the distal processes of tangential neurons. Understanding the morphologies and arrangements of these and other neurons is essential for correctly interpreting functional attributes of the central complex.

Activity in Neurons of a Putative Protocerebral Circuit Representing Information about a 10 Component Plant Odor Blend in Heliothis virescens

The olfactory pathway in the insect brain is anatomically well described from the antennal lobe (AL) to the mushroom bodies and the lateral protocerebrum (LP) in several species. Less is known about the further connections of the olfactory network in protocerebrum and how information about relevant plant odorants and mixtures are represented in this network, resulting in output information mediated by descending neurons. In the present study we have recorded intracellularly followed by dye injections from neurons in the LP and superior protocerebrum (SP) of the moth, Heliothis virescens. As relevant stimuli, we have used selected primary plant odorants and mixtures of them. The results provide the morphology and physiological responses of neurons involved in a putative circuit connecting the mushroom body lobes, the SP, and the LP, as well as input to SP and LP by one multiglomerular AL neuron and output from the LP by one descending neuron. All neurons responded to a particular mixture of ten primary plant odorants, some of them also to single odorants of the mixture. Altogether, the physiological data indicate integration in protocerebral neurons of information from several of the receptor neuron types functionally described in this species.

Functional analysis of a higher olfactory center, the lateral horn

The lateral horn (LH) of the insect brain is thought to play several important roles in olfaction, including maintaining the sparseness of responses to odors by means of feedforward inhibition, and encoding preferences for innately meaningful odors. Yet relatively little is known of the structure and function of LH neurons (LHNs), making it difficult to evaluate these ideas. Here we surveyed >250 LHNs in locusts using intracellular recordings to characterize their responses to sensory stimuli, dye-fills to characterize their morphologies, and immunostaining to characterize their neurotransmitters. We found a great diversity of LHNs, suggesting this area may play multiple roles. Yet, surprisingly, we found no evidence to support a role for these neurons in the feedforward inhibition proposed to mediate olfactory response sparsening; instead, it appears that another mechanism, feedback inhibition from the giant GABAergic neuron, serves this function. Further, all LHNs we observed responded to all odors we tested, making it unlikely these LHNs serve as labeled lines mediating specific behavioral responses to specific odors. Our results rather point to three other possible roles of LHNs: extracting general stimulus features such as odor intensity; mediating bilateral integration of sensory information; and integrating multimodal sensory stimuli.

The GABAergic anterior paired lateral neurons facilitate olfactory reversal learning in Drosophila

Reversal learning has been widely used to probe the implementation of cognitive flexibility in the brain. Previous studies in monkeys identified an essential role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in reversal learning. However, the underlying circuits and molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we use the T-maze to investigate the neural mechanism of olfactory reversal learning in Drosophila. By adding a reversal training cycle to the classical learning protocol, we show that wild-type flies are able to reverse their choice according to the alteration of conditioned stimulus (CS)-unconditioned stimulus (US) contingency. The reversal protocol induced a specific suppression of the initial memory, an effect distinct from memory decay or extinction. GABA down-regulation in the anterior paired lateral (APL) neurons, which innervate the mushroom bodies (MBs), eliminates this suppression effect and impairs normal reversal. These findings reveal that inhibitory regulation from the GABAergic APL neurons facilitates olfactory reversal learning by suppressing initial memory in Drosophila.

Developmental origins and architecture of Drosophila leg motoneurons

Motoneurons are key points of convergence within motor networks, acting as the "output channels" that directly control sets of muscles to maintain posture and generate movement. Here we use genetic mosaic techniques to reveal the origins and architecture of the leg motoneurons of Drosophila. We show that a small number of leg motoneurons are born in the embryo but most are generated during larval life. These postembryonic leg motoneurons are produced by five neuroblasts per hemineuromere, and each lineage generates stereotyped lineage-specific projection patterns. Two of these postembryonic neuroblasts generate solely motoneurons that are the bulk of the leg motoneurons. Within the largest lineage, lineage 15, we see distinct birth-order differences in projection patterns. A comparison of the central projections of leg motoneurons and the muscles they innervate reveals a stereotyped architecture and the existence of a myotopic map. Timeline analysis of axonal outgrowth reveals that leg motoneurons reach their sites of terminal arborization in the leg at the time when their dendrites are elaborating their subtype-specific shapes. Our findings provide a comprehensive description of the origin, development, and architecture of leg motoneurons that will aid future studies exploring the link between the assembly and organization of connectivity within the leg motor system of Drosophila.

Origin of Drosophila mushroom body neuroblasts and generation of divergent embryonic lineages

Key to understanding the mechanisms that underlie the specification of divergent cell types in the brain is knowledge about the neurectodermal origin and lineages of their stem cells. Here, we focus on the origin and embryonic development of the four neuroblasts (NBs) per hemisphere in Drosophila that give rise to the mushroom bodies (MBs), which are central brain structures essential for olfactory learning and memory. We show that these MBNBs originate from a single field of proneural gene expression within a specific mitotic domain of procephalic neuroectoderm, and that Notch signaling is not needed for their formation. Subsequently, each MBNB occupies a distinct position in the developing MB cortex and expresses a specific combination of transcription factors by which they are individually identifiable in the brain NB map. During embryonic development each MBNB generates an individual cell lineage comprising different numbers of neurons, including intrinsic γ-neurons and various types of non-intrinsic neurons that do not contribute to the MB neuropil. This contrasts with the postembryonic phase of MBNB development during which they have been shown to produce identical populations of intrinsic neurons. We show that different neuron types are produced in a lineage-specific temporal order and that neuron numbers are regulated by differential mitotic activity of the MBNBs. Finally, we demonstrate that γ-neuron axonal outgrowth and spatiotemporal innervation of the MB lobes follows a lineage-specific mode. The MBNBs are the first stem cells of the Drosophila CNS for which the origin and complete cell lineages have been determined.

Three dopamine pathways induce aversive odor memories with different stability

Animals acquire predictive values of sensory stimuli through reinforcement. In the brain of Drosophila melanogaster, activation of two types of dopamine neurons in the PAM and PPL1 clusters has been shown to induce aversive odor memory. Here, we identified the third cell type and characterized aversive memories induced by these dopamine neurons. These three dopamine pathways all project to the mushroom body but terminate in the spatially segregated subdomains. To understand the functional difference of these dopamine pathways in electric shock reinforcement, we blocked each one of them during memory acquisition. We found that all three pathways partially contribute to electric shock memory. Notably, the memories mediated by these neurons differed in temporal stability. Furthermore, combinatorial activation of two of these pathways revealed significant interaction of individual memory components rather than their simple summation. These results cast light on a cellular mechanism by which a noxious event induces different dopamine signals to a single brain structure to synthesize an aversive memory.

Dopamine is required for learning and forgetting in Drosophila

Psychological studies in humans and behavioral studies of model organisms suggest that forgetting is a common and biologically regulated process, but the molecular, cellular, and circuit mechanisms underlying forgetting are poorly understood. Here we show that the bidirectional modulation of a small subset of dopamine neurons (DANs) after olfactory learning regulates the rate of forgetting of both punishing (aversive) and rewarding (appetitive) memories. Two of these DANs, MP1 and MV1, exhibit synchronized ongoing activity in the mushroom body neuropil in alive and awake flies before and after learning, as revealed by functional cellular imaging. Furthermore, while the mushroom-body-expressed dDA1 dopamine receptor is essential for the acquisition of memory, we show that the dopamine receptor DAMB, also highly expressed in mushroom body neurons, is required for forgetting. We propose a dual role for dopamine: memory acquisition through dDA1 signaling and forgetting through DAMB signaling in the mushroom body neurons.

Diversity, variability, and suboesophageal connectivity of antennal lobe neurons in D. melanogaster larvae

Whereas the "vertical" elements of the insect olfactory pathway, the olfactory receptor neurons and the projection neurons, have been studied in great detail, local interneurons providing "horizontal" connections in the antennal lobe were ignored for a long time. Recent studies in adult Drosophila demonstrate diverse roles for these neurons in the integration of odor information, consistent with the identification of a large variety of anatomical and neurochemical subtypes. Here we focus on the larval olfactory circuit of Drosophila, which is much reduced in terms of cell numbers. We show that the horizontal connectivity in the larval antennal lobe differs largely from its adult counterpart. Only one of the five anatomical types of neurons we describe is restricted to the antennal lobe and therefore fits the definition of a local interneuron. Interestingly, the four remaining subtypes innervate both the antennal lobe and the suboesophageal ganglion. In the latter, they may overlap with primary gustatory terminals and with arborizations of hugin cells, which are involved in feeding control. This circuitry suggests special links between smell and taste, which may reflect the chemosensory constraints of a crawling and burrowing lifestyle. We also demonstrate that many of the neurons we describe exhibit highly variable trajectories and arborizations, especially in the suboesophageal ganglion. Together with reports from adult Drosophila, these data suggest that wiring variability may be another principle of insect brain organization, in parallel with stereotypy.

Analysis of cell identity, morphology, apoptosis and mitotic activity in a primary neural cell culture system in Drosophila

In Drosophila, most neurogenetic research is carried out in vivo. Mammalian research demonstrates that primary cell culture techniques provide a powerful model to address cell autonomous and non-autonomous processes outside their endogenous environment. We developed a cell culture system in Drosophila using wildtype and genetically manipulated primary neural tissue for long-term observations. We assessed the molecular identity of distinct neural cell types by immunolabeling and genetically expressed fluorescent cell markers. We monitored mitotic activity of cell cultures derived from wildtype and tumorous larval brains. Our system provides a powerful approach to unveil developmental processes in the nervous system and to complement studies in vivo.

Neuropeptides in insect mushroom bodies

Owing to their experimental amenability, insect nervous systems continue to be in the foreground of investigations into information processing in - ostensibly - simple neuronal networks. Among the cerebral neuropil regions that hold a particular fascination for neurobiologists are the paired mushroom bodies, which, despite their function in other behavioral contexts, are most renowned for their role in learning and memory. The quest to understand the processes that underlie these capacities has been furthered by research focusing on unraveling neuroanatomical connections of the mushroom bodies and identifying key players that characterize the molecular machinery of mushroom body neurons. However, on a cellular level, communication between intrinsic and extrinsic mushroom body neurons still remains elusive. The present account aims to provide an overview on the repertoire of neuropeptides expressed in and utilized by mushroom body neurons. Existing data for a number of insect representatives is compiled and some open gaps in the record are filled by presenting additional original data.

Gamma neurons mediate dopaminergic input during aversive olfactory memory formation in Drosophila

Mushroom body (MB)-dependent olfactory learning in Drosophila provides a powerful model to investigate memory mechanisms. MBs integrate olfactory conditioned stimulus (CS) inputs with neuromodulatory reinforcement (unconditioned stimuli, US), which for aversive learning is thought to rely on dopaminergic (DA) signaling to DopR, a D1-like dopamine receptor expressed in MBs. A wealth of evidence suggests the conclusion that parallel and independent signaling occurs downstream of DopR within two MB neuron cell types, with each supporting half of memory performance. For instance, expression of the Rutabaga (Rut) adenylyl cyclase in γ neurons is sufficient to restore normal learning to rut mutants, whereas expression of Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) in α/β neurons is sufficient to rescue NF1 mutants. DopR mutations are the only case where memory performance is fully eliminated, consistent with the hypothesis that DopR receives the US inputs for both γ and α/β lobe traces. We demonstrate, however, that DopR expression in γ neurons is sufficient to fully support short- and long-term memory. We argue that DA-mediated CS-US association is formed in γ neurons followed by communication between γ and α/β neurons to drive consolidation.

Frequent recent origination of brain genes shaped the evolution of foraging behavior in Drosophila

The evolution of the brain and behavior are coupled puzzles. The genetic bases for brain evolution are widely debated, yet whether newly evolved genes impact the evolution of the brain and behavior is vaguely understood. Here, we show that during recent evolution in Drosophila, new genes have frequently acquired neuronal expression, particularly in the mushroom bodies. Evolutionary signatures combined with expression profiling showed that natural selection influenced the evolution of young genes expressed in the brain, notably in mushroom bodies. Case analyses showed that two young retrogenes are expressed in the olfactory circuit and facilitate foraging behavior. Comparative behavioral analysis revealed divergence in foraging behavior between species. Our data suggest that during adaptive evolution, new genes gain expression in specific brain structures and evolve new functions in neural circuits, which might contribute to the phenotypic evolution of animal behavior.

Highwire regulates guidance of sister axons in the Drosophila mushroom body

Axons often form synaptic contacts with multiple targets by extending branches along different paths. PHR (Pam/Highwire/RPM-1) family ubiquitin ligases are important regulators of axon development, with roles in axon outgrowth, target selection, and synapse formation. Here we report the function of Highwire, the Drosophila member of the PHR family, in promoting the segregation of sister axons during mushroom body (MB) formation. Loss of highwire results in abnormal development of the axonal lobes in the MB, leading to thinned and shortened lobes. The highwire defect is attributable to guidance errors after axon branching, in which sister axons that should target different lobes instead extend together into the same lobe. The highwire mutant MB displays elevation in the level of the MAPKKK Wallenda/DLK (dual leucine zipper kinase), a previously identified substrate of Highwire, and genetic suppression studies show that Wallenda/DLK is required for the highwire MB phenotype. The highwire lobe defect is limited to α/β lobe axons, but transgenic expression of highwire in the pioneering α'/β' neurons rescues the phenotype. Mosaic analysis further shows that α/β axons of highwire mutant clones develop normally, demonstrating a non-cell-autonomous role of Highwire for axon guidance. Genetic interaction studies suggest that Highwire and Plexin A signals may interact to regulate normal morphogenesis of α/β axons.

Prevention of apoptosis by mitochondrial phosphatase PGAM5 in the mushroom body is crucial for heat shock resistance in Drosophila melanogaster

The heat shock (HS) response is essential for survival of all organisms. Although the machinery of the HS response has been extensively investigated at the cellular level, it is poorly understood at the level of the organism. Here, we show the crucial role of the mushroom body (MB) in the HS response in Drosophila. Null mutants of the mitochondrial phosphatase Drosophila PGAM5 (dPGAM5) exhibited increased vulnerability to HS, which was reversed by MB-specific expression of the caspase inhibitor p35, and similar vulnerability was induced in wild-type flies by knockdown of MB dPGAM5. Elimination of the MB did not affect the HS response of wild-type flies, but did increase the resistance of dPGAM5-deficient flies to HS. Thus, the MB may possess an apoptosis-dependent toxic function, the suppression of which by dPGAM5 appears to be crucial for HS resistance.

Wnt/PCP proteins regulate stereotyped axon branch extension in Drosophila

Branching morphology is a hallmark feature of axons and dendrites and is essential for neuronal connectivity. To understand how this develops, I analyzed the stereotyped pattern of Drosophila mushroom body (MB) neurons, which have single axons branches that extend dorsally and medially. I found that components of the Wnt/Planar Cell Polarity (PCP) pathway control MB axon branching. frizzled mutant animals showed a predominant loss of dorsal branch extension, whereas strabismus (also known as Van Gogh) mutants preferentially lost medial branches. Further results suggest that Frizzled and Strabismus act independently. Nonetheless, branching fates are determined by complex Wnt/PCP interactions, including interactions with Dishevelled and Prickle that function in a context-dependent manner. Branching decisions are MB-autonomous but non-cell-autonomous as mutant and non-mutant neurons regulate these decisions collectively. I found that Wnt/PCP components do not need to be asymmetrically localized to distinct branches to execute branching functions. However, Prickle axonal localization depends on Frizzled and Strabismus.

The genetic analysis of functional connectomics in Drosophila

Fly and vertebrate nervous systems share many organizational features, such as layers, columns and glomeruli, and utilize similar synaptic components, such as ion channels and receptors. Both also exhibit similar network features. Recent technological advances, especially in electron microscopy, now allow us to determine synaptic circuits and identify pathways cell-by-cell, as part of the fly's connectome. Genetic tools provide the means to identify synaptic components, as well as to record and manipulate neuronal activity, adding function to the connectome. This review discusses technical advances in these emerging areas of functional connectomics, offering prognoses in each and identifying the challenges in bridging structural connectomics to molecular biology and synaptic physiology, thereby determining fundamental mechanisms of neural computation that underlie behavior.

A putative vesicular transporter expressed in Drosophila mushroom bodies that mediates sexual behavior may define a neurotransmitter system

Vesicular transporters are required for the storage of all classical and amino acid neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles. Some neurons lack known vesicular transporters, suggesting additional neurotransmitter systems remain unidentified. Insect mushroom bodies (MBs) are critical for several behaviors, including learning, but the neurotransmitters released by the intrinsic Kenyon cells (KCs) remain unknown. Likewise, KCs do not express a known vesicular transporter. We report the identification of a novel Drosophila gene portabella (prt) that is structurally similar to known vesicular transporters. Both larval and adult brains express PRT in the KCs of the MBs. Additional PRT cells project to the central complex and optic ganglia. prt mutation causes an olfactory learning deficit and an unusual defect in the male's position during copulation that is rescued by expression in KCs. Because prt is expressed in neurons that lack other known vesicular transporters or neurotransmitters, it may define a previously unknown neurotransmitter system responsible for sexual behavior and a component of olfactory learning.

Parallel processing of appetitive short- and long-term memories in Drosophila

It is broadly accepted that long-term memory (LTM) is formed sequentially after learning and short-term memory (STM) formation, but the nature of the relationship between early and late memory traces remains heavily debated [1-5]. To shed light on this issue, we used an olfactory appetitive conditioning in Drosophila, wherein starved flies learned to associate an odor with the presence of sugar [6]. We took advantage of the fact that both STM and LTM are generated after a unique conditioning cycle [7, 8] to demonstrate that appetitive LTM is able to form independently of STM. More specifically, we show that (1) STM retrieval involves output from γ neurons of the mushroom body (MB), i.e., the olfactory memory center [9, 10], whereas LTM retrieval involves output from αβ MB neurons; (2) STM information is not transferred from γ neurons to αβ neurons for LTM formation; and (3) the adenylyl cyclase RUT, which is thought to operate as a coincidence detector between the olfactory stimulus and the sugar stimulus [11-14], is required independently in γ neurons to form appetitive STM and in αβ neurons to form LTM. Taken together, these results demonstrate that appetitive short- and long-term memories are formed and processed in parallel.

A behavior-based circuit model of how outcome expectations organize learned behavior in larval Drosophila

Drosophila larvae combine a numerically simple brain, a correspondingly moderate behavioral complexity, and the availability of a rich toolbox for transgenic manipulation. This makes them attractive as a study case when trying to achieve a circuit-level understanding of behavior organization. From a series of behavioral experiments, we suggest a circuitry of chemosensory processing, odor-tastant memory trace formation, and the "decision" process to behaviorally express these memory traces--or not. The model incorporates statements about the neuronal organization of innate vs. conditioned chemosensory behavior, and the types of interaction between olfactory and gustatory pathways during the establishment as well as the behavioral expression of odor-tastant memory traces. It in particular suggests that innate olfactory behavior is responsive in nature, whereas conditioned olfactory behavior is captured better when seen as an action in pursuit of its outcome. It incorporates the available neuroanatomical and behavioral data and thus should be useful as scaffold for the ongoing investigations of the chemo-behavioral system in larval Drosophila.

The neurobiology of insect olfaction: sensory processing in a comparative context

The simplicity and accessibility of the olfactory systems of insects underlie a body of research essential to understanding not only olfactory function but also general principles of sensory processing. As insect olfactory neurobiology takes advantage of a variety of species separated by millions of years of evolution, the field naturally has yielded some conflicting results. Far from impeding progress, the varieties of insect olfactory systems reflect the various natural histories, adaptations to specific environments, and the roles olfaction plays in the life of the species studied. We review current findings in insect olfactory neurobiology, with special attention to differences among species. We begin by describing the olfactory environments and olfactory-based behaviors of insects, as these form the context in which neurobiological findings are interpreted. Next, we review recent work describing changes in olfactory systems as adaptations to new environments or behaviors promoting speciation. We proceed to discuss variations on the basic anatomy of the antennal (olfactory) lobe of the brain and higher-order olfactory centers. Finally, we describe features of olfactory information processing including gain control, transformation between input and output by operations such as broadening and sharpening of tuning curves, the role of spiking synchrony in the antennal lobe, and the encoding of temporal features of encounters with an odor plume. In each section, we draw connections between particular features of the olfactory neurobiology of a species and the animal's life history. We propose that this perspective is beneficial for insect olfactory neurobiology in particular and sensory neurobiology in general.

A combined perceptual, physico-chemical, and imaging approach to 'odour-distances' suggests a categorizing function of the Drosophila antennal lobe

How do physico-chemical stimulus features, perception, and physiology relate? Given the multi-layered and parallel architecture of brains, the question specifically is where physiological activity patterns correspond to stimulus features and/or perception. Perceived distances between six odour pairs are defined behaviourally from four independent odour recognition tasks. We find that, in register with the physico-chemical distances of these odours, perceived distances for 3-octanol and n-amylacetate are consistently smallest in all four tasks, while the other five odour pairs are about equally distinct. Optical imaging in the antennal lobe, using a calcium sensor transgenically expressed in only first-order sensory or only second-order olfactory projection neurons, reveals that 3-octanol and n-amylacetate are distinctly represented in sensory neurons, but appear merged in projection neurons. These results may suggest that within-antennal lobe processing funnels sensory signals into behaviourally meaningful categories, in register with the physico-chemical relatedness of the odours.

Distribution of serotonin (5-HT) and its receptors in the insect brain with focus on the mushroom bodies: lessons from Drosophila melanogaster and Apis mellifera

The biogenic amine serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) plays a key role in regulating and modulating various physiological and behavioral processes in both protostomes and deuterostomes. The specific functions of serotonin are mediated by its binding to and subsequent activation of membrane receptors. The vast majority of these receptors belong to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors. We report here the in vivo expression pattern of a recently characterized 5-HT(1) receptor of the honeybee Apis mellifera (Am5-HT(1A)) in the mushroom bodies. In addition, we summarize current knowledge on the distribution of serotonin and serotonin receptor subtypes in the brain and specifically in the mushroom bodies of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the honeybee. Functional studies in these two species have shown that serotonergic signaling participates in various behaviors including aggression, sleep, circadian rhythms, responses to visual stimuli, and associative learning. The molecular, pharmacological, and functional properties of identified 5-HT receptor subtypes from A. mellifera and D. melanogaster will also be summarized in this review.

Distributed representation of social odors indicates parallel processing in the antennal lobe of ants

In colonies of eusocial Hymenoptera cooperation is organized through social odors, and particularly ants rely on a sophisticated odor communication system. Neuronal information about odors is represented in spatial activity patterns in the primary olfactory neuropile of the insect brain, the antennal lobe (AL), which is analog to the vertebrate olfactory bulb. The olfactory system is characterized by neuroanatomical compartmentalization, yet the functional significance of this organization is unclear. Using two-photon calcium imaging, we investigated the neuronal representation of multicomponent colony odors, which the ants assess to discriminate friends (nestmates) from foes (nonnestmates). In the carpenter ant Camponotus floridanus, colony odors elicited spatial activity patterns distributed across different AL compartments. Activity patterns in response to nestmate and nonnestmate colony odors were overlapping. This was expected since both consist of the same components at differing ratios. Colony odors change over time and the nervous system has to constantly adjust for this (template reformation). Measured activity patterns were variable, and variability was higher in response to repeated nestmate than to repeated nonnestmate colony odor stimulation. Variable activity patterns may indicate neuronal plasticity within the olfactory system, which is necessary for template reformation. Our results indicate that information about colony odors is processed in parallel in different neuroanatomical compartments, using the computational power of the whole AL network. Parallel processing might be advantageous, allowing reliable discrimination of highly complex social odors.

Sensory perception and aging in model systems: from the outside in

Sensory systems provide organisms from bacteria to humans with the ability to interact with the world. Numerous senses have evolved that allow animals to detect and decode cues from sources in both their external and internal environments. Recent advances in understanding the central mechanisms by which the brains of simple organisms evaluate different cues and initiate behavioral decisions, coupled with observations that sensory manipulations are capable of altering organismal lifespan, have opened the door for powerful new research into aging. Although direct links between sensory perception and aging have been established only recently, here we discuss these initial discoveries and evaluate the potential for different forms of sensory processing to modulate lifespan across taxa. Harnessing the neurobiology of simple model systems to study the biological impact of sensory experiences will yield insights into the broad influence of sensory perception in mammals and may help uncover new mechanisms of healthy aging.

Are mushroom bodies cerebellum-like structures?

The mushroom bodies are distinctive neuropils in the protocerebral brain segments of many protostomes. A defining feature of mushroom bodies is their intrinsic neurons, masses of cytoplasm-poor globuli cells that form a system of lobes with their densely-packed, parallel-projecting axon-like processes. In insects, the role of the mushroom bodies in olfactory processing and associative learning and memory has been studied in depth, but several lines of evidence suggest that the function of these higher brain centers cannot be restricted to these roles. The present account considers whether insight into an underlying function of mushroom bodies may be provided by cerebellum-like structures in vertebrates, which are similarly defined by the presence of masses of tiny granule cells that emit thin parallel fibers forming a dense molecular layer. In vertebrates, the shared neuroarchitecture of cerebellum-like structures has been suggested to underlie a common functional role as adaptive filters for the removal of predictable sensory elements, such as those arising from reafference, from the total sensory input. Cerebellum-like structures include the vertebrate cerebellum, the electrosensory lateral line lobe, dorsal and medial octavolateral nuclei of fish, and the dorsal cochlear nucleus of mammals. The many architectural and physiological features that the insect mushroom bodies share with cerebellum-like structures suggest that it might be fruitful to consider mushroom body function in light of a possible role as adaptive sensory filters. The present account thus presents a detailed comparison of the insect mushroom bodies with vertebrate cerebellum-like structures.

Elemental and non-elemental olfactory learning in Drosophila

Brain complexity varies across many orders of magnitude between animals, and it is often assumed that complexity underpins cognition. It is thus important to explore the cognitive capacity of widely used model organisms such as Drosophila. We systematically investigated the fly's ability to learn discriminations involving compound olfactory stimuli associated with shock. Flies could distinguish binary mixtures (AB+ CD-), including overlapping mixtures (AB+ BC-). They could learn positive patterning (AB+A- B-) but could not learn negative patterning (A+ B+ AB-) or solve a biconditional discrimination task (AB+ CD+ AC- BD-). Learning about the elements of a compound (AB+) was not affected by prior conditioning of one of the elements (A+ AB+): flies do not exhibit blocking in this task. We compare these results with the predictions from simulation of several well-known theoretical models of learning, and find none are fully consistent with the overall pattern of observed behaviour.

Comparison of microglomerular structures in the mushroom body calyx of neopteran insects

Mushroom bodies (MBs) are prominent neuropils in the insect brain involved in higher order processing such as sensory integration, learning and memory, and spatial orientation. The size and general morphology of MBs are diverse across insects. In this study we comparatively investigated the microstructure of synaptic complexes (microglomeruli) in major sensory input regions of the MBs, the calyces, across various neopteran insect species. Pre- and postsynaptic compartments of microglomeruli were analyzed using anti-synapsin immunocytochemistry, f-actin-phalloidin labeling and high-resolution confocal microscopy. Our results suggest that calycal microglomeruli are present across all investigated neopteran insect species, but differences are found in the distribution of synapsin and f-actin within their pre- and postsynaptic compartments. Hymenopteran MBs contain the highest number and packing density of microglomeruli compared to all other species from the different insect orders we investigated. We conclude that the evolution of high numbers of microglomeruli in Hymenoptera may reflect an increase in synaptic microcircuits, which could enhance the computational capacities of the MBs.

Mushroom body efferent neurons responsible for aversive olfactory memory retrieval in Drosophila

Aversive olfactory memory is formed in the mushroom bodies in Drosophila melanogaster. Memory retrieval requires mushroom body output, but the manner in which a memory trace in the mushroom body drives conditioned avoidance of a learned odor remains unknown. To identify neurons that are involved in olfactory memory retrieval, we performed an anatomical and functional screen of defined sets of mushroom body output neurons. We found that MB-V2 neurons were essential for retrieval of both short- and long-lasting memory, but not for memory formation or memory consolidation. MB-V2 neurons are cholinergic efferent neurons that project from the mushroom body vertical lobes to the middle superiormedial protocerebrum and the lateral horn. Notably, the odor response of MB-V2 neurons was modified after conditioning. As the lateral horn has been implicated in innate responses to repellent odorants, we propose that MB-V2 neurons recruit the olfactory pathway involved in innate odor avoidance during memory retrieval.

The origin of behavioral bursts in decision-making circuitry

From ants to humans, the timing of many animal behaviors comes in bursts of activity separated by long periods of inactivity. Recently, mathematical modeling has shown that simple algorithms of priority-driven behavioral choice can result in bursty behavior. To experimentally test this link between decision-making circuitry and bursty dynamics, we have turned to Drosophila melanogaster. We have found that the statistics of intervals between activity periods in endogenous activity-rest switches of wild-type Drosophila are very well described by the Weibull distribution, a common distribution of bursty dynamics in complex systems. The bursty dynamics of wild-type Drosophila walking activity are shown to be determined by this inter-event distribution alone and not by memory effects, thus resembling human dynamics. Further, using mutant flies that disrupt dopaminergic signaling or the mushroom body, circuitry implicated in decision-making, we show that the degree of behavioral burstiness can be modified. These results are thus consistent with the proposed link between decision-making circuitry and bursty dynamics, and highlight the importance of using simple experimental systems to test general theoretical models of behavior. The findings further suggest that analysis of bursts could prove useful for the study and evaluation of decision-making circuitry.