A 3D triple-deck photoanode with a strengthened structure integrality: enhanced photoelectrochemical water oxidation

WO3/BiVO4 is one of the attractive Type II heterojunctions for photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting due to its well-matched band edge positions and visible light harvesting abilities. However, two light absorption components generally suffer from poor charge collection and cannot be efficiently utilized because of non-ideal interfaces. Herein, a triple-deck three-dimensional (3D) architecture was designed through a one-step shaping process with an additional stress relaxation WO3 underlayer. The final photoanodes showed a promising photocurrent density of 5.1 mA cm(-2) at 1.23 V vs. RHE under AM 1.5G illumination. Using the uniformly distributed oxygen evolution co-catalyst (OEC) layer as the outer most shell of the WO3/BiVO4/OEC triple-deck 3D structure with a dense WO3 underlayer, the water splitting efficiency was improved dramatically by facilitating the charge transfer process at the electrode/electrolyte interface.

Tuning and Freezing Disorder in Photonic Crystals using Percolation Lithography

Although common in biological systems, synthetic self-assembly routes to complex 3D photonic structures with tailored degrees of disorder remain elusive. Here we show how liquids can be used to finely control disorder in porous 3D photonic crystals, leading to complex and hierarchical geometries. In these optofluidic crystals, dynamically tunable disorder is superimposed onto the periodic optical structure through partial wetting or evaporation. In both cases, macroscopic symmetry breaking is driven by subtle sub-wavelength variations in the pore geometry. These variations direct site-selective infiltration of liquids through capillary interactions. Incorporating cross-linkable resins into our liquids, we developed methods to freeze in place the filling patterns at arbitrary degrees of partial wetting and intermediate stages of drying. These percolation lithography techniques produced permanent photonic structures with adjustable disorder. By coupling strong changes in optical properties to subtle differences in fluid behavior, optofluidic crystals may also prove useful in rapid analysis of liquids.

Bottom-Up Synthesis and Sensor Applications of Biomimetic Nanostructures

The combination of nanotechnology, biology, and bioengineering greatly improved the developments of nanomaterials with unique functions and properties. Biomolecules as the nanoscale building blocks play very important roles for the final formation of functional nanostructures. Many kinds of novel nanostructures have been created by using the bioinspired self-assembly and subsequent binding with various nanoparticles. In this review, we summarized the studies on the fabrications and sensor applications of biomimetic nanostructures. The strategies for creating different bottom-up nanostructures by using biomolecules like DNA, protein, peptide, and virus, as well as microorganisms like bacteria and plant leaf are introduced. In addition, the potential applications of the synthesized biomimetic nanostructures for colorimetry, fluorescence, surface plasmon resonance, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, electrical resistance, electrochemistry, and quartz crystal microbalance sensors are presented. This review will promote the understanding of relationships between biomolecules/microorganisms and functional nanomaterials in one way, and in another way it will guide the design and synthesis of biomimetic nanomaterials with unique properties in the future.

Synthesis and Liquid-Crystal Behavior of Bent Colloidal Silica Rods

The design and assembly of novel colloidal particles are of both academic and technological interest. We developed a wet-chemical route to synthesize monodisperse bent rigid silica rods by controlled perturbation of emulsion-templated growth. The bending angle of the rods can be tuned in a range of 0-50° by varying the strength of perturbation in the reaction temperature or pH in the course of rod growth. The length of each arm of the bent rods can be individually controlled by adjusting the reaction time. For the first time we demonstrated that the bent silica rods resemble banana-shaped liquid-crystal molecules and assemble into ordered structures with a typical smectic B2 phase. The bent silica rods could serve as a visualizable mesoscopic model for exploiting the phase behaviors of bent molecules which represent a typical class of liquid-crystal molecules.

Self-organized helical superstructure of photonic cellulose loaded with upconversion nanoparticles showing modulated luminescence

Self-organized composite film of chiral nematic cellulose loaded with upconversion nanoparticles whose luminescence can be modulated has been developed.

One-dimensional photonic crystals: fabrication, responsiveness and emerging applications in 3D construction

Classical usages of one-dimensional photonic crystals and emerging applications in 3D construction.

Fabrication of an olive-like BiVO4 hierarchical architecture with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity

The olive-like BiVO₄ hierarchical architecture can be synthesized by a facile, template-free hydrothermal method, which shows high visible-light photocatalytic activity for degradation of methylene blue molecules.

Highly stable electrical manipulation of reflective colors in colloidal crystals of sulfate iron oxide particles in organic media

We report the method for decorating charged functional groups on the Fe₃O₄@C nanoparticle and demonstrate reversible structural transition of suspension under external electric field with long term cyclic stability.

Bio-inspired photonic crystals with superwettability

This review focus on the recent developments in the mechanism, fabrication and application of bio-inspired PCs with superwettability.

Zinc ion-doped carbon dots with strong yellow photoluminescence

Carbon dots doped with zinc ions and displaying strong yellow photoluminescence and a QY of 51.2% were produced, as were various applications of these carbon dots.

2D and 3D photonic crystal materials for photocatalysis and electrochemical energy storage and conversion

This perspective reviews recent advances in inverse opal structures, how they have been developed, studied and applied as catalysts, catalyst support materials, as electrode materials for batteries, water splitting applications, solar-to-fuel conversion and electrochromics, and finally as photonic photocatalysts and photoelectrocatalysts. Throughout, we detail some of the salient optical characteristics that underpin recent results and form the basis for light-matter interactions that span electrochemical energy conversion systems as well as photocatalytic systems. Strategies for using 2D as well as 3D structures, ordered macroporous materials such as inverse opals are summarized and recent work on plasmonic-photonic coupling in metal nanoparticle-infiltrated wide band gap inverse opals for enhanced photoelectrochemistry are provided.

A colloidoscope of colloid-based porous materials and their uses

Colloids assemble into a variety of bioinspired structures for applications including optics, wetting, sensing, catalysis, and electrodes.

Colorful titanium oxides: a new class of photonic materials

In this communication, a new class of photonic materials, namely, two-dimensional titanium oxide-based photonic crystals, are proposed and were fabricated with an electrochemical anodization method. The high structural periodicity of the nanostructures, and the feasible variability of the chemical compositions help to realize tunable photonic bandgaps for selective light absorption in broad wavelength regions.

Inverse Opal Photonic Crystals as a Strategy to Improve Photocatalysis: Underexplored Questions

The structuring of materials in the form of photonic crystals for photocatalytic applications is a quite new strategy aiming to enhance the performance of the photocatalysts at wavelength ranges where their absorption is poor. It is of particular interest to successfully manufacture an efficient photocatalytic system that could make use of solar light. Thus, the key of the strategy is the "slow photon effect", occurring at the edges of a forbidden band for photons. In this Perspective we have chosen some questions that we consider of relevance and that are well worth being addressed both theoretically and experimentally. It is the aim of this discussion to eventually lead to a more productive use of inverse opals as photonic photocatalytic materials.

Block copolymer self-assembly for nanophotonics

The ability to control and modulate the interaction of light with matter is crucial to achieve desired optical properties including reflection, transmission, and selective polarization. Photonic materials rely upon precise control over the composition and morphology to establish periodic interactions with light on the wavelength and sub-wavelength length scales. Supramolecular assembly provides a natural solution allowing the encoding of a desired 3D architecture into the chemical building blocks and assembly conditions. The compatibility with solution processing and low-overhead manufacturing is a significant advantage over more complex approaches such as lithography or colloidal assembly. Here we review recent advances on photonic architectures derived from block copolymers and highlight the influence and complexity of processing pathways. Notable examples that have emerged from this unique synthesis platform include Bragg reflectors, antireflective coatings, and chiral metamaterials. We further predict expanded photonic capabilities and limits of these approaches in light of future developments of the field.

A new class of tunable hypersonic phononic crystals based on polymer-tethered colloids

The design and engineering of hybrid materials exhibiting tailored phononic band gaps are fundamentally relevant to innovative material technologies in areas ranging from acoustics to thermo-optic devices. Phononic hybridization gaps, originating from the anti-crossing between local resonant and propagating modes, have attracted particular interest because of their relative robustness to structural disorder and the associated benefit to 'manufacturability'. Although hybridization gap materials are well known, their economic fabrication and efficient control of the gap frequency have remained elusive because of the limited property variability and expensive fabrication methodologies. Here we report a new strategy to realize hybridization gap materials by harnessing the 'anisotropic elasticity' across the particle-polymer interface in densely polymer-tethered colloidal particles. Theoretical and Brillouin scattering analysis confirm both the robustness to disorder and the tunability of the resulting hybridization gap and provide guidelines for the economic synthesis of new materials with deliberately controlled gap position and width frequencies.

Combining Bottom-Up Self-Assembly with Top-Down Microfabrication to Create Hierarchical Inverse Opals with High Structural Order

Colloidal particles can assemble into ordered crystals, creating periodically structured materials at the nanoscale without relying on expensive equipment. The combination of small size and high order leads to strong interaction with visible light, which induces macroscopic, iridescent structural coloration. To increase the complexity and functionality, it is important to control the organization of such materials in hierarchical structures with high degrees of order spanning multiple length scales. Here, a bottom-up assembly of polystyrene particles in the presence of a silica sol-gel precursor material (tetraethylorthosilicate, TEOS), which creates crack-free inverse opal films with high positional order and uniform crystal alignment along the (110) crystal plane, is combined with top-down microfabrication techniques. Micrometer scale hierarchical superstructures having a highly regular internal nanostructure with precisely controlled crystal orientation and wall profiles are produced. The ability to combine structural order at the nano- and microscale enables the fabrication of materials with complex optical properties resulting from light-matter interactions at different length scales. As an example, a hierarchical diffraction grating, which combines Bragg reflection arising from the nanoscale periodicity of the inverse opal crystal with grating diffraction resulting from a micrometer scale periodicity, is demonstrated.

Color from hierarchy: Diverse optical properties of micron-sized spherical colloidal assemblies

Materials in nature are characterized by structural order over multiple length scales have evolved for maximum performance and multifunctionality, and are often produced by self-assembly processes. A striking example of this design principle is structural coloration, where interference, diffraction, and absorption effects result in vivid colors. Mimicking this emergence of complex effects from simple building blocks is a key challenge for man-made materials. Here, we show that a simple confined self-assembly process leads to a complex hierarchical geometry that displays a variety of optical effects. Colloidal crystallization in an emulsion droplet creates micron-sized superstructures, termed photonic balls. The curvature imposed by the emulsion droplet leads to frustrated crystallization. We observe spherical colloidal crystals with ordered, crystalline layers and a disordered core. This geometry produces multiple optical effects. The ordered layers give rise to structural color from Bragg diffraction with limited angular dependence and unusual transmission due to the curved nature of the individual crystals. The disordered core contributes nonresonant scattering that induces a macroscopically whitish appearance, which we mitigate by incorporating absorbing gold nanoparticles that suppress scattering and macroscopically purify the color. With increasing size of the constituent colloidal particles, grating diffraction effects dominate, which result from order along the crystal's curved surface and induce a vivid polychromatic appearance. The control of multiple optical effects induced by the hierarchical morphology in photonic balls paves the way to use them as building blocks for complex optical assemblies--potentially as more efficient mimics of structural color as it occurs in nature.

Porous ionic liquids: synthesis and application

Solidification of fluidic ionic liquids into porous materials yields porous ionic networks that combine the unique characteristics of ionic liquids with the common features of polymers and porous materials. This minireview reports the most recent advances in the design of porous ionic liquids. A summary of the synthesis of ordered and disordered porous ionic liquid-based nanoparticles or membranes with or without templates is provided, together with the new concept of room temperature porous ionic liquids. As a versatile platform for functional materials, porous ionic liquids have shown widespread applications in catalysis, adsorption, sensing, actuation, etc. This new research direction towards ionic liquids chemistry is still in its early stages but has great potential.

Centrifugation-assisted Assembly of Colloidal Silica into Crack-Free and Transferrable Films with Tunable Crystalline Structures

Self-assembly of colloidal particles into colloidal films has many actual and potential applications. While various strategies have been developed to direct the assembly of colloidal particles, fabrication of crack-free and transferrable colloidal film with controllable crystal structures still remains a major challenge. Here we show a centrifugation-assisted assembly of colloidal silica spheres into free-standing colloidal film by using the liquid/liquid interfaces of three immiscible phases. Through independent control of centrifugal force and interparticle electrostatic repulsion, polycrystalline, single-crystalline and quasi-amorphous structures can be readily obtained. More importantly, by dehydration of silica particles during centrifugation, the spontaneous formation of capillary water bridges between particles enables the binding and pre-shrinkage of the assembled array at the fluid interface. Thus the assembled colloidal films are not only crack-free, but also robust and flexible enough to be easily transferred on various planar and curved substrates.

Particle Segregation at Contact Lines of Evaporating Colloidal Drops: Influence of the Substrate Wettability and Particle Charge-Mass Ratio

Segregation of particles during capillary/convective self-assembly is interesting for self-stratification in colloidal deposits. In evaporating drops containing colloidal particles, the wettability properties of substrate and the sedimentation of particles can affect their accumulation at contact lines. In this work we studied the size segregation and discrimination of charged particles with different densities. We performed in-plane particle counting at evaporating triple lines by using fluorescence confocal microscopy. We studied separately substrates with very different wettability properties and particles with different charge-mass ratios at low ionic strength. We used binary colloidal suspensions to compare simultaneously the deposition of two different particles. The particle deposition rate strongly depends on the receding contact angle of the substrate. We further observed a singular behavior of charged polystyrene particles in binary mixtures under "salt-free" conditions explained by the "colloidal Brazil nut" effect.

Polystyrene colloidal crystals: Interface controlled thermal conductivity in an open-porous mesoparticle superstructure

Colloidal crystals typically consist of sub-micron sized monodisperse particles, which are densely packed on a face centered cubic lattice. While many properties of this material class have been studied over the past decades, little is known about their thermal transport properties. The high amount of interfaces and their small interparticle contact area should result in efficient thermal insulation. Using laser flash analysis we report for the first time on the temperature dependent thermal conductivity of a freestanding 366 nm polystyrene (PS) colloidal crystal. Macroscopic monoliths of these samples were fabricated by colloidal self-assembly. We demonstrate a very low thermal conductivity κ of 51 mW K(-1) m(-1) (κ of bulk PS∼140 mW K(-1) m(-1)). Remarkably, this low thermal conductivity is reached at a comparatively high density of 750 kg m(-3). It can be further increased by almost 300% upon film formation and loss of the colloidal mesostructure. Additionally, this open porous structure is largely independent of the surrounding atmosphere. This can be rationalized by the small size (∼100 nm) of the pores present within this colloidal crystal.

Large-scale fabrication of commercially available, nonpolar linear polymer film with a highly ordered honeycomb pattern

Highly ordered, hexagonally patterned poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) thin film is successfully fabricated using an improved phase separation method. A mixture of chloroform and methanol, which is used as a volatile solvent/nonsolvent pair, effectively controls the surface morphology and sensitively determines the ordered pattern. In particular, the methanol accumulation, which induces the formation of a gel-like protective layer and enhances the lateral capillary force, is crucial in the formation of the highly ordered hexagonal pattern even when using a nonpolar polymer such as PMMA. The convergence of cost-effective and large-scale production of highly ordered micropatterned film has wide potential for application, and it can enable new prospects for the commercialization of future high-tech devices that require specific multifunctionality.

Ceramic Nanocomposites from Tailor-Made Preceramic Polymers

The present Review addresses current developments related to polymer-derived ceramic nanocomposites (PDC-NCs). Different classes of preceramic polymers are briefly introduced and their conversion into ceramic materials with adjustable phase compositions and microstructures is presented. Emphasis is set on discussing the intimate relationship between the chemistry and structural architecture of the precursor and the structural features and properties of the resulting ceramic nanocomposites. Various structural and functional properties of silicon-containing ceramic nanocomposites as well as different preparative strategies to achieve nano-scaled PDC-NC-based ordered structures are highlighted, based on selected ceramic nanocomposite systems. Furthermore, prospective applications of the PDC-NCs such as high-temperature stable materials for thermal protection systems, membranes for hot gas separation purposes, materials for heterogeneous catalysis, nano-confinement materials for hydrogen storage applications as well as anode materials for secondary ion batteries are introduced and discussed in detail.

Self-assembled coffee-ring colloidal crystals for structurally colored contact lenses

A circlular structural-colored contact lens is reported, which is fabricated by replicating self-assembled colloidal photonic crystal templates. The structural-colored contact lenses not only display variable and brilliant color under light illumination, but also avoid the addition of any colorants to the hydrogel lenses and prevent the potential harm posed by traditional colored contact lenses.

Photonic patterns printed in chiral nematic mesoporous resins

Chiral nematic mesoporous phenol-formaldehyde resins, which were prepared using cellulose nanocrystals as a template, can be used as a substrate to produce latent photonic images. These resins undergo swelling, which changes their reflected color. By writing on the films with chemical inks, the density of methylol groups in the resin changes, subsequently affecting their degree of swelling and, consequently, their color. Writing on the films gives latent images that are revealed only upon swelling of the films. Using inkjet printing, it is possible to make higher resolution photonic patterns both as text and images that can be visualized by swelling and erased by drying. This novel approach to printing photonic patterns in resin films may be applied to anti-counterfeit tags, signage, and decorative applications.

Structural color painting by rubbing particle powder

Structural colors originate from purely physical structures. Scientists have been inspired to mimic the structures found in nature, the realization of these structures still presents a great challenge. We have recently introduced unidirectional rubbing of a dry particle powder on a rubbery surface as a quick, highly reproducible means to fabricate a single crystal monolayer assembly of particles over an unlimited area. This study extends the particle-rubbing process to a novel fine-art painting, structural color painting (SCP). SCP is based on structural coloring with varying iridescence according to the crystal orientation, as controlled by the rubbing direction. This painting technique can be applied on curved surfaces, which enriches the objects to be painted and helps the painter mimic the structures found in nature. It also allows for quick fabrication of complicated particle-assembly patterns, which enables replication of paintings.

In-plane particle counting at contact lines of evaporating colloidal drops: effect of the particle electric charge

Complete understanding of colloidal assembly is still a goal to be reached. In convective assembly deposition, the concentration gradients developed in evaporating drops or reservoirs are usually significant. However, collective diffusion of charge-stabilized particles has been barely explored. The balance between convective and diffusive flows may dictate the particle dynamics inside evaporating colloidal drops. In this work we performed in situ counting of fluorescent particles in the vicinity of the triple line of evaporating sessile drops by using confocal laser scanning microscopy. We used particles of different sizes, with different charge response over the pH scale and we focused on charged and nearly uncharged particles. Two substrates with different receding contact angles were used. Binary colloidal mixtures were used to illustrate simultaneously the accumulation of particles with two different charge states at the triple line. The deposition rate close to the triple line was different depending on the electric state of the particle, regardless of the substrate used.

Tunable light filtering by a Bragg mirror/heavily doped semiconducting nanocrystal composite

Tunable light filters are critical components for many optical applications in which light in-coupling, out-coupling or rejection is crucial, such as lasing, sensing, photovoltaics and information and communication technology. For this purpose, Bragg mirrors (band-pass filters with high reflectivity) represent good candidates. However, their optical characteristics are determined during the fabrication stage. Heavily doped semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs), on the other hand, deliver a high degree of optical tunability through the active modulation of their carrier density, ultimately influencing their plasmonic absorption properties. Here, we propose the design of an actively tunable light filter composed of a Bragg mirror and a layer of plasmonic semiconductor NCs. We demonstrate that the filtering properties of the coupled device can be tuned to cover a wide range of frequencies from the visible to the near infrared (vis-NIR) spectral region when employing varying carrier densities. As the tunable component, we implemented a dispersion of copper selenide (Cu2-xSe) NCs and a film of indium tin oxide (ITO) NCs, which are known to show optical tunablility with chemical or electrochemical treatments. We utilized the Mie theory to describe the carrier-dependent plasmonic properties of the Cu2-x Se NC dispersion and the effective medium theory to describe the optical characteristics of the ITO film. The transmission properties of the Bragg mirror have been modelled with the transfer matrix method. We foresee ease of experimental realization of the coupled device, where filtering modulation is achieved upon chemical and electrochemical post-fabrication treatment of the heavily doped semiconductor NC component, eventually resulting in tunable transmission properties of the coupled device.

A photonic crystal based sensing scheme for acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

A 2-layer approach towards optical sensing of acetylcholine and detection of an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor using photonic crystal sensor technology.

ZnWO4/ZnWO4 : Eu3+ inverse opal photonic crystal scintillator: efficient phosphors in radiation detection

Phosphors with photonic crystal (PC) structures may demonstrate modulated optical properties and have potential applications in various optical devices.

Steering charge kinetics in photocatalysis: intersection of materials syntheses, characterization techniques and theoretical simulations

This review outlines the recent progress on probing and steering charge kinetics toward designing highly efficient photocatalysts.

Two-dimensional colloidal crystal heterostructures

A simple method to fabricate colloidal crystal heterostructures based on a two-dimensional colloidal crystal was developed.

Self-assembled hierarchical nanostructures for high-efficiency porous photonic crystals

The nanoscale modulation of material properties such as porosity and morphology is used in the natural world to mold the flow of light and to obtain structural colors. The ability to mimic these strategies while adding technological functionality has the potential to open up a broad array of applications. Porous photonic crystals are one such technological candidate, but have typically underachieved in terms of available materials, structural and optical quality, compatibility with different substrates (e.g., silicon, flexible organics), and scalability. We report here an alternative fabrication method based on the bottom-up self-assembly of elementary building blocks from the gas phase into high surface area photonic hierarchical nanostructures at room temperature. Periodic refractive index modulation is achieved by stacking layers with different nanoarchitectures. High-efficiency porous Bragg reflectors are successfully fabricated with sub-micrometer thick films on glass, silicon, and flexible substrates. High diffraction efficiency broadband mirrors (R≈1), opto-fluidic switches, and arrays of photonic crystal pixels with size<10 μm are demonstrated. Possible applications in filtering, sensing, electro-optical modulation, solar cells, and photocatalysis are envisioned.

Spherical colloidal photonic crystals

CONSPECTUS: Colloidal photonic crystals (PhCs), periodically arranged monodisperse nanoparticles, have emerged as one of the most promising materials for light manipulation because of their photonic band gaps (PBGs), which affect photons in a manner similar to the effect of semiconductor energy band gaps on electrons. The PBGs arise due to the periodic modulation of the refractive index between the building nanoparticles and the surrounding medium in space with subwavelength period. This leads to light with certain wavelengths or frequencies located in the PBG being prohibited from propagating. Because of this special property, the fabrication and application of colloidal PhCs have attracted increasing interest from researchers. The most simple and economical method for fabrication of colloidal PhCs is the bottom-up approach of nanoparticle self-assembly. Common colloidal PhCs from this approach in nature are gem opals, which are made from the ordered assembly and deposition of spherical silica nanoparticles after years of siliceous sedimentation and compression. Besides naturally occurring opals, a variety of manmade colloidal PhCs with thin film or bulk morphology have also been developed. In principle, because of the effect of Bragg diffraction, these PhC materials show different structural colors when observed from different angles, resulting in brilliant colors and important applications. However, this angle dependence is disadvantageous for the construction of some optical materials and devices in which wide viewing angles are desired. Recently, a series of colloidal PhC materials with spherical macroscopic morphology have been created. Because of their spherical symmetry, the PBGs of spherical colloidal PhCs are independent of rotation under illumination of the surface at a fixed incident angle of the light, broadening the perspective of their applications. Based on droplet templates containing colloidal nanoparticles, these spherical colloidal PhCs can be generated by evaporation-induced nanoparticle crystallization or polymerization of ordered nanoparticle crystallization arrays. In particular, because microfluidics was used for the generation of the droplet templates, the development of spherical colloidal PhCs has progressed significantly. These new strategies not only ensure monodispersity, but also increase the structural and functional diversity of the PhC beads, paving the way for the development of advanced optoelectronic devices. In this Account, we present the research progress on spherical colloidal PhCs, including their design, preparation, and potential applications. We outline various types of spherical colloidal PhCs, such as close-packed, non-close-packed, inverse opal, biphasic or multiphasic Janus structured, and core-shell structured geometries. Based on their unique optical properties, applications of the spherical colloidal PhCs for displays, sensors, barcodes, and cell culture microcarriers are presented. Future developments of the spherical colloidal PhC materials are also envisioned.