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Serhan CN, Chiang N, Van Dyke TE. Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators. Nat Rev Immunol 2008; 8:349-61. [PMID: 18437155 PMCID: PMC2744593 DOI: 10.1038/nri2294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2070] [Impact Index Per Article: 129.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Active resolution of acute inflammation is a previously unrecognized interface between innate and adaptive immunity. Once thought to be a passive process, the resolution of inflammation is now shown to involve active biochemical programmes that enable inflamed tissues to return to homeostasis. This Review presents new cellular and molecular mechanisms for the resolution of inflammation, revealing key roles for eicosanoids, such as lipoxins, and recently discovered families of endogenous chemical mediators, termed resolvins and protectins. These mediators have anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution properties, thereby protecting organs from collateral damage, stimulating the clearance of inflammatory debris and promoting mucosal antimicrobial defence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles N Serhan
- Center for Experimental Therapeutics and Reperfusion Injury, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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252
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Auer J, Bläss M, Schulze-Koops H, Russwurm S, Nagel T, Kalden JR, Röllinghoff M, Beuscher HU. Expression and regulation of CCL18 in synovial fluid neutrophils of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2008; 9:R94. [PMID: 17875202 PMCID: PMC2212580 DOI: 10.1186/ar2294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2007] [Revised: 08/17/2007] [Accepted: 09/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterized by the recruitment of leukocytes and the accumulation of inflammatory mediators within the synovial compartment. Release of the chemokine CCL18 has been widely attributed to antigen-presenting cells, including macrophages and dendritic cells. This study investigates the production of CCL18 in polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN), the predominant cell type recruited into synovial fluid (SF). Microarray analysis, semiquantitative and quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction identified SF PMN from patients with RA as a novel source for CCL18 in diseased joints. Highly upregulated expression of other chemokine genes was observed for CCL3, CXCL8 and CXCL10, whereas CCL21 was downregulated. The chemokine receptor genes were differentially expressed, with upregulation of CXCR4, CCRL2 and CCR5 and downregulation of CXCR1 and CXCR2. In cell culture experiments, expression of CCL18 mRNA in blood PMN was induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha, whereas synthesis of CCL18 protein required additional stimulation with a combination of IL-10 and vitamin D3. In comparison, recruited SF PMN from patients with RA were sensitized for CCL18 production, because IL-10 alone was sufficient to induce CCL18 release. These results suggest a release of the T cell-attracting CCL18 by PMN when recruited to diseased joints. However, its production is tightly regulated at the levels of mRNA expression and protein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Auer
- Institute for Clinical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Wasserturmstrasse 3-5, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Markus Bläss
- SIRS-Lab GmbH, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Hendrik Schulze-Koops
- Department of Internal Medicine III and Institute for Clinical Immunology, Rheumatology and Onkology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Krankenhausstrasse 12, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus Fiebiger Centre for Molecular Medicine, Clinical Research Group III, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Glücksstrasse 5, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefan Russwurm
- SIRS-Lab GmbH, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, D-07745 Jena, Germany
- Clinics of Anesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Bachstrasse 18, D-07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Thomas Nagel
- Department of Internal Medicine III and Institute for Clinical Immunology, Rheumatology and Onkology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Krankenhausstrasse 12, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Joachim R Kalden
- Department of Internal Medicine III and Institute for Clinical Immunology, Rheumatology and Onkology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Krankenhausstrasse 12, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martin Röllinghoff
- Institute for Clinical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Wasserturmstrasse 3-5, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Horst Ulrich Beuscher
- Institute for Clinical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Wasserturmstrasse 3-5, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
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253
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Scavenging roles of chemokine receptors: chemokine receptor deficiency is associated with increased levels of ligand in circulation and tissues. Blood 2008; 112:256-63. [PMID: 18347198 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-10-118497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro studies have implicated chemokine receptors in consumption and clearance of specific ligands. We studied the role that various signaling chemokine receptors play during ligand homeostasis in vivo. We examined the levels of ligands in serum and CNS tissue in mice lacking chemokine receptors. Compared with receptor-sufficient controls, Cx3cr1(-/-) mice exhibited augmented levels of CX3CL1 both in serum and brain, and circulating levels of CXCL1 and CXCL2 were increased in Cxcr2(-/-) mice. CCR2-deficient mice showed significantly increased amounts of circulating CCL2 compared with wild-type mice. Cxcr3(-/-) mice revealed increased levels of circulating and brain CXCL10 after experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) induction. CCR2-deficient peripheral blood and resident peritoneal cells exhibited reduced binding capacity and biologic responses to the CCR1 ligand CCL3, suggesting that elevated levels of CCR2 ligands had down-regulated CCR1. The results indicate that signaling chemokine receptors clear chemokines from circulation and tissues. These homeostatic functions of signaling chemokine receptors need to be integrated into safety and efficacy calculations when considering therapeutic receptor blockade.
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254
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Eken C, Gasser O, Zenhaeusern G, Oehri I, Hess C, Schifferli JA. Polymorphonuclear neutrophil-derived ectosomes interfere with the maturation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:817-24. [PMID: 18178820 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.2.817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are a key component of the innate immune system. Their activation leads to the release of potent antimicrobial agents through degranulation. Simultaneously, PMNs release cell surface-derived microvesicles, so-called ectosomes (PMN-Ect). PMN-Ect are rightside-out vesicles with a diameter of 50-200 nm. They expose phosphatidylserine in the outer leaflet of their membrane and down-modulate monocyte/macrophage-activation in vitro. In this study, we analyzed the effects of PMN-Ect on maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs). Intriguingly, exposing immature MoDCs to PMN-Ect modified their morphology, reduced their phagocytic activity, and increased the release of TGF-beta1. When immature MoDCs were incubated with PMN-Ect and stimulated with the TLR4 ligand LPS, the maturation process was partially inhibited as evidenced by reduced expression of cell surface markers (CD40, CD80, CD83, CD86, and HLA-DP DQ DR), inhibition of cytokine-release (IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, and TNF-alpha), and a reduced capacity to induce T cell proliferation. Together these data provide evidence that PMN-Ect have the ability to modify MoDC maturation and function. PMN-Ect may thus represent an as yet unidentified host-factor influencing MoDC maturation at the site of injury, thereby possibly impacting on downstream MoDC-dependent immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceylan Eken
- Department of Research, Immunonephrology Laboratory, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland.
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255
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Boldajipour B, Mahabaleshwar H, Kardash E, Reichman-Fried M, Blaser H, Minina S, Wilson D, Xu Q, Raz E. Control of chemokine-guided cell migration by ligand sequestration. Cell 2008; 132:463-73. [PMID: 18267076 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 431] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Revised: 09/11/2007] [Accepted: 12/10/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Primordial germ cell (PGC) migration in zebrafish is directed by the chemokine SDF-1a that activates its receptor CXCR4b. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms controlling the distribution of this chemoattractant in vivo. We demonstrate that the activity of a second SDF-1/CXCL12 receptor, CXCR7, is crucial for proper migration of PGCs toward their targets. We show that CXCR7 functions primarily in the somatic environment rather than within the migrating cells. In CXCR7 knocked-down embryos, the PGCs exhibit a phenotype that signifies defects in SDF-1a gradient formation as the cells fail to polarize effectively and to migrate toward their targets. Indeed, somatic cells expressing CXCR7 show enhanced internalization of the chemokine suggesting that CXCR7 acts as a sink for SDF-1a, thus allowing the dynamic changes in the transcription of sdf-1a to be mirrored by similar dynamics at the protein level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijan Boldajipour
- Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Von-Esmarch-Strasse 56, D-48149 Münster, Germany
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256
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Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) induces integrin CD11b/CD18 (Mac-1) up-regulation and migration to the CC chemokine CCL3 (MIP-1α) on human neutrophils through defined signalling pathways. Cell Signal 2008; 20:557-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2007.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2007] [Revised: 11/15/2007] [Accepted: 11/16/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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257
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Haworth O, Levy BD. Endogenous lipid mediators in the resolution of airway inflammation. Eur Respir J 2008; 30:980-92. [PMID: 17978156 DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00005807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Acute inflammation in the lung is fundamentally important to host defence, but chronic or excessive inflammation leads to several common respiratory diseases, including asthma and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The resolution of inflammation is an active process. In health, events at the onset of acute inflammation establish biosynthetic circuits for specific chemical mediators that later serve as agonists to orchestrate a return to tissue homeostasis. In addition to an overabundance of pro-inflammatory stimuli, pathological inflammation can also result from defects in resolution signalling. The understanding of anti-inflammatory, pro-resolution molecules and their counter-regulatory signalling pathways is providing new insights into the molecular pathophysiology of lung disease and opportunities for the design of therapeutic strategies. In the present review, the growing family of lipid mediators of resolution is examined, including lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, cyclopentenones and presqualene diphosphate. Roles are uncovered for these compounds, or their structural analogues, in regulating airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Haworth
- Pulmonary and Critical Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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258
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Wildenberg ME, van Helden-Meeuwsen CG, van de Merwe JP, Moreno C, Drexhage HA, Versnel MA. Lack of CCR5 on dendritic cells promotes a proinflammatory environment in submandibular glands of the NOD mouse. J Leukoc Biol 2008; 83:1194-200. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1107794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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259
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Abstract
Acute inflammation is traditionally described as the influx of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) followed by monocyte-derived macrophages, leading to resolution. This is a classic view, and despite subpopulations of lymphocytes possessing innate immune-regulatory properties, seldom is their role in acute inflammation and its resolution discussed. To redress this we show, using lymphocyte-deficient RAG1(-/-) mice, that peritoneal T/B lymphocytes control PMN trafficking by regulating cytokine synthesis. Once inflammation ensues in normal mice, lymphocytes disappear in response to DP1 receptor activation by prostaglandin D(2). However, upon resolution, lymphocytes repopulate the cavity comprising B1, natural killer (NK), gamma/delta T, CD4(+)/CD25(+), and B2 cells. Repopulating lymphocytes are dispensable for resolution, as inflammation in RAG1(-/-) and wild-type mice resolve uniformly. However, repopulating lymphocytes are critical for modulating responses to superinfection. Thus, in chronic granulomatous disease using gp91phox(-/-) mice, not only is resolution delayed compared with wild-type, but there is a failure of lymphocyte re-appearance predisposing to exaggerated immune responses upon secondary challenge that is rescued by resolution-phase lymphocytes. In conclusion, as lymphocyte repopulation is also evident in human peritonitis, we hereby describe a transition in T/B cells from acute inflammation to resolution, with a central role in modulating the severity of early onset and orchestrating responses to secondary infection.
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260
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Abstract
The popular view that all lipid mediators are pro-inflammatory arises largely from the finding that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs block the biosynthesis of prostaglandins. The resolution of inflammation was widely held as a passive event until recently, with the characterization of novel biochemical pathways and lipid-derived mediators that are actively turned on in resolution and that possess potent anti-inflammatory and proresolving actions. A lipid-mediator informatics approach was employed to systematically identify new families of endogenous local-acting mediators from omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in resolving exudates, which also contain lipoxins and aspirin-triggered lipoxins generated from arachidonic acid. Given their potent bioactions, these new chemical mediator families were termed resolvins and protectins. Here, we review the recent advances in our understanding of the biosynthesis and stereospecific actions of these new proresolving mediators, which have also proven to be organ protective and antifibrotic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles N Serhan
- Center for Experimental Therapeutics and Reperfusion Injury, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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261
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Hasturk H, Kantarci A, Goguet-Surmenian E, Blackwood A, Andry C, Serhan CN, Van Dyke TE. Resolvin E1 regulates inflammation at the cellular and tissue level and restores tissue homeostasis in vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:7021-9. [PMID: 17982093 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.10.7021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Resolvin E1 (RvE1) is a potent proresolving mediator of inflammation derived from omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid that acts locally to stop leukocyte recruitment and promote resolution. RvE1 displays potent counter-regulatory and tissue-protective actions in vitro and in vivo. Periodontal disease is a local inflammatory disease initiated by bacteria characterized by neutrophil-mediated tissue injury followed by development of a chronic immune lesion. In this study, we report the treatment of established periodontitis using RvE1 as a monotherapy in rabbits compared with structurally related lipids PGE(2) and leukotriene B(4). PGE(2) and leukotriene B(4) each enhanced development of periodontitis and worsened the severity of disease. Promotion of resolution of inflammation as a therapeutic target with RvE1 resulted in complete restoration of the local lesion, and reduction in the systemic inflammatory markers C-reactive protein and IL-1beta. This report is the first to show that resolution of inflammation by a naturally occurring endogenous lipid mediator results in complete regeneration of pathologically lost tissues, including bone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hatice Hasturk
- Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Department of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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262
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Yacoubian S, Serhan CN. New endogenous anti-inflammatory and proresolving lipid mediators: implications for rheumatic diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 3:570-9; quiz 1 p following 589. [PMID: 17906612 DOI: 10.1038/ncprheum0616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2007] [Accepted: 06/04/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are lipid mediators that carry out pivotal roles in host defense and acute inflammation. Failure to completely resolve an acute inflammatory response can lead to chronic inflammation, scarring, and eventual loss of tissue function. Until recently, it was thought that tissue resolution of acute inflammation was a passive event. However, it is now known than lipoxins, which--like prostaglandins and leukotrienes--are also derived from arachidonic acid, are active anti-inflammatory and proresolution mediators, acting in part by reducing neutrophil entry to the inflammation site and stimulating the uptake of apoptotic polymorphonuclear leukocytes by macrophages. Novel families of locally acting and locally generated mediators derived from omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been identified as biosynthetically active components in the resolution phase of inflammation. The new families of chemical mediators are termed 'resolvins' and 'protectins' because individual members of each family are stereospecific in controlling the duration and magnitude of inflammation in animal models. Possible deficiencies in the biosynthesis of lipoxins, resolvins, and protectins, and/or their signal transduction, might underlie some aspects of pathogenesis in chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Yacoubian
- Center for Experimental Therapeutics and Reperfusion Injury, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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263
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Zhang L, Wan J, Li H, Wu P, Jin S, Zhou X, Yuan P, Xiong W, Li Y, Ye D. Protective effects of BML-111, a lipoxin A(4) receptor agonist, on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in mice. Hepatol Res 2007; 37:948-56. [PMID: 17610505 DOI: 10.1111/j.1872-034x.2007.00154.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lipoxins (LX) are trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids that display unique anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions during various inflammatory conditions, but the pathophysiological significance of LX in liver disorders remains unknown. METHODS In the present study, we used a murine model of carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4))-induced acute liver injury to investigate the effects of LX on the progression of acute liver injury. RESULTS The results indicated that the lipoxin A(4) receptor (ALX) was upregulated after giving CCl(4). BML-111, a commercially available ALX agonist, effectively protected the liver from CCl(4)-induced injury as evidenced by decreased serum aminotransferase (ALT, AST) levels and improved histological damage. The dampened liver injury was accompanied byreduced malondialdehyde (MDA) content in liver homogenates and decreased concentration of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in the serum. Most interestingly, BML-111 markedly upregulated hepatic heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression in CCl(4)-treated mice, which might provide antioxidative activities in the liver. CONCLUSION These data indicate that ALX agonist BML-111 plays a critical protective role in CCl(4)-induced acute liver injury through limiting the inflammatory response and promoting antioxidative protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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264
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Mamtani M, Rovin B, Brey R, Camargo JF, Kulkarni H, Herrera M, Correa P, Holliday S, Anaya JM, Ahuja SK. CCL3L1 gene-containing segmental duplications and polymorphisms in CCR5 affect risk of systemic lupus erythaematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 2007; 67:1076-83. [PMID: 17971457 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2007.078048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There is an enrichment of immune response genes that are subject to copy number variations (CNVs). However, there is limited understanding of their impact on susceptibility to human diseases. CC chemokine ligand 3 like-1 (CCL3L1) is a potent ligand for the HIV coreceptor, CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), and we have demonstrated previously an association between CCL3L1-gene containing segmental duplications and polymorphisms in CCR5 and HIV/AIDS susceptibility. Here, we determined the association between these genetic variations and risk of developing systemic lupus erythaematosus (SLE), differential recruitment of CD3+ and CD68+ leukocytes to the kidney, clinical severity of SLE reflected by autoantibody titres and the risk of renal complications in SLE. METHODS We genotyped 1084 subjects (469 cases of SLE and 615 matched controls with no autoimmune disease) from three geographically distinct cohorts for variations in CCL3L1 and CCR5. RESULTS Deviation from the average copy number of CCL3L1 found in European populations increased the risk of SLE and modified the SLE-influencing effects of CCR5 haplotypes. The CCR5 human haplogroup (HH)E and CCR5-Delta32-bearing HHG*2 haplotypes were associated with an increased risk of developing SLE. An individual's CCL3L1-CCR5 genotype strongly predicted the overall risk of SLE, high autoantibody titres, and lupus nephritis as well as the differential recruitment of leukocytes in subjects with lupus nephritis. The CCR5 HHE/HHG*2 genotype was associated with the maximal risk of developing SLE. CONCLUSION CCR5 haplotypes HHE and HHG*2 strongly influence the risk of SLE. The copy number of CCL3L1 influences risk of SLE and modifies the SLE-influencing effects associated with CCR5 genotypes. These findings implicate a key role of the CCL3L1-CCR5 axis in the pathogenesis of SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mamtani
- The Veterans Administration Center for AIDS and HIV-1 Infection, South Texas Veterans Health Care System and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas 78229-7870, USA
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265
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Saas P, Bonnefoy F, Kury-Paulin S, Kleinclauss F, Perruche S. Mediators involved in the immunomodulatory effects of apoptotic cells. Transplantation 2007; 84:S31-4. [PMID: 17632410 PMCID: PMC3417166 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000269113.59857.d6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Immunomodulatory properties are attributed to apoptotic cells. These properties have been used to modulate allogeneic immune responses in experimental transplantation settings. In independent studies, apoptotic cell infusion has been shown to favor hematopoietic cell engraftment, to increase heart graft survival, and to delay the lethal onset of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). The goal of this review was to discuss how apoptotic cell infusion interferes with graft rejection or host rejection (i.e., GVHD) and to focus on the potential mediators or "perpetuators" involved in apoptotic cell-induced immunomodulation. Particular emphasis on apoptotic cell phagocytosis, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta secretion, and regulatory T cell induction was performed. Stimulating "naturally" immunosuppressive molecules (i.e., TGF-beta) or immunomodulatory cells ("alternatively-activated" macrophages, certain dendritic cell subsets, or regulatory T cells) in a physiological manner by using apoptotic cell infusion can be a promising way to induce tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Saas
- INSERM U645, University of Besançon, Etablissement Français du Sang Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1 boulevard A. Fleming, F-25020 Besançon, France.
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266
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Afzali B, Lombardi G, Lechler RI, Lord GM. The role of T helper 17 (Th17) and regulatory T cells (Treg) in human organ transplantation and autoimmune disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2007; 148:32-46. [PMID: 17328715 PMCID: PMC1868863 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03356.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 553] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Uncommitted (naive) murine CD4+ T helper cells (Thp) can be induced to differentiate towards T helper 1 (Th1), Th2, Th17 and regulatory (Treg) phenotypes according to the local cytokine milieu. This can be demonstrated most readily both in vitro and in vivo in murine CD4+ T cells. The presence of interleukin (IL)-12 [signalling through signal transduction and activator of transcription (STAT)-4] skews towards Th1, IL-4 (signalling through STAT-6) towards Th2, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta towards Treg and IL-6 and TGF-beta towards Th17. The committed cells are characterized by expression of specific transcription factors, T-bet for Th1, GATA-3 for Th2, forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) for Tregs and RORgammat for Th17 cells. Recently, it has been demonstrated that the skewing of murine Thp towards Th17 and Treg is mutually exclusive. Although human Thp can also be skewed towards Th1 and Th2 phenotypes there is as yet no direct evidence for the existence of discrete Th17 cells in humans nor of mutually antagonistic development of Th17 cells and Tregs. There is considerable evidence, however, both in humans and in mice for the importance of interferon (IFN)-gamma and IL-17 in the development and progression of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases (AD). Unexpectedly, some models of autoimmunity thought traditionally to be solely Th1-dependent have been demonstrated subsequently to have a non-redundant requirement for Th17 cells, notably experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and collagen-induced arthritis. In contrast, Tregs have anti-inflammatory properties and can cause quiescence of autoimmune diseases and prolongation of transplant function. As a result, it can be proposed that skewing of responses towards Th17 or Th1 and away from Treg may be responsible for the development and/or progression of AD or acute transplant rejection in humans. Blocking critical cytokines in vivo, notably IL-6, may result in a shift from a Th17 towards a regulatory phenotype and induce quiescence of AD or prevent transplant rejection. In this paper we review Th17/IL-17 and Treg biology and expand on this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Afzali
- Department of Nephrology and Transplantation, King's College London, Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital, UK
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267
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Hansell C, Nibbs R. Professional and part-time chemokine decoys in the resolution of inflammation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 2007:pe18. [PMID: 17473307 DOI: 10.1126/stke.3842007pe18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is essential for protection from infection and for the repair of damaged tissue. Much is now known about how inflammation is induced and maintained, but the processes underlying the resolution of inflammation are often overlooked. However, resolution is an essential component of all successful inflammatory responses because it ensures the restoration of tissue homeostasis and prevents immunopathology of the type seen in chronic inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. Small secreted proteins called chemokines, acting through chemokine receptors, are known to be critical regulators of leukocyte recruitment and function during the initiation and maintenance of inflammation. Thus, their efficient removal would seem to be a prerequisite for successful resolution. In recent years, it has emerged that specialized chemokine "decoy" receptors exist that actively participate in this process. Moreover, other chemokine receptors have been proposed to lead a double life and perform opposing roles during inflammation: leukocyte recruitment (by signaling) and resolution (by chemokine sequestration). A recent study provides further support for this theory by showing that apoptotic inflammatory leukocytes increase the number of surface chemokine receptors and that these receptors can remove chemokines from inflamed tissue. Leukocyte apoptosis is already known to aid resolution, not just because it eliminates leukocytes from inflamed tissues, but also because their consumption by macrophages leads to the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. The new work indicates that chemokine sequestration may be another mechanism exploited by dying cells to assist in the resolution of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Hansell
- Division of Immunology, Infection and Inflammation, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, Glasgow University, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
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268
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Ariel A, Serhan CN. Resolvins and protectins in the termination program of acute inflammation. Trends Immunol 2007; 28:176-83. [PMID: 17337246 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2007.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2006] [Revised: 01/30/2007] [Accepted: 02/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The physiological resolution of a well-orchestrated inflammatory response is essential to maintain homeostasis. Therefore, gaining a comprehensive understanding in molecular terms of the events that direct the termination of acute inflammation is imperative. Recently, new families of local-acting mediators were discovered that are biosynthesized from the essential fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. These new chemical mediators are endogenously generated in inflammatory exudates collected during the resolution phase, and were termed resolvins and protectins because specific members of these families control the magnitude and duration of inflammation in animals. In addition, recent results indicate novel actions of resolvins and protectins in removing chemokines ferried from the tissue by apoptotic neutrophils and T cells during resolution. Here, we review recent advances on the biosynthesis and actions of these novel anti-inflammatory and proresolving mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amiram Ariel
- Center for Experimental Therapeutics and Reperfusion Injury, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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269
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Mantovani A, Bonecchi R, Locati M. Tuning inflammation and immunity by chemokine sequestration: decoys and more. Nat Rev Immunol 2006; 6:907-18. [PMID: 17124512 DOI: 10.1038/nri1964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 348] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A set of chemokine receptors are structurally unable to elicit migration or conventional signalling responses after ligand engagement. These 'silent' (non-signalling) chemokine receptors regulate inflammatory and immune reactions in different ways, including by acting as decoys and scavengers. Chemokine decoy receptors recognize distinct and complementary sets of ligands and are strategically expressed in different cellular contexts. Importantly, viruses and parasites have evolved multiple strategies to elude chemokines, including the expression of decoy receptors. So, decoy receptors for chemokines represent a general strategy to tune, shape and temper innate and adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Mantovani
- Istituto Clinico Humanitas, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy and Istituto di Patologia Generale, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Luigi Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milan.
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270
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Bird L. Mopping up the mess. Nat Rev Immunol 2006. [DOI: 10.1038/nri1966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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