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Aisa BÃ, Elizalde N, Tordera R, Lasheras B, Del RÃo J, RamÃrez MJ. Effects of neonatal stress on markers of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus: Implications for spatial memory. Hippocampus 2009; 19:1222-31. [DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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252
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Grace L, Hescham S, Kellaway LA, Bugarith K, Russell VA. Effect of exercise on learning and memory in a rat model of developmental stress. Metab Brain Dis 2009; 24:643-57. [PMID: 19821018 PMCID: PMC2857751 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-009-9162-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/11/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Adverse life events occurring in early development can result in long-term effects on behavioural, physiological and cognitive processes. In particular, perinatal stressors impair neurogenesis in the hippocampus which consequently impairs memory formation. Exercise has previously been shown to have antidepressant effects and to increase cognitive functioning by increasing neurogenesis and neurotrophins in the hippocampus. The current study examined the effects of maternal separation, which has been shown to model anxiety in animals, and the effects of exercise on learning and memory. Forty-five male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups, maternally separated / non-runners, maternally separated / runners, non-separated / runners and non-separated / non-runners. Maternal separation occurred from postnatal day 2 (P2) to 14 (P14) for 3 h per day. Exercised rats were given voluntary access to individual running wheels attached to their cages from P29 to P49. Behavioural testing (Morris water maze (MWM) and object recognition tests) took place from P49 to P63. Maternally separated rats showed no significant difference in anxiety levels in the elevated plus maze and the open field compared to the normally reared controls. However, rats that were allowed voluntary access to running wheels showed increased levels of anxiety in the elevated plus maze and in the open field. Maternal separation did not have any effect on memory performance in the MWM or the object recognition tasks. Exercise increased spatial learning and memory in the MWM with the exercised rats displaying a decreased latency in locating the hidden platform than the non-exercised rats. The exercised rats spent significantly less time exploring the most recently encountered object in the temporal order task in comparison to the non-exercised controls, therefore showing improved temporal recognition memory. All groups performed the same on the other recognition tasks, with all rats showing intact memory performance. Results indicate that maternal separation had little effect on the rats whereas exercise enhanced both spatial and recognition memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurian Grace
- Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7925, South Africa
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253
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Calabrese F, Molteni R, Racagni G, Riva MA. Neuronal plasticity: a link between stress and mood disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009; 34 Suppl 1:S208-16. [PMID: 19541429 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 05/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Although stress represents the major environmental element of susceptibility for mood disorders, the relationship between stress and disease remains to be fully established. In the present article we review the evidence in support for a role of neuronal plasticity, and in particular of neurotrophic factors. Even though decreased levels of norepinephrine and serotonin may underlie depressive symptoms, compelling evidence now suggests that mood disorders are characterized by reduced neuronal plasticity, which can be brought about by exposure to stress at different stages of life. Indeed the expression of neurotrophic molecules, such as the neurotrophin BDNF, is reduced in depressed subjects as well as in experimental animals exposed to adverse experience at early stages of life or at adulthood. These changes show an anatomical specificity and might be sustained by epigenetic mechanisms. Pharmacological intervention may normalize such defects and improve neuronal function through the modulation of the same factors that are defective in depression. Several studies have demonstrated that chronic, but not acute, antidepressant treatment increases the expression of BDNF and may enhance its localization at synaptic level. Antidepressant treatment can normalize deficits in neurotrophin expression produced by chronic stress paradigms, but may also alter the modulation of BDNF under acute stressful conditions. In summary, there is good agreement in considering neuronal plasticity, and the expression of key proteins such as the neurotrophin BDNF, as a central player for the effects of stress on brain function and its implication for psychopathology. Accordingly, effective treatments should not limit their effects to the control of neurotransmitter and hormonal dysfunctions, but should be able to normalize defective mechanisms that sustain the impairment of neuronal plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Calabrese
- Center of Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
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254
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Stamatakis A, Toutountzi E, Fragioudaki K, Kouvelas E, Stylianopoulou F, Mitsacos A. Selective effects of neonatal handling on rat brain N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. Neuroscience 2009; 164:1457-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2009] [Revised: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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255
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Réus GZ, Stringari RB, Kirsch TR, Fries GR, Kapczinski F, Roesler R, Quevedo J. Neurochemical and behavioural effects of acute and chronic memantine administration in rats: Further support for NMDA as a new pharmacological target for the treatment of depression? Brain Res Bull 2009; 81:585-9. [PMID: 19954760 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2009.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2009] [Revised: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence has pointed to the NMDA receptor antagonists as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of major depression. The present study was aimed to evaluate behavioural and molecular effects of the acute and chronic treatment with memantine and imipramine in rats. To this aim, rats were acutely or chronically for 14 days once a day treated with memantine (5, 10 and 20 mg/kg) and imipramine (10, 20 and 30 mg/kg) and then subjected to the forced swimming and open-field tests. The acute treatment with memantine at all doses and imipramine at doses (20 and 30 mg/kg) reduced immobility time of rats compared to the saline group (p < 0.05), without affecting spontaneous locomotor activity and chronic treatment with memantine and imipramine, at all doses tested, reduced immobility time of rats compared to the saline group (p < 0.05), without affecting spontaneous locomotor activity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) hippocampal levels were assessed in imipramine- and memantine-treated rats by ELISA sandwich assay. Interesting enough, acute administration, but not chronic administration of memantine at higher dose (20 mg/kg) increased BDNF protein levels in the rat hippocampus (p < 0.05). Finally, these findings further support the hypothesis that NMDA receptor could be a new pharmacological target for the treatment of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gislaine Z Réus
- Laboratório de Neurociências and Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Translacional em Medicina, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Unidade Acadêmica de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, 88806-000 Criciúma, SC, Brazil
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256
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Koe AS, Jones NC, Salzberg MR. Early life stress as an influence on limbic epilepsy: an hypothesis whose time has come? Front Behav Neurosci 2009; 3:24. [PMID: 19838325 PMCID: PMC2762371 DOI: 10.3389/neuro.08.024.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2009] [Accepted: 08/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE), the most prevalent form of refractory focal epilepsy in adults, is thought to begin in early life, even though seizures may not commence until adolescence or adulthood. Amongst the range of early life factors implicated in MTLE causation (febrile seizures, traumatic brain injury, etc.), stress may be one important contributor. Early life stress is an a priori agent deserving study because of the large amount of neuroscientific data showing enduring effects on structure and function in hippocampus and amygdala, the key structures involved in MTLE. An emerging body of evidence directly tests hypotheses concerning early life stress and limbic epilepsy: early life stressors, such as maternal separation, have been shown to aggravate epileptogenesis in both status epilepticus and kindling models of limbic epilepsy. In addition to elucidating its influence on limbic epileptogenesis itself, the study of early life stress has the potential to shed light on the psychiatric disorder that accompanies MTLE. For many years, psychiatric comorbidity was viewed as an effect of epilepsy, mediated psychologically and/or neurobiologically. An alternative – or complementary – perspective is that of shared causation. Early life stress, implicated in the pathogenesis of several psychiatric disorders, may be one such causal factor. This paper aims to critically review the body of experimental evidence linking early life stress and epilepsy; to discuss the direct studies examining early life stress effects in current models of limbic seizures/epilepsy; and to suggest priorities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia S Koe
- Department of Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
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257
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Turnock-Jones JJ, Jennings CA, Robbins MJ, Cluderay JE, Cilia J, Reid JL, Taylor A, Jones DN, Emson PC, Southam E. Increased expression of the NR2A NMDA receptor subunit in the prefrontal cortex of rats reared in isolation. Synapse 2009; 63:836-46. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.20665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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258
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Suárez J, Llorente R, Romero-Zerbo SY, Mateos B, Bermúdez-Silva FJ, de Fonseca FR, Viveros MP. Early maternal deprivation induces gender-dependent changes on the expression of hippocampal CB(1) and CB(2) cannabinoid receptors of neonatal rats. Hippocampus 2009; 19:623-32. [PMID: 19115376 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Early maternal deprivation (MD) in rats (24 h, postnatal day 9-10) is a model for neurodevelopmental stress. There are some data proving that MD affects the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in a gender-dependent manner, and that these changes may account for the proposed schizophrenia-like phenotype of MD rats. The impact of MD on cannabinoid receptor distribution in the hippocampus is unknown. The aim of this study is to evaluate the expression of CB(1) and CB(2) receptors in diverse relevant subregions (DG, CA1, and CA3) of the hippocampus in 13-day-old rats by immunohistochemistry and densitometry. MD induced a significant decrease in CB(1) immunoreactivity (more marked in males than in females), which was mainly associated with fibers in the strata pyramidale and radiatum of CA1 and in the strata oriens, pyramidale, and radiatum of CA3. In contrast, MD males and females showed a significant increase in CB(2) immunoreactivity in the three hippocampal areas analyzed that was detected in neuropil and puncta in the stratum oriens of CA1 and CA3, and in the polymorphic cell layer of the dentate gyrus. A marked sex dimorphism was observed in CA3, with females exhibiting higher CB(1) immunoreactivity than males, and in dentate gyrus, with females exhibiting lower CB(2) immunoreactivity than males. These results point to a clear association between developmental stress and dysregulation of the ECS. The present MD procedure may provide an interesting experimental model to further address the role of the ECS in neurodevelopmental mental illnesses such as schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Suárez
- Laboratorio de Medicina Regenerativa, Fundación IMABIS, Hospital Carlos Haya, 29010 Málaga, Spain.
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259
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Abstract
Depression and suicidal behavior have recently been shown to be associated with disturbances in structural and synaptic plasticity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), one of the major neurotrophic factors, plays an important role in the maintenance and survival of neurons and in synaptic plasticity. Several lines of evidence suggest that BDNF is involved in depression, such that the expression of BDNF is decreased in depressed patients. In addition, antidepressants up-regulate the expression of BDNF. This has led to the proposal of the "neurotrophin hypothesis of depression". Increasing evidence demonstrates that suicidal behavior is also associated with lower expression of BDNF, which may be independent from depression. Recent genetic studies also support a link of BDNF to depression/suicidal behavior. Not only BDNF, but abnormalities in its cognate receptor tropomycin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and its splice variant (TrkB.T1) have also been reported in depressed/suicidal patients. It has been suggested that epigenetic modulation of the Bdnf and Trkb genes may contribute to their altered expression and functioning. More recently, impairment in the functioning of pan75 neurotrophin receptor has been reported in suicide brain specimens. pan75 neurotrophin receptor is a low-affinity neurotrophin receptor that, when expressed in conjunction with low availability of neurotropins/Trks, induces apoptosis. Overall, these studies suggest the possibility that BDNF and its mediated signaling may participate in the pathophysiology of depression and suicidal behavior. This review focuses on the critical evidence demonstrating the involvement of BDNF in depression and suicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesh Dwivedi
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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260
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Zimmerberg B, Foote HE, Van Kempen TA. Olfactory association learning and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in an animal model of early deprivation. Dev Psychobiol 2009; 51:333-44. [PMID: 19308959 DOI: 10.1002/dev.20373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Animal models can serve to explore neural mechanisms underlying the effects of stressful early experiences on behaviors supporting attachment. Neonatal rats primarily use olfaction for attachment, and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) may be a key transcription target in olfactory association learning. In this experiment, neonatal male and female rats were isolated individually for 3 hr daily in the first week of life while their dams were left with partial litters (Early Deprivation, ED) or remained undisturbed (Control). At 1 week of age, subjects were tested using a 2-day classical conditioning paradigm. The conditioned group (O/M) was exposed to a novel odor paired with a milk infusion. Three additional groups included an unpaired odor and milk exposure group (O/M unP), an odor exposure alone group (O/NM), and neither an odor nor a milk group (NO/NM). Learning the odor association, as revealed in a position preference for the novel odor, was accompanied by an increase in hippocampal BDNF in O/M subjects from undisturbed Control litters. BDNF levels were also positively related to degree of preference for the odor in the O/M Control group. ED subjects did not make the classically conditioned odor association and did not show an increase in hippocampal BDNF. ED increased BDNF levels in the olfactory bulb compared to Controls regardless of training group; individual levels were not correlated with performance because samples were pooled. These results suggest that changes in the transcription of BDNF may underlie some of the long-term consequences of the early stress of maternal separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betty Zimmerberg
- Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, Williams College, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA.
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261
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Molteni R, Calabrese F, Racagni G, Fumagalli F, Riva MA. Antipsychotic drug actions on gene modulation and signaling mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther 2009; 124:74-85. [PMID: 19540875 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating chronic mental disorder characterized by significant lifetime risk and high social costs. Although its etiology remains unknown, many of its symptoms may be mitigated by treatment with antipsychotic drugs (APDs). These compounds, generally classified as first- or second-generation antipsychotics, have complex receptor profiles that may account for short-term clinical response and normalization of acute manifestation of the disease. However, APDs have additional therapeutic properties that may not be directly related to receptor mechanisms, but rather involve neuroadaptive changes in selected brain regions. Indeed the neurodevelopmental origin of schizophrenia suggests that the disease is characterized by neuroanatomical and pathophysiological impairments that, at molecular level, may reflect compromised neuroplasticity; the process by which the brain adapts to changes in a specific environment. Accordingly, it is possible that the long-term clinical efficacy of APDs might result from their ability in modulating systems crucially involved in neuroplasticity and cellular resilience. We have reviewed and discussed the results of several studies investigating the post-receptor mechanisms in the action of APDs. We specifically focused on intracellular signaling cascades (PKA, DARPP-32, MAPK, Akt/GSK-3, beta arrestin-2), neurotrophic factors and the glutamatergic system as important mediators for antipsychotic drug induced-neuroplasticity. Altogether, these data highlight the possibility that post-receptor mechanisms will eventually be promising targets for the development of novel drugs that, through their impact on neuroplasticity, may contribute to the improved treatment of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Molteni
- Center of Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Universita' degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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262
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Maternal deprivation by early weaning increases corticosterone and decreases hippocampal BDNF and neurogenesis in mice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009; 34:762-72. [PMID: 19167168 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2008] [Revised: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 12/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that early weaning increases anxiety and neuroendocrine stress responses in rats and mice. In addition, early-weaned mice show precocious myelin formation, especially in the amygdala, suggesting that these mice are vulnerable to psychological stress. In the present experiments, we examined corticosterone response after early weaning and how early weaning affects hippocampal neurotrophic factor and neurogenesis, which have been linked to depressive behavior in human and animals models. When the mice were weaned at PD14, both male and female mice showed higher corticosterone levels up to 48h after weaning. In contrast, after standard weaning, corticosterone levels returned to the baseline within 2h. Early-weaned males, but not females, had less brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein in the hippocampus at 3 weeks of age than standard-weaned mice. Neural stem cells were labeled with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) injections at 2, 3, or 5 weeks of age, and assayed at 3, 5, and 8 weeks of age, respectively. Early-weaned males had fewer BrdU immunoreactive cells in the dentate gyrus at 3, 5, and 8 weeks. In early-weaned females, fewer BrdU-positive cells were observed only at 5 weeks. Double-staining with BrdU and the neuron markers NeuN and Tuj1 demonstrated that neurogenesis was lower in early-weaned mice at 5 weeks of age. These results suggest that lack of mother-infant interaction during the late lactation period leads to an increase in corticosterone synthesis for 2 days and a decrease in BDNF synthesis in males; moreover, this lack of interaction transiently inhibits hippocampal cell proliferation and survival in both males and females, although the effects were more pronounced in males.
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263
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Gaszner B, Jensen K, Farkas J, Reglődi D, Csernus V, Roubos EW, Kozicz T. Effects of maternal separation on dynamics of urocortin 1 and brain‐derived neurotrophic factor in the rat non‐preganglionic Edinger‐Westphal nucleus. Int J Dev Neurosci 2009; 27:439-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2009.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2008] [Revised: 04/01/2009] [Accepted: 05/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Balázs Gaszner
- Department of Cellular Animal PhysiologyDonders Centre for Neuroscience, EURON, Radboud University NijmegenNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Department of AnatomyUniversity of PécsPécsHungary
| | | | | | - Dóra Reglődi
- Department of AnatomyUniversity of PécsPécsHungary
| | | | - Eric W. Roubos
- Department of Cellular Animal PhysiologyDonders Centre for Neuroscience, EURON, Radboud University NijmegenNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Tamás Kozicz
- Department of Cellular Animal PhysiologyDonders Centre for Neuroscience, EURON, Radboud University NijmegenNijmegenThe Netherlands
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264
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Mello PB, Benetti F, Cammarota M, Izquierdo I. Physical exercise can reverse the deficit in fear memory induced by maternal deprivation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2009; 92:364-9. [PMID: 19398029 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2009.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2009] [Revised: 04/16/2009] [Accepted: 04/16/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Maternal deprivation during the first 10 days of life induces significant behavioral alterations in rodents which persist through adulthood. Physical exercise reduces the cognitive deficits associated with pharmacologic and pathological conditions. Here we investigated whether forced physical exercise alters memory deficits caused by postnatal maternal deprivation. Male rats were divided into four groups: (1) control, (2) deprived, (3) exercised, and (4) deprived+exercised. In groups 2 and 4, pups were deprived from their mothers for 3h/day during the first 10 days post-birth. In groups 3 and 4, from postnatal day 45 (PND-45) on, animals were submitted to forced treadmill exercise. At adulthood, animals were submitted to four different behavioral tasks: open field, Morris water maze (MWM), object recognition (OR) and inhibitory avoidance (IA). Maternal deprivation had no effect on open field behavior, but disrupted memory in the three other tasks. Physical exercise alone had no effect, except for a slight enhancement of MWM learning. Importantly, physical exercise reversed the deficit of IA and reduced the deficit of spatial memory but not that of OR seen in deprived animals. It is possible that physical exercise may counteract the influence of maternal deprivation on neurohumoral or hormonal memory modulatory systems related to stress. Indeed, the decreasing order of the effect of exercise on the memory disturbances induced by deprivation roughly follows the descending degree of stress associated with each task (IA>MWM>OR). Maternal deprivation is known to hinder hormonal mechanisms involved in coping with stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pâmela Billig Mello
- Centro de Memória, Instituto do Cérebro, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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265
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Early parental deprivation in the marmoset monkey produces long-term changes in hippocampal expression of genes involved in synaptic plasticity and implicated in mood disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009; 34:1381-94. [PMID: 18615010 PMCID: PMC2669475 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2008.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In mood disorder, early stressors including parental separation are vulnerability factors, and hippocampal involvement is prominent. In common marmoset monkeys, daily parental deprivation during infancy produces a prodepressive state of increased basal activity and reactivity in stress systems and mild anhedonia that persists at least to adolescence. Here we examined the expression of eight genes, each implicated in neural plasticity and in the pathophysiology of mood disorder, in the hippocampus of these same adolescent marmosets, relative to their normally reared sibling controls. We also measured hippocampal volume. Early deprivation led to decreases in hippocampal growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) mRNA, serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT(1A)R) mRNA and binding ([3H]WAY100635), and to increased vesicular GABA transporter mRNA. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), synaptophysin, vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGluT1), microtubule-associated protein-2, and spinophilin transcripts were unchanged. There were some correlations with in vivo biochemical and behavioral indices, including VGluT1 mRNA with reward-seeking behavior, and serotonin 1A receptor mRNA with CSF cortisol. Early deprivation did not affect hippocampal volume. We conclude that early deprivation in a nonhuman primate, in the absence of subsequent stressors, has a long-term effect on the hippocampal expression of genes implicated in synaptic function and plasticity. The reductions in GAP-43 and serotonin 1A receptor expressions are comparable with findings in mood disorder, supporting the possibility that the latter reflect an early developmental contribution to disease vulnerability. Equally, the negative results suggest that other features of mood disorder, such as decreased hippocampal volume and BDNF expression, are related to different aspects of the pathophysiological process.
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266
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Detrimental psychophysiological effects of early maternal deprivation in adolescent and adult rodents: Altered responses to cannabinoid exposure. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:498-507. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2007] [Revised: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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267
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De la Fuente M, Llorente R, Baeza I, De Castro NM, Arranz L, Cruces J, Viveros MP. Early Maternal Deprivation in Rats. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1153:176-83. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2008.03979.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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268
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Ku HY, Huang YF, Chao PH, Huang CC, Hsu KS. Neonatal isolation delays the developmental decline of long-term depression in the CA1 region of rat hippocampus. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:2847-59. [PMID: 18368035 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2008.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Activity-dependent alterations of synaptic efficacy or connectivity are essential for the development, signal processing, and learning and memory functions of the nervous system. It was observed that, in particular in the CA1 region of the hippocampus, low-frequency stimulation (LFS) became progressively less effective at inducing long-term depression (LTD) with advancing developmental age. The physiological factors regulating this developmental plasticity change, however, have not yet been elucidated. Here we examined the hypothesis that neonatal isolation (once per day for 1 h from postnatal days 1-7) is able to alter processes underlying the developmental decline of LTD. We confirm that the magnitude of LTD induced by LFS (900 stimuli at 1 Hz) protocol correlates negatively with developmental age and illustrates that neonatal isolation delays this developmental decline via the activation of corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) system. Furthermore, this modulation appears to be mediated by an increased transcription of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor NR2B subunits. We also demonstrate that intracerebroventricular injection of CRF postnatally mimicked the effect of neonatal isolation to increase the expression of NR2B subunits and delayed the developmental decline of LTD, which was specifically blocked by CRF receptor 1 antagonist NBI27914 pretreatment. These results suggest a novel role for CRF in regulating developmental events in the hippocampus and indicate that although maternal deprivation is stressful for neonate, appropriate neonatal isolation can serve to promote an endocrine state that may regulate the gradual developmental change in the induction rules for synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal CA1 region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Yun Ku
- Department of Pharmacology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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269
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Benetti F, Mello PB, Bonini JS, Monteiro S, Cammarota M, Izquierdo I. Early postnatal maternal deprivation in rats induces memory deficits in adult life that can be reversed by donepezil and galantamine. Int J Dev Neurosci 2008; 27:59-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2008.09.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2008] [Revised: 08/14/2008] [Accepted: 09/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Benetti
- Centro de Memória, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS)Av. Ipiranga, 669090610‐000Porto AlegreRSBrazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: FisiologiaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Pâmela Billig Mello
- Centro de Memória, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS)Av. Ipiranga, 669090610‐000Porto AlegreRSBrazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: FisiologiaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Juliana Sartori Bonini
- Centro de Memória, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS)Av. Ipiranga, 669090610‐000Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Siomara Monteiro
- Centro de Memória, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS)Av. Ipiranga, 669090610‐000Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Martín Cammarota
- Centro de Memória, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS)Av. Ipiranga, 669090610‐000Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Iván Izquierdo
- Centro de Memória, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS)Av. Ipiranga, 669090610‐000Porto AlegreRSBrazil
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270
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Otsuki K, Uchida S, Watanuki T, Wakabayashi Y, Fujimoto M, Matsubara T, Funato H, Watanabe Y. Altered expression of neurotrophic factors in patients with major depression. J Psychiatr Res 2008; 42:1145-53. [PMID: 18313696 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2007] [Revised: 01/16/2008] [Accepted: 01/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
There is an abundance of evidence suggesting the involvement of altered levels of expression of neurotrophic factors in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders. Although postmortem brain studies have indicated the alterations in the expression levels of neurotrophic factors in mood disorder patients, it is unclear whether these changes are state- or trait-dependent. In this study, we examined the expression levels of the members of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family (GDNF, artemin (ARTN), neurturin, and persephin), brain-derived neurotrophic factor, nerve growth factor, neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), and neurotrophin-4 mRNAs by using quantitative real-time PCR method in peripheral blood cells of patients with major depressive and bipolar disorders in both a current depressive and a remissive states. Reduced expression levels of GDNF, ARTN, and NT-3 mRNAs were found in patients with major depressive disorder in a current depressive state, but not in a remissive state. Altered expressions of these mRNAs were not found in patients with bipolar disorder. Our results suggest that the changes in the expression levels of GDNF, ARTN, and NT-3 mRNAs might be state-dependent and associated with the pathophysiology of major depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Otsuki
- Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minamikogushi, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan
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271
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Laviola G, Ognibene E, Romano E, Adriani W, Keller F. Gene-environment interaction during early development in the heterozygous reeler mouse: clues for modelling of major neurobehavioral syndromes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 33:560-72. [PMID: 18845182 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Revised: 09/12/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Autism and schizophrenia are multifactorial disorders with increasing prevalence in the young population. Among candidate molecules, reelin (RELN) is a protein of the extracellular matrix playing a key role in brain development and synaptic plasticity. The heterozygous (HZ) reeler mouse provides a model for studying the role of reelin deficiency for the onset of these syndromes. We investigated whether early indices of neurobehavioral disorders can be identified in the infant reeler, and whether the consequences of ontogenetic adverse experiences may question or support the suitability of this model. A first study focused on the link between early exposure to Chlorpyryfos and its enduring neurobehavioral consequences. Our data are interesting in view of recently discovered cholinergic abnormalities in autism and schizophrenia, and may suggest new avenues for early pharmacological intervention. In a second study, we analyzed the consequences of repeated maternal separation early in ontogeny. The results provide evidence of how unusual stress early in development are converted into altered behavior in some, but not all, individuals depending on gender and genetic background. A third study aimed to verify the reliability of the model at critical age windows. Data suggest reduced anxiety, increased impulsivity and disinhibition, and altered pain threshold in response to morphine for HZ, supporting a differential organization of brain dopaminergic, serotonergic and opioid systems in this genotype. In conclusion, HZ exhibited a complex behavioral and psycho-pharmacological phenotype, and differential responsivity to ontogenetic adverse conditions. HZ may be used to disentangle interactions between genetic vulnerability and environmental factors. Such an approach could help to model the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Laviola
- Sect. Behavioral Neuroscience, Dept. Cell Biology, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy.
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272
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Cirulli F, Francia N, Berry A, Aloe L, Alleva E, Suomi SJ. Early life stress as a risk factor for mental health: role of neurotrophins from rodents to non-human primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 33:573-85. [PMID: 18817811 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2008] [Revised: 08/22/2008] [Accepted: 08/31/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Early adverse events can enhance stress responsiveness and lead to greater susceptibility for psychopathology at adulthood. The epigenetic factors involved in transducing specific features of the rearing environment into stable changes in brain and behavioural plasticity have only begun to be elucidated. Neurotrophic factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), are affected by stress and play a major role in brain development and in the trophism of specific neuronal networks involved in cognitive function and in mood disorders. In addition to the central nervous system, these effectors are produced by peripheral tissues, thus being in a position to integrate the response to external challenges. In this paper we will review data, obtained from animal models, indicating that early maternal deprivation stress can affect neurotrophin levels. Maladaptive or repeated activation of NGF and BDNF, early during postnatal life, may influence stress sensitivity at adulthood and increase vulnerability for stress-related psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Cirulli
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, I-00161 Rome, Italy.
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273
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Ognibene E, Adriani W, Caprioli A, Ghirardi O, Ali SF, Aloe L, Laviola G. The effect of early maternal separation on brain derived neurotrophic factor and monoamine levels in adult heterozygous reeler mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008; 32:1269-76. [PMID: 18501492 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2007] [Revised: 03/28/2008] [Accepted: 03/28/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE AND METHODS The reeler heterozygous (HZ) mice have provided a model for studying the relationship between reelin (a protein of extracellular matrix) haploinsufficiency and the emergence of neuropsychiatric diseases. In a neurodevelopmental framework, the enduring consequences of early maternal separation (5 h/day during the first postnatal week, or handling controls, H) were studied in reeler HZ and wild type (WT) mice at adulthood. The modulatory effects of a chronic treatment with the atypical antipsychotic olanzapine (OLZ, 1.5 mg/kg for 40 days) were also investigated. RESULTS Early maternal separation had long-term effects on brain plasticity, with a reduction of brain- and glial- derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF and GDNF) in several brain areas of mice, but such a consequence was less marked in the HZ genotype. On the other hand, treatment with OLZ did not affect at all the GDNF but led to an increase of BDNF levels in maternally separated (SEP) mice, an effect which was far more marked in the HZ genotype. Brain levels of serotonin (5-HT) were markedly increased, striatal dopamine (DA) was increased, whereas metabolites and turnover were decreased, in SEP mice of both genotypes. The spontaneous home-cage activity was generally lower in HZ than WT mice, and OLZ treatment contrasted this hypoactivity profile. Maternal separation also decreased the interest toward an unknown mouse proposed as a social stimulus, but only in WT mice. CONCLUSION We investigated the interplay between genetic vulnerability (reelin haploinsufficiency), the outcome of early stressful experiences, and the efficacy of the antipsychotic drug therapy. The reeler HZ genotype exhibited a slightly lower sensitivity to the environmental insult as well as an enhanced response to the atypical antipsychotic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Ognibene
- Section of Behavioral Neuroscience, Dept. Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy
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274
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Kawano KI, Morinobu S, Sawada T, Tsuji S, Erabi K, Fuchikami M, Kozuru T, Yamawaki S, Hisaoka K, Takebayashi M. Prior neonatal isolation reduces induction of NGF mRNA and decreases GDNF mRNA in the hippocampus of juvenile and adult rodents subjected to immobilization stress. Synapse 2008; 62:259-67. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.20487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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275
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Gruss M, Braun K, Frey J, Korz V. Maternal separation during a specific postnatal time window prevents reinforcement of hippocampal long-term potentiation in adolescent rats. Neuroscience 2008; 152:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2007] [Revised: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 12/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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276
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Blaise JH, Koranda JL, Chow U, Haines KE, Dorward EC. Neonatal isolation stress alters bidirectional long-term synaptic plasticity in amygdalo-hippocampal synapses in freely behaving adult rats. Brain Res 2008; 1193:25-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2007] [Revised: 10/29/2007] [Accepted: 11/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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277
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Monteleone P, Serritella C, Martiadis V, Maj M. Decreased levels of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor in both depressed and euthymic patients with unipolar depression and in euthymic patients with bipolar I and II disorders. Bipolar Disord 2008; 10:95-100. [PMID: 18199246 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00459.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been proposed as a candidate molecule in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorders (BD). Reduced levels of peripheral BDNF have been found in drug-free MDD patients, in drug-treated depressed or manic patients with BD type I (BD-I), but not in drug-treated euthymic BD-I individuals. No study has been done in patients with BD type II (BD-II). Moreover, the influence of Axis I psychiatric comorbidity on circulating BDNF in affective patients has never been evaluated. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed: (i) to confirm previous findings on peripheral BDNF in MDD and BD-I patients; (ii) to assess whether changes in circulating BDNF occur also in patients with BD-II; and (iii) to exclude the possibility that comorbid psychiatric disorders exerted an effect on BDNF levels in affective patients. METHODS We measured serum BDNF concentrations by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method in 85 subjects, including 24 euthymic patients with unipolar depression (UD), 17 euthymic patients with BD-I, 11 euthymic patients with BD-II, 11 UD patients with a current major depressive episode and 22 drug-free healthy controls. At the time of the study, 15 patients were drug-treated; the remaining ones were drug-free for at least four weeks. RESULTS Compared to healthy controls, serum BDNF concentrations were significantly reduced in all the patient groups (F(4,80) = 3.840, p = 0.006) with no significant difference among them. Drug treatments and comorbid psychiatric disorders had no effect on lowered circulating BDNF levels in affective patients. CONCLUSIONS Present results confirm previous independent findings of reduced circulating BDNF in patients with MDD and report, for the first time, decreased serum BDNF levels in euthymic patients with UD, BD-I and BD-II, independently from drug treatment status and concomitant Axis I psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Monteleone
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Naples SUN, Naples, Italy.
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278
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Datson NA, Morsink MC, Meijer OC, de Kloet ER. Central corticosteroid actions: Search for gene targets. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 583:272-89. [PMID: 18295201 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2007] [Revised: 11/12/2007] [Accepted: 11/14/2007] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although many of the physiological effects of corticosteroid stress hormones on neuronal function are well recognised, the underlying genomic mechanisms are only starting to be elucidated. Linking physiology and genomics has proven to be a complicated task, despite the emergence of large-scale gene expression profiling technology in the last decade. This is in part due to the complexity of glucocorticoid-signaling, in part due to the complexity of the brain itself. The presence of a binary receptor system for glucocorticoid hormones in limbic brain structures, the coexistence of membrane and intracellular receptors and the highly contextual action of glucocorticoids contribute to this complexity. In addition, the anatomical complexity, extensive cellular heterogeneity of brain and the modest changes in gene expression (mostly in the range of 10-30%) hamper detection of responsive genes, in particular of low abundant transcripts, such as many neurotransmitter receptors and growth factors. Nonetheless, ongoing research into central targets of glucocorticoids has identified many different functional gene classes that underlie the diverse effects of glucocorticoids on brain function. These functional classes include genes involved in energy metabolism, signal transduction, neuronal structure, vesicle dynamics, neurotransmitter catabolism, cell adhesion, genes encoding neurotrophic factors and their receptors and genes involved in regulating glucocorticoid-signalling. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the current status of the field on identification of central corticosteroid targets, discuss the opportunities and pitfalls and highlight new developments in understanding central corticosteroid action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A Datson
- Division of Medical Pharmacology, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research & Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands.
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279
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Foster JA, MacQueen G. Neurobiological factors linking personality traits and major depression. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2008; 53:6-13. [PMID: 18286867 DOI: 10.1177/070674370805300103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the neurobiological basis of personality and depression. METHOD We examined preclinical and clinical studies related to neuroanatomy, neuroendocrine, molecular, and genetic alterations in depressed patients. We considered whether common neurobiological factors might be shared between personality and depression. RESULTS Preclinical studies provide insights into the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of depression including neuroendocrine alterations in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function, neuroanatomical alterations in key brain regions, and alterations in neurotrophin and serotonergic signalling systems. Clinical studies show similar alterations in depressed patients. Evidence suggests that neuroendocrine alterations in HPA function may contribute to personality traits. Brain regions implicated in depression, including the hippocampus and the anterior cingulate cortex, might play a role in personality. Key molecules implicated in depression have been extensively studied with reference to personality traits, particularly neuroticism. To date, physiological measures (serum and positron emission tomography) provide the strongest evidence implicating brain-derived neurotrophic factor and serotonin in personality, while genetic evidence is less convincing. CONCLUSIONS A neurobiological link exists between personality and depression; however, more work is needed to provide an understanding of the nature of this relation and to link this work with clinical studies examining the influence of personality factors on depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane A Foster
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University
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280
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Choy KHC, van den Buuse M. Attenuated disruption of prepulse inhibition by dopaminergic stimulation after maternal deprivation and adolescent corticosterone treatment in rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 18:1-13. [PMID: 17490864 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2007.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Revised: 02/21/2007] [Accepted: 03/29/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of schizophrenia may include an early neurodevelopmental stress component which increases vulnerability to later stressful life events, in combination leading to overt disease. We investigated the effect of an early stress, in the form of maternal deprivation, combined with a later stress, simulated by chronic periadolescent corticosterone treatment, on behaviour in rats. Acute treatment with apomorphine caused disruption of prepulse inhibition (PPI) in controls and in rats that had undergone either maternal deprivation or corticosterone treatment, but was surprisingly absent in rats that had undergone the combined early and late stress. Amphetamine treatment significantly disrupted PPI in both non-deprived groups, but was absent in both maternally deprived groups. The serotonin-1A receptor agonist, 8-OH-DPAT, induced a significant disruption of PPI in all groups. Amphetamine-induced locomotor hyperactivity was similar in all groups. These results show an inhibitory interaction of early stress, caused by maternal deprivation, combined with 'adolescent' stress, simulated by corticosterone treatment, on dopaminergic regulation of PPI. The altered effects of apomorphine and amphetamine could indicate differential changes in dopamine receptor signalling leading to functional desensitisation, or altered modulation of sensory gating in the nucleus accumbens by limbic structures such as the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwok Ho Christopher Choy
- Behavioural Neuroscience Laboratory, Mental Health Research Institute of Victoria, 155 Oak Street, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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281
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Kumamaru E, Numakawa T, Adachi N, Yagasaki Y, Izumi A, Niyaz M, Kudo M, Kunugi H. Glucocorticoid prevents brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated maturation of synaptic function in developing hippocampal neurons through reduction in the activity of mitogen-activated protein kinase. Mol Endocrinol 2007; 22:546-58. [PMID: 18096693 DOI: 10.1210/me.2007-0264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
An increased level of glucocorticoid may be related to the pathophysiology of depressive disorder. The involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the antidepressive effect has also been suggested; however, the possible influence of glucocorticoid on the action of BDNF in the developing central nervous system has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the effect of glucocorticoid (dexamethasone, DEX) on synaptic maturation and function enhanced by BDNF in early developing hippocampal neurons. In the immature stage, BDNF increased the outgrowth of dendrites and the expression of synaptic proteins including glutamate receptors and presynaptic proteins. Pretreatment with DEX significantly inhibited the BDNF-dependent up-regulation of both dendritic outgrowth and synaptic proteins. In the more mature stage, the BDNF-reinforced postsynaptic Ca(2+) influx was decreased by DEX. BDNF-enhanced presynaptic glutamate release was also suppressed. RU486, a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, canceled the DEX-dependent blocking effect on the action of BDNF. After down-regulation of glucocorticoid receptor by small interfering RNA application, no inhibitory effect of DEX on the BDNF-increased synaptic proteins was observed. Interestingly, the BDNF-activated MAPK/ERK pathway, which is an essential intracellular signaling pathway for the BDNF-increased synaptic proteins, was reduced by DEX. These results suggest that BDNF-mediated synaptic maturation is disturbed after neurons are exposed to high-level glucocorticoid in their development stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi Kumamaru
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1, Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
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282
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Abstract
The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) hypothesis of depression postulates that a loss of BDNF is directly involved in the pathophysiology of depression, and that its restoration may underlie the therapeutic efficacy of antidepressant treatment. While this theory has received considerable experimental support, an increasing number of studies have generated evidence which is not only inconsistent, but also directly contradicts the hypothesis. This article provides a critical review of the clinical and preclinical studies which have been responsible for this controversy, outlining pharmacological, behavioural and genetic evidence which demonstrates the contrasting role of BDNF in regulating mood and antidepressant effects throughout the brain. I will also review key studies, both human and animal, which have investigated the association of a BDNF single-nucleotide polymorphism (Val66Met) with depression pathogenesis, and detail the number of inconsistencies which also afflict this novel area of BDNF research. The article will conclude by discussing why now is a critical time to reassess the original BDNF hypothesis of depression, and look towards the formation of new models that can provide a more valid account of the complex relationships between growth factors, mood disorders and their treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- J O Groves
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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283
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Post RM. Role of BDNF in bipolar and unipolar disorder: clinical and theoretical implications. J Psychiatr Res 2007; 41:979-90. [PMID: 17239400 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2006] [Revised: 09/16/2006] [Accepted: 09/21/2006] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
A number of lines of converging evidence suggest that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may play a role in the onset and treatment of bipolar disorder. We review pertinent data on BDNF from several different areas of preclinical and clinical investigation that suggest novel theoretical and treatment implications for the recurrent affective disorders. Data from several recent studies have also converged showing that the val66met allele of BDNF, a common single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), is associated with selective minor deficits in cognitive functioning in subjects with schizophrenia, bipolar illness, and normal controls. Yet, paradoxically, the better functioning val66val allele of BDNF appears to be associated with an increased risk for bipolar disorder and perhaps early onset or rapid cycling. All the primary antidepressant modalities, as well as the mood stabilizers lithium and valproate, increase BDNF. Stressors decrease BDNF and this effect can be blocked by antidepressants. Serum BDNF is low in proportion to the severity of mania and depression and increases with clinical improvement. Assessment of the val66val BDNF allele and a range of other SNPs as potential vulnerability factors for bipolar illness and its early onset could facilitate studies of early intervention, help reduce long delays between the onset of first symptoms and the first treatment, and help in the prediction of individual patient's likelihood of responding to a given treatment.
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284
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Kozisek ME, Middlemas D, Bylund DB. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor tropomyosin-related kinase B in the mechanism of action of antidepressant therapies. Pharmacol Ther 2007; 117:30-51. [PMID: 17949819 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2007] [Accepted: 07/24/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The focus of this review is to critically examine and review the literature on the role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its primary receptor, tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB), in the actions of pharmacologically diverse antidepressant treatments for depression. This will include a review of the studies on the regulation of BDNF and TrkB by different types of antidepressant drug treatments and animal in models of depression, as well as altered levels of BDNF and TrkB in the blood and postmortem brain of patients with depression. Results from clinical and basic studies have demonstrated that stress and depression decrease BDNF expression and neurogenesis and antidepressant treatment reverses or blocks these effects, leading to the neurotrophic hypothesis of depression. Clinical studies demonstrate an association between BDNF levels and several disorders, including depression, epilepsy, bipolar disorder, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Physical activity and diet exert neurotrophic effects and positively modulate BDNF levels. A common single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the BDNF gene, a methionine substitution for valine, is associated with alterations in brain anatomy and memory, but what role it has in clinical disorders is unclear. Findings suggest that early childhood events and adult stress produce neurodegenerative alterations in the brain that can eventually cause breakdown of information processing in the neuronal networks regulating mood. Antidepressant treatments elevate activity-dependent neuronal plasticity by activating BDNF, thereby gradually restoring network function and ultimately mood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Kozisek
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5800, United States.
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285
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Maj PF, Collu M, Fadda P, Cattaneo A, Racagni G, Riva MA. Long-term reduction of brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels and signaling impairment following prenatal treatment with the cannabinoid receptor 1 receptor agonist (R)-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-(4-morpholinyl-methyl) pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-1- naphthalenylmethanone. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:3305-11. [PMID: 17552998 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05565.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
It is well accepted that adverse life events occurring early in development may alter the correct program of brain maturation leading to enhanced vulnerability to neuropsychiatric disorders. It has recently been demonstrated that prenatal exposure to the cannabinoid receptor 1 agonist (R)-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-(4-morpholinyl-methyl)pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-1-naphthalenylmethanone (WIN 55,212-2) produces memory deficit in adulthood, an effect associated with a reduced functionality of the glutamatergic system. The aim of our study was to identify molecular changes produced by prenatal exposure to WIN 55,212-2 that might contribute to late disruption in synaptic plasticity and cognition. For this purpose, WIN 55,212-2 was injected in pregnant wistar rats from gestation day 5 to 20 and a detailed analysis of the levels of the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) as well as of the signaling molecules extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and alpha-calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (alpha-CaMKII) was carried out in adult offspring. We found that exposure to WIN 55,212-2 significantly reduced BDNF levels in hippocampus and frontal cortex. This effect was associated with decreased activation of pathways linked to neurotrophin and glutamate receptor signaling. In particular, prenatal cannabinoid treatment reduced the phosphorylated levels of ERK1/2 in selected subcellular compartments of hippocampus, frontal and prefrontal cortex, whereas no changes were observed in the total levels of these proteins. Furthermore, a robust reduction of total and phospho-alpha-CaMKII was found in the hippocampus of rats prenatally exposed to WIN 55,212-2. In summary, the present data suggest that deficits of BDNF levels and signaling through ERK1/2 and alpha-CaMKII might contribute to cognitive and neuroplastic defects associated with prenatal exposure to cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Francesca Maj
- Center of Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
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286
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Joca SRL, Ferreira FR, Guimarães FS. Modulation of stress consequences by hippocampal monoaminergic, glutamatergic and nitrergic neurotransmitter systems. Stress 2007; 10:227-49. [PMID: 17613938 DOI: 10.1080/10253890701223130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Several findings relate the hippocampal formation to the behavioural consequences of stress. It contains a high concentration of corticoid receptors and undergoes plastic modifications, including decreased neurogenesis and cellular remodelling, following stress exposure. Various major neurotransmitter systems in the hippocampus are involved in these effects. Serotonin (5-HT) seems to exert a protective role in the hippocampus and attenuates the behavioural consequences of stress by activating 5-HT1A receptors in this structure. These effects may mediate the therapeutic actions of several antidepressants. The role of noradrenaline is less clear and possibly depends on the specific hippocampal region (dorsal vs. ventral). The deleterious modifications induced in the hippocampus by stress might involve a decrease in neurotrophic factors such as brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) following glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activation. In addition to glutamate, nitric oxide (NO) could also be related to these effects. Systemic and intra-hippocampal administration of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors attenuates stress-induced behavioural consequences. The challenge for the future will be to integrate results related to these different neurotransmitter systems in a unifying theory about the role of the hippocampus in mood regulation, depressive disorder and antidepressant effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sâmia Regiane Lourenço Joca
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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287
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Aguiar AS, Tuon T, Pinho CA, Silva LA, Andreazza AC, Kapczinski F, Quevedo J, Streck EL, Pinho RA. Intense Exercise Induces Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Mice Brain. Neurochem Res 2007; 33:51-8. [PMID: 17619145 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-007-9406-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2007] [Accepted: 06/06/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
There are conflicts between the effects of free radical over-production induced by exercise on neurotrophins and brain oxidative metabolism. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of intense physical training on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, COX activity, and lipoperoxidation levels in mice brain cortex. Twenty-seven adult male CF1 mice were assigned to three groups: control untrained, intermittent treadmill exercise (3 x 15 min/day) and continuous treadmill exercise (45 min/day). Training significantly (P < 0.05) increased citrate synthase activity when compared to untrained control. Blood lactate levels classified the exercise as high intensity. The intermittent training significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in 6.5% the brain cortex COX activity when compared to the control group. BDNF levels significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in both exercise groups. Besides, continuous and intermittent exercise groups significantly (P < 0.05) increased thiobarbituric acid reactive species levels in the brain cortex. In summary, intense exercise promoted brain mitochondrial dysfunction due to decreased BDNF levels in the frontal cortex of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aderbal S Aguiar
- Laboratory of Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry, Post-graduation Program in Health Sciences, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Criciúma, SC 88806-000, Brazil
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288
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Mesquita AR, Pêgo JM, Summavielle T, Maciel P, Almeida OFX, Sousa N. Neurodevelopment milestone abnormalities in rats exposed to stress in early life. Neuroscience 2007; 147:1022-33. [PMID: 17587501 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2006] [Revised: 04/02/2007] [Accepted: 04/02/2007] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Manipulation of the corticosteroid milieu by interfering with the mother-newborn relationship has received much attention because of its potential bearing on psychopathology later in life. In the present study, infant rats that were deprived of maternal contact between the 2nd and the 15th postnatal days (MS2-15) for 6 h/day were subjected to a systematic assessment of neurodevelopmental milestones between postnatal days 2 and 21. The analyses included measurements of physical growth and maturation and evaluation of neurological reflexes. Although some somatic milestones (e.g. eye opening) were anticipated, MS2-15 animals showed retardation in the acquisition of postural reflex, air righting and surface righting reflexes, and in the wire suspension test; the latter two abnormalities were only found in males. A gender effect was also observed in negative geotaxis, with retardation being observed in females but not males. To better understand the delay of neurological maturation in MS2-15 rats, we determined the levels of various monoamines in different regions of the brain stem, including the vestibular area, the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area and dorsal raphe nuclei. In the vestibular region of MS2-15 rats the levels of 5-HT were reduced, while 5-HT turnover was increased. There was also a significant increase of the 5-HT turnover in MS2-15 animals in the raphe nuclei, mainly due to increased 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels, and an increase of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of stressed females. No significant differences were found in the immunohistochemical sections for tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylase in these regions of the brain stem. In conclusion, the present results show that postnatal stress induces signs of neurological pathology that may contribute to the genesis of behavioral abnormalities later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Mesquita
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), Health Sciences School, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
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289
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Nair A, Vadodaria KC, Banerjee SB, Benekareddy M, Dias BG, Duman RS, Vaidya VA. Stressor-specific regulation of distinct brain-derived neurotrophic factor transcripts and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein expression in the postnatal and adult rat hippocampus. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:1504-19. [PMID: 17164818 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Stress regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is implicated in the hippocampal damage observed in depression. BDNF has a complex gene structure with four 5' untranslated exons (I-IV) with unique promoters, and a common 3' coding exon (V). To better understand the stress regulation of BDNF, we addressed whether distinct stressors differentially regulate exon-specific BDNF transcripts in the postnatal and adult hippocampus. The early life stress of maternal separation (MS) resulted in a time point-dependent differential upregulation of BDNF transcripts restricted to early postnatal life (P14-BDNF II, P21-BDNF IV, V). In adulthood, distinct stressors regulated BDNF transcripts in a signature manner. Immobilization stress, administered once, decreased all BDNF splice variants but had differing effects on BDNF I/II (increase) and III/IV (decrease) when administered chronically. Although immobilization stress reduced BDNF (V) mRNA, chronic unpredictable stress did not influence total BDNF despite altering specific BDNF transcripts. Furthermore, a prior history of MS altered the signature pattern in which adult-onset stress regulated specific BDNF transcripts. We also examined the expression of cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), an upstream transcriptional activator of BDNF, and observed a CREB induction in the postnatal hippocampus following MS. As a possible consequence of enhanced CREB and BDNF expression following MS, we examined hippocampal progenitor proliferation and observed a significant increase restricted to early life. These results suggest that alterations in CREB/BDNF may contribute to the generation of individual differences in stress neurocircuitry, providing a substrate for altered vulnerability to depressive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrita Nair
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
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290
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Llorente R, Arranz L, Marco EM, Moreno E, Puerto M, Guaza C, De la Fuente M, Viveros MP. Early maternal deprivation and neonatal single administration with a cannabinoid agonist induce long-term sex-dependent psychoimmunoendocrine effects in adolescent rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2007; 32:636-50. [PMID: 17553622 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2006] [Revised: 03/12/2007] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Maternal deprivation [24h on postnatal day 9] might represent an animal model of schizophrenia and behavioural and neurochemical alterations observed in adulthood may be mediated by hippocampal impairments induced by abnormally increased glucocorticoids due to neonatal stress. We aimed to provide new data for psychoimmunoendocrine characterization of this animal model by evaluating its effects in adolescent rats of both genders. In previous studies we found that cannabinoid compounds counteracted the enhanced impulsivity of maternally deprived animals and that the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 showed neuroprotective properties in neonatal rats. So, we hypothesised that this compound could counteract at least some of the detrimental effects that we expected to find in maternally deprived animals. Accordingly, the drug was administered immediately after the maternal deprivation period. Maternally deprived males showed significantly decreased motor activity in the holeboard and the plus-maze. The cannabinoid agonist induced, exclusively in males, a significant anxiogenic-like effect, which was reversed by maternal deprivation. In the forced swimming test, both treatments independently induced depressive-like responses. Maternal deprivation reduced immunological function whereas the drug exerted tissue-dependent effects on the immune parameters analysed. Maternally deprived females showed reduced corticosterone levels whereas the cannabinoid agonist increased hormone concentration in all groups. In general, the results show detrimental effects of both treatments as well as intriguing interactions, notably in relation to emotional behaviour and certain immunological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Llorente
- Departamento de Fisiología (Fisiología Animal II), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Complutense, Ciudad Universitaria, C/ Jose Antonio Novais, 2; 28040 Madrid, Spain
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291
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Chatterjee D, Chatterjee-Chakraborty M, Rees S, Cauchi J, de Medeiros CB, Fleming AS. Maternal isolation alters the expression of neural proteins during development: 'Stroking' stimulation reverses these effects. Brain Res 2007; 1158:11-27. [PMID: 17555725 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.04.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2006] [Revised: 02/26/2007] [Accepted: 04/13/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Rat pups reared apart from their siblings, mother, and nest environment in the 'pup-in-a-cup' regime show many alterations in behavior reminiscent of the Institutional Inattention/Overactivity Syndrome that characterizes children whose first few months are spent in institutions. In this report, we compare mother-reared (MR) and artificially reared (AR) male rats in concentrations and distributions of brain proteins that are involved in normal brain development. When assessed during the juvenile period and in adulthood, AR animals showed elevations in Neu-N (a neuronal marker) and in S-100 (an astrocyte marker) but reductions in synaptophysin (synapse protein), N-CAM (cell-adhesion molecule), GAP-43 (axon elongation protein), and BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor) in comparison to MR controls in many brain sites involved in attention, impulsivity, activity, and social behavior. Daily 'licking-like' stimulation provided to AR animals (AR-MAX) throughout early development that reverses many of the behavioral deficits, also reverses many of the isolation effects on brain proteins. Study 2 showed that elevations in the number of neurons in combination with decreases in functionality are associated with a reduction in neuronal pruning and apoptosis during the very early post-partum period in AR animals and their reversal through daily 'licking-like' stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diptendu Chatterjee
- University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Rd N, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5L 1C6
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292
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Toki S, Morinobu S, Imanaka A, Yamamoto S, Yamawaki S, Honma KI. Importance of early lighting conditions in maternal care by dam as well as anxiety and memory later in life of offspring. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:815-29. [PMID: 17328777 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05288.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Rodent studies have revealed that the early rearing environment plays an important role in the development of stress vulnerability, memory and cognition. Although early lighting conditions (ELC) are involved in these neuronal developments through both maternal and offspring behavior, their influence has not been fully elucidated. Thus, by using Sprague-Dawley rats, we examined whether ELC affected maternal care by the dam and the subsequent neurodevelopment of the offspring. Prolonged dark phase conditions (PDC) (light/dark, 6/18 h) and prolonged light phase conditions (light/dark, 18/6 h) were administered from postnatal day 2 to postnatal day 14. Throughout this period, maternal care and the circadian rhythmicity of dams were investigated. In adolescence and adulthood of the offspring, we measured anxiety-like behavior, social interaction, object recognition memory, activity rhythm and corticosterone response to stress with hippocampal expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate and glucocorticoid receptor mRNAs. PDC altered maternal care and circadian rhythmicity in the dam compared with normal lighting conditions and prolonged light phase conditions. PDC markedly increased anxiety-like behavior, decreased social interaction and object recognition memory, and inhibited corticosterone feedback in offspring later in life. Furthermore, hippocampal levels of glucocorticoid receptor mRNA and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 2B mRNA in rats subjected to PDC were significantly lower than in animals subjected to normal lighting conditions. In the adult offspring, the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity was not affected. These findings suggested that ELC affect mother-infant interactions and subsequently at least partially alter the neurobehavioral development of offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Toki
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Division of Frontier Medical Science, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8511, Japan
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293
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Gustafsson L, Zhou Q, Nylander I. Ethanol-induced effects on opioid peptides in adult male Wistar rats are dependent on early environmental factors. Neuroscience 2007; 146:1137-49. [PMID: 17391858 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2006] [Revised: 02/05/2007] [Accepted: 02/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The vulnerability to develop alcoholism is dependent on both genetic and environmental factors. The neurobiological mechanisms underlying these factors are not fully understood but individual divergence in the endogenous opioid peptide system may contribute. We have previously reported that early-life experiences can affect endogenous opioids and also adult voluntary ethanol intake. In the present study, this line of research was continued and the effects of long-term voluntary ethanol drinking on the opioid system are described in animals reared in different environmental settings. Rat pups were subjected to 15 min (MS15) or 360 min (MS360) of daily maternal separation during postnatal days 1-21. At 10 weeks of age, male rats were exposed to voluntary ethanol drinking in a four-bottle paradigm with 5%, 10% and 20% ethanol solution in addition to water for 2 months. Age-matched controls received water during the same period. Immunoreactive (ir) Met-enkephalin-Arg6Phe7 (MEAP) and dynorphin B (DYNB) peptide levels were thereafter measured in the pituitary gland and several brain areas. In water-drinking animals, lower ir MEAP levels were observed in the MS360 rats in the hypothalamus, medial prefrontal cortex, striatum and the periaqueductal gray, whereas no differences were seen in ir DYNB levels. Long-term ethanol drinking induced lower ir MEAP levels in MS15 rats in the medial prefrontal cortex and the periaqueductal gray, whereas higher levels were detected in MS360 rats in the hypothalamus, striatum and the substantia nigra. Chronic voluntary drinking affected ir DYNB levels in the pituitary gland, hypothalamus and the substantia nigra, with minor differences between MS15 and MS360. In conclusion, manipulation of the early environment caused changes in the opioid system and a subsequent altered response to ethanol. The altered sensitivity of the opioid peptides to ethanol may contribute to the previously reported differences in ethanol intake between MS15 and MS360 rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Gustafsson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Pharmacology, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 591, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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294
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Djouma E, Card K, Lodge DJ, Lawrence AJ. The CRF1 receptor antagonist, antalarmin, reverses isolation-induced up-regulation of dopamine D2 receptors in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens of fawn-hooded rats. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 23:3319-27. [PMID: 16820021 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04864.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that Fawn-Hooded (FH) rats reared in isolation display an anxiety-like phenotype and an enhanced acquisition of ethanol seeking behaviour. Furthermore, antalarmin, a selective corticotrophin-releasing factor type 1 (CRF1) receptor antagonist, reduces isolation-induced acquisition and maintenance of volitional ethanol consumption in this strain. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of CRF1 receptor antagonism by antalarmin to impact upon brain chemistry in both isolated and group-housed FH rats. To achieve this, FH rats were reared, from weaning, in either group-housed or isolation-housed conditions and at 12 weeks of age were treated with antalarmin (20 mg/kg, i.p; n = 10 per group) or vehicle (1 mL/kg, i.p; n = 10 per group) bi-daily for ten consecutive days before being killed and their brains removed for neurochemical analyses. Autoradiography and in situ hybridization was employed to analyse changes in the dopaminergic and neurotrophin systems. Isolation rearing increased dopamine D2 receptor density in the central amygdala and nucleus accumbens, an effect reversed by antalarmin treatment. Conversely, treatment with antalarmin had no impact upon the isolation-induced alterations of the mRNA encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor or the TrkB receptor. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that multiple signalling systems are susceptible to modulation by social isolation and that antalarmin can reverse some, but not all, isolation-induced alterations in brain chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvan Djouma
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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295
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Mackin P, Gallagher P, Watson S, Young AH, Ferrier IN. Changes in brain-derived neurotrophic factor following treatment with mifepristone in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2007; 41:321-6. [PMID: 17464718 DOI: 10.1080/00048670701213211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is stress-responsive and has been implicated in a number of disparate neuropsychiatric disorders. Glucocorticoid antagonists have been shown to have beneficial effects on mood and cognitive function in bipolar disorder but not in schizophrenia. The aim of the present study was to investigate BDNF levels in patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia before and after treatment with the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist mifepristone. METHODS Peripheral BDNF levels were measured in patients with bipolar disorder (n=20), schizophrenia (n=20) and 14 matched healthy controls following 7 days of adjunctive mifepristone (600 mg day(-1)) treatment in a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design study. RESULTS Baseline BDNF values were similar in both patient groups and in healthy controls. Following treatment with mifepristone, cortisol levels were significantly increased and BDNF levels decreased in both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. A significant correlation existed between change in cortisol level and change in BDNF levels following mifepristone treatment in schizophrenia, but not in bipolar disorder. CONCLUSION Differing BDNF responses to increasing cortisol levels between patients with schizophrenia and with bipolar disorder may reflect underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Mackin
- School of Neurology, Neurobiology and Psychiatry, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Leazes Wing (Psychiatry), Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK.
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296
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Clarke G, O'Mahony S, Malone G, Dinan TG. An isocratic high performance liquid chromatography method for the determination of GABA and glutamate in discrete regions of the rodent brain. J Neurosci Methods 2007; 160:223-30. [PMID: 17064781 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Revised: 09/07/2006] [Accepted: 09/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The amino acid neurotransmitters gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate have been implicated in mood disorders and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is an important method in their quantitation. This paper describes a method which employs either electrochemical or fluorescent detection of the amino acid derivatives formed by a reaction with naphthalene-2,3-dicarboxaldehyde (NDA) in the presence of cyanide ions. Elution is based on an isocratic protocol and is achieved in 20 min or less. The method is reproducible, shows excellent linearity and generates derivatives which are stable for up to 16 h. Successful application of the method to a maternal deprivation study has identified the hippocampus and the brainstem as possible sites of long-term alteration in this paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Clarke
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre and Department of Psychiatry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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297
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Fumagalli F, Molteni R, Racagni G, Riva MA. Stress during development: Impact on neuroplasticity and relevance to psychopathology. Prog Neurobiol 2007; 81:197-217. [PMID: 17350153 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2007.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2006] [Revised: 11/23/2006] [Accepted: 01/23/2007] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Development represents a critical moment for shaping adult behavior and may set the stage to disease vulnerability later in life. There is now compelling evidence that stressful experiences during gestation or early in life can lead to enhanced susceptibility for mental illness. In this paper we review the data from experimental studies aimed at investigating behavioral, hormonal, functional and molecular consequences of exposure to stressful events during prenatal or early postnatal life that might contribute to later psychopathology. The use of the newest methodology in the field and the intensive efforts produced by researchers have opened the possibility to reveal the complex, finely tuned and previously unappreciated sets of molecular interactions between different factors that are critical for neurodevelopment thus leading to important discoveries regarding perinatal life. The major focus of our work has been to revise and discuss data from animal studies supporting the role of neuronal plasticity in the long-term effects produced by developmental adversities on brain function as well as the possible implications for disease vulnerability. We believe these studies might prove useful for the identification of novel targets for more effective pharmacological treatments of mental illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Fumagalli
- Center of Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
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298
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Bocchio-Chiavetto L, Zanardini R, Bortolomasi M, Abate M, Segala M, Giacopuzzi M, Riva MA, Marchina E, Pasqualetti P, Perez J, Gennarelli M. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) increases serum Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in drug resistant depressed patients. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2006; 16:620-4. [PMID: 16757154 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2006.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2005] [Revised: 03/20/2006] [Accepted: 04/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Several findings have suggested that the neurotrophin BDNF could contribute to clinical efficacy of antidepressant treatments. The purpose of this study was to analyse if ECT operates a modulation of serum BDNF levels in a sample of drug resistant depressed patients. The results obtained show significantly higher serum levels of BDNF following ECT. More specifically, while no change occurred in the whole sample between T0 (baseline) and T1 (after ECT) (p=0.543) a significant increase has been identified at T2, one month after the end of ECT (p=0.002). However, the BDNF augmentation was evident even between T0 and T1 in a subgroup of patients who has low baseline BDNF levels. Although future researches are needed, the results herein presented show for the first time that ECT is associated with changes in serum BDNF and further support the possible involvement of BDNF in antidepressant therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisella Bocchio-Chiavetto
- Genetics Unit, IRCCS Centro S. Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Via Pilastroni 4, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
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299
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Branchi I, D'Andrea I, Fiore M, Di Fausto V, Aloe L, Alleva E. Early social enrichment shapes social behavior and nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in the adult mouse brain. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 60:690-6. [PMID: 16533499 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2005] [Revised: 01/02/2006] [Accepted: 01/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early experiences produce persistent changes in brain and behavioral function. We investigate whether being reared in a communal nest (CN), a form of early social enrichment that characterizes the natural ecological niche of many rodent species including the mouse, has effects on adult social/aggressive behavior and nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in mice. METHODS The CN consisted of a single nest where three mothers kept their pups together and shared care-giving behavior from birth to weaning (postnatal day 25). RESULTS Compared to standard laboratory conditions, in CN condition, mouse mothers displayed higher levels of maternal care. At adulthood, CN mice displayed higher propensity to interact socially and achieved more promptly the behavioral profile of either dominant or subordinate male. Furthermore, CN adult mice showed higher NGF levels, which were further affected by social status, and higher BDNF levels in the brain. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that CN, a highly stimulating early social environment, produces differences in social behavior later in life associated with marked changes of neurotrophin levels in selected brain areas, including hippocampus and hypothalamus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Branchi
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Section of Behavioural Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regian Elena 299, I-00161 Roma, Rome, Italy.
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300
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Tsai SJ. TrkB partial agonists: potential treatment strategy for major depression. Med Hypotheses 2006; 68:674-6. [PMID: 16905274 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2006] [Accepted: 06/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates a wide variety of processes in the nervous system, including neural development, function and survival, through activation of the tyrosine kinase B receptor (TrkB). Evidence suggests that low central BDNF activity, especially in the hippocampus, may play a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of major depression, and that agents that can increase BDNF-TrkB pathway signaling may be therapeutic for this disease. However, recent studies showed that increased BDNF activity in the mesolimbic region may cause a depressed state. A partial agonist is an agent that elicits a maximum response that is less than that of an agonist and acts as an antagonist in the presence of excess full agonist. Recently some small peptides have been synthesized that act as TrkB partial agonists. Since BDNF might be pro-depressive in the mesolimbic system and anti-depressive in the hippocampus region, it is proposed that these peptides or other partial TrkB agonists may provide a novel strategy for the treatment of major depression, which may be associated with BDNF-TrkB hypofunction in hippocampus and/or hyperfunction in the mesolimbic system. Furthermore, given the potential imbalance of BDNF in specific brain regions in major depression, selection of agents with maximal hippocampus/mesolimbic BDNF activation ratio could be of importance in the development of novel antidepressants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Jen Tsai
- Department of Psychiatry, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, 201 Shih-Pai Road, Sec. 2, 11217 Taipei, Taiwan.
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